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Diffstat (limited to '')
41 files changed, 32071 insertions, 0 deletions
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+ <!-- Arrowhead on XXXpoint 5250 5850 - 5250 4740--> + </g> +</svg> diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5120a00f --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/Data-Structures.html @@ -0,0 +1,1462 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> + <html> + <head><title>A Tour Through TREE_RCU's Data Structures [LWN.net]</title> + <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + + <p>December 18, 2016</p> + <p>This article was contributed by Paul E. McKenney</p> + +<h3>Introduction</h3> + +This document describes RCU's major data structures and their relationship +to each other. + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Data-Structure Relationships"> + Data-Structure Relationships</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_state Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_node Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_segcblist Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_segcblist</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_data Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_dynticks Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#The rcu_head Structure"> + The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure"> + RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a> +<li> <a href="#Accessor Functions"> + Accessor Functions</a> +</ol> + +<h3><a name="Data-Structure Relationships">Data-Structure Relationships</a></h3> + +<p>RCU is for all intents and purposes a large state machine, and its +data structures maintain the state in such a way as to allow RCU readers +to execute extremely quickly, while also processing the RCU grace periods +requested by updaters in an efficient and extremely scalable fashion. +The efficiency and scalability of RCU updaters is provided primarily +by a combining tree, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="30%"> + +</p><p>This diagram shows an enclosing <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure +containing a tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. +Each leaf node of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree has up to 16 +<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures associated with it, so that there +are <tt>NR_CPUS</tt> number of <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures, +one for each possible CPU. +This structure is adjusted at boot time, if needed, to handle the +common case where <tt>nr_cpu_ids</tt> is much less than +<tt>NR_CPUs</tt>. +For example, a number of Linux distributions set <tt>NR_CPUs=4096</tt>, +which results in a three-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree. +If the actual hardware has only 16 CPUs, RCU will adjust itself +at boot time, resulting in an <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree with only a single node. + +</p><p>The purpose of this combining tree is to allow per-CPU events +such as quiescent states, dyntick-idle transitions, +and CPU hotplug operations to be processed efficiently +and scalably. +Quiescent states are recorded by the per-CPU <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures, +and other events are recorded by the leaf-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structures. +All of these events are combined at each level of the tree until finally +grace periods are completed at the tree's root <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure. +A grace period can be completed at the root once every CPU +(or, in the case of <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt>, task) +has passed through a quiescent state. +Once a grace period has completed, record of that fact is propagated +back down the tree. + +</p><p>As can be seen from the diagram, on a 64-bit system +a two-level tree with 64 leaves can accommodate 1,024 CPUs, with a fanout +of 64 at the root and a fanout of 16 at the leaves. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why isn't the fanout at the leaves also 64? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because there are more types of events that affect the leaf-level + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures than further up the tree. + Therefore, if the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures have fanout of + 64, the contention on these structures' <tt>->structures</tt> + becomes excessive. + Experimentation on a wide variety of systems has shown that a fanout + of 16 works well for the leaves of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff">Of course, further experience with + systems having hundreds or thousands of CPUs may demonstrate + that the fanout for the non-leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures + must also be reduced. + Such reduction can be easily carried out when and if it proves + necessary. + In the meantime, if you are using such a system and running into + contention problems on the non-leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures, + you may use the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> kernel configuration + parameter to reduce the non-leaf fanout as needed. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff">Kernels built for systems with + strong NUMA characteristics might also need to adjust + <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> so that the domains of the + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures align with hardware boundaries. + However, there has thus far been no need for this. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If your system has more than 1,024 CPUs (or more than 512 CPUs on +a 32-bit system), then RCU will automatically add more levels to the +tree. +For example, if you are crazy enough to build a 64-bit system with 65,536 +CPUs, RCU would configure the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree as follows: + +</p><p><img src="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" alt="HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg" width="50%"> + +</p><p>RCU currently permits up to a four-level tree, which on a 64-bit system +accommodates up to 4,194,304 CPUs, though only a mere 524,288 CPUs for +32-bit systems. +On the other hand, you can set <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> to be +as small as 2 if you wish, which would permit only 16 CPUs, which +is useful for testing. + +</p><p>This multi-level combining tree allows us to get most of the +performance and scalability +benefits of partitioning, even though RCU grace-period detection is +inherently a global operation. +The trick here is that only the last CPU to report a quiescent state +into a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure need advance to the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure at the next level up the tree. +This means that at the leaf-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, only +one access out of sixteen will progress up the tree. +For the internal <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures, the situation is even +more extreme: Only one access out of sixty-four will progress up +the tree. +Because the vast majority of the CPUs do not progress up the tree, +the lock contention remains roughly constant up the tree. +No matter how many CPUs there are in the system, at most 64 quiescent-state +reports per grace period will progress all the way to the root +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, thus ensuring that the lock contention +on that root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure remains acceptably low. + +</p><p>In effect, the combining tree acts like a big shock absorber, +keeping lock contention under control at all tree levels regardless +of the level of loading on the system. + +</p><p>The Linux kernel actually supports multiple flavors of RCU +running concurrently, so RCU builds separate data structures for each +flavor. +For example, for <tt>CONFIG_TREE_RCU=y</tt> kernels, RCU provides +rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBH.svg" width="33%"> + +</p><p>Energy efficiency is increasingly important, and for that +reason the Linux kernel provides <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>, which +turns off the scheduling-clock interrupts on idle CPUs, which in +turn allows those CPUs to attain deeper sleep states and to consume +less energy. +CPUs whose scheduling-clock interrupts have been turned off are +said to be in <i>dyntick-idle mode</i>. +RCU must handle dyntick-idle CPUs specially +because RCU would otherwise wake up each CPU on every grace period, +which would defeat the whole purpose of <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt>. +RCU uses the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure to track +which CPUs are in dyntick idle mode, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreeClassicRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="33%"> + +</p><p>However, if a CPU is in dyntick-idle mode, it is in that mode +for all flavors of RCU. +Therefore, a single <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure is allocated per +CPU, and all of a given CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures share +that <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>, as shown in the figure. + +</p><p>Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> support +rcu_preempt in addition to rcu_sched and rcu_bh, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntick.svg" width="35%"> + +</p><p>RCU updaters wait for normal grace periods by registering +RCU callbacks, either directly via <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and +friends (namely <tt>call_rcu_bh()</tt> and <tt>call_rcu_sched()</tt>), +there being a separate interface per flavor of RCU) +or indirectly via <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> and friends. +RCU callbacks are represented by <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures, +which are queued on <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures while they are +waiting for a grace period to elapse, as shown in the following figure: + +</p><p><img src="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" alt="BigTreePreemptRCUBHdyntickCB.svg" width="40%"> + +</p><p>This figure shows how <tt>TREE_RCU</tt>'s and +<tt>PREEMPT_RCU</tt>'s major data structures are related. +Lesser data structures will be introduced with the algorithms that +make use of them. + +</p><p>Note that each of the data structures in the above figure has +its own synchronization: + +<p><ol> +<li> Each <tt>rcu_state</tt> structures has a lock and a mutex, + and some fields are protected by the corresponding root + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's lock. +<li> Each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has a spinlock. +<li> The fields in <tt>rcu_data</tt> are private to the corresponding + CPU, although a few can be read and written by other CPUs. +<li> Similarly, the fields in <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> are private + to the corresponding CPU, although a few can be read by + other CPUs. +</ol> + +<p>It is important to note that different data structures can have +very different ideas about the state of RCU at any given time. +For but one example, awareness of the start or end of a given RCU +grace period propagates slowly through the data structures. +This slow propagation is absolutely necessary for RCU to have good +read-side performance. +If this balkanized implementation seems foreign to you, one useful +trick is to consider each instance of these data structures to be +a different person, each having the usual slightly different +view of reality. + +</p><p>The general role of each of these data structures is as +follows: + +</p><ol> +<li> <tt>rcu_state</tt>: + This structure forms the interconnection between the + <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures, + tracks grace periods, serves as short-term repository + for callbacks orphaned by CPU-hotplug events, + maintains <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> state, + tracks expedited grace-period state, + and maintains state used to force quiescent states when + grace periods extend too long, +<li> <tt>rcu_node</tt>: This structure forms the combining + tree that propagates quiescent-state + information from the leaves to the root, and also propagates + grace-period information from the root to the leaves. + It provides local copies of the grace-period state in order + to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized + manner without suffering the scalability limitations that + would otherwise be imposed by global locking. + In <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, it manages the lists + of tasks that have blocked while in their current + RCU read-side critical section. + In <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with + <tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, it manages the + per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting + kernel threads (kthreads) and state. + Finally, it records CPU-hotplug state in order to determine + which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period. +<li> <tt>rcu_data</tt>: This per-CPU structure is the + focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing. + It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient + propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> + combining tree. + Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local + copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free + synchronized + access to this information from the corresponding CPU. + Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state + for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics. +<li> <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt>: + This per-CPU structure tracks the current dyntick-idle + state for the corresponding CPU. + Unlike the other three structures, the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> + structure is not replicated per RCU flavor. +<li> <tt>rcu_head</tt>: + This structure represents RCU callbacks, and is the + only structure allocated and managed by RCU users. + The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure is normally embedded + within the RCU-protected data structure. +</ol> + +<p>If all you wanted from this article was a general notion of how +RCU's data structures are related, you are done. +Otherwise, each of the following sections give more details on +the <tt>rcu_state</tt>, <tt>rcu_node</tt>, <tt>rcu_data</tt>, +and <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> data structures. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_state Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_state</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is the base structure that +represents a flavor of RCU. +This structure forms the interconnection between the +<tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures, +tracks grace periods, contains the lock used to +synchronize with CPU-hotplug events, +and maintains state used to force quiescent states when +grace periods extend too long, + +</p><p>A few of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's fields are discussed, +singly and in groups, in the following sections. +The more specialized fields are covered in the discussion of their +use. + +<h5>Relationship to rcu_node and rcu_data Structures</h5> + +This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 struct rcu_node node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; + 2 struct rcu_node *level[NUM_RCU_LVLS + 1]; + 3 struct rcu_data __percpu *rda; +</pre> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Wait a minute! + You said that the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures formed a tree, + but they are declared as a flat array! + What gives? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + The tree is laid out in the array. + The first node In the array is the head, the next set of nodes in the + array are children of the head node, and so on until the last set of + nodes in the array are the leaves. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff">See the following diagrams to see how + this works. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree is embedded into the +<tt>->node[]</tt> array as shown in the following figure: + +</p><p><img src="TreeMapping.svg" alt="TreeMapping.svg" width="40%"> + +</p><p>One interesting consequence of this mapping is that a +breadth-first traversal of the tree is implemented as a simple +linear scan of the array, which is in fact what the +<tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro does. +This macro is used at the beginning and ends of grace periods. + +</p><p>Each entry of the <tt>->level</tt> array references +the first <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure on the corresponding level +of the tree, for example, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeMappingLevel.svg" alt="TreeMappingLevel.svg" width="40%"> + +</p><p>The zero<sup>th</sup> element of the array references the root +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, the first element references the +first child of the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>, and finally the second +element references the first leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. + +</p><p>For whatever it is worth, if you draw the tree to be tree-shaped +rather than array-shaped, it is easy to draw a planar representation: + +</p><p><img src="TreeLevel.svg" alt="TreeLevel.svg" width="60%"> + +</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->rda</tt> field references a per-CPU +pointer to the corresponding CPU's <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure. + +</p><p>All of these fields are constant once initialization is complete, +and therefore need no protection. + +<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 unsigned long gp_seq; +</pre> + +<p>RCU grace periods are numbered, and +the <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field contains the current grace-period +sequence number. +The bottom two bits are the state of the current grace period, +which can be zero for not yet started or one for in progress. +In other words, if the bottom two bits of <tt>->gp_seq</tt> are +zero, the corresponding flavor of RCU is idle. +Any other value in the bottom two bits indicates that something is broken. +This field is protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->lock</tt> field. + +</p><p>There are <tt>->gp_seq</tt> fields +in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> and <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures +as well. +The fields in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure represent the +most current value, and those of the other structures are compared +in order to detect the beginnings and ends of grace periods in a distributed +fashion. +The values flow from <tt>rcu_state</tt> to <tt>rcu_node</tt> +(down the tree from the root to the leaves) to <tt>rcu_data</tt>. + +<h5>Miscellaneous</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 unsigned long gp_max; + 2 char abbr; + 3 char *name; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->gp_max</tt> field tracks the duration of the longest +grace period in jiffies. +It is protected by the root <tt>rcu_node</tt>'s <tt>->lock</tt>. + +<p>The <tt>->name</tt> field points to the name of the RCU flavor +(for example, “rcu_sched”), and is constant. +The <tt>->abbr</tt> field contains a one-character abbreviation, +for example, “s” for RCU-sched. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_node Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_node</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures form the combining +tree that propagates quiescent-state +information from the leaves to the root and also that propagates +grace-period information from the root down to the leaves. +They provides local copies of the grace-period state in order +to allow this information to be accessed in a synchronized +manner without suffering the scalability limitations that +would otherwise be imposed by global locking. +In <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> kernels, they manage the lists +of tasks that have blocked while in their current +RCU read-side critical section. +In <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> with +<tt>CONFIG_RCU_BOOST</tt>, they manage the +per-<tt>rcu_node</tt> priority-boosting +kernel threads (kthreads) and state. +Finally, they record CPU-hotplug state in order to determine +which CPUs should be ignored during a given grace period. + +</p><p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's fields are discussed, +singly and in groups, in the following sections. + +<h5>Connection to Combining Tree</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 struct rcu_node *parent; + 2 u8 level; + 3 u8 grpnum; + 4 unsigned long grpmask; + 5 int grplo; + 6 int grphi; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->parent</tt> pointer references the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +one level up in the tree, and is <tt>NULL</tt> for the root +<tt>rcu_node</tt>. +The RCU implementation makes heavy use of this field to push quiescent +states up the tree. +The <tt>->level</tt> field gives the level in the tree, with +the root being at level zero, its children at level one, and so on. +The <tt>->grpnum</tt> field gives this node's position within +the children of its parent, so this number can range between 0 and 31 +on 32-bit systems and between 0 and 63 on 64-bit systems. +The <tt>->level</tt> and <tt>->grpnum</tt> fields are +used only during initialization and for tracing. +The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field is the bitmask counterpart of +<tt>->grpnum</tt>, and therefore always has exactly one bit set. +This mask is used to clear the bit corresponding to this <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure in its parent's bitmasks, which are described later. +Finally, the <tt>->grplo</tt> and <tt>->grphi</tt> fields +contain the lowest and highest numbered CPU served by this +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, respectively. + +</p><p>All of these fields are constant, and thus do not require any +synchronization. + +<h5>Synchronization</h5> + +<p>This field of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 raw_spinlock_t lock; +</pre> + +<p>This field is used to protect the remaining fields in this structure, +unless otherwise stated. +That said, all of the fields in this structure can be accessed without +locking for tracing purposes. +Yes, this can result in confusing traces, but better some tracing confusion +than to be heisenbugged out of existence. + +<h5>Grace-Period Tracking</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 unsigned long gp_seq; + 2 unsigned long gp_seq_needed; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures' <tt>->gp_seq</tt> fields are +the counterparts of the field of the same name in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> +structure. +They each may lag up to one step behind their <tt>rcu_state</tt> +counterpart. +If the bottom two bits of a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field is zero, then this <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure believes that RCU is idle. +</p><p>The <tt>>gp_seq</tt> field of each <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure is updated at the beginning and the end +of each grace period. + +<p>The <tt>->gp_seq_needed</tt> fields record the +furthest-in-the-future grace period request seen by the corresponding +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. The request is considered fulfilled when +the value of the <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field equals or exceeds that of +the <tt>->gp_seq_needed</tt> field. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Suppose that this <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure doesn't see + a request for a very long time. + Won't wrapping of the <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field cause + problems? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + No, because if the <tt>->gp_seq_needed</tt> field lags behind the + <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field, the <tt>->gp_seq_needed</tt> field + will be updated at the end of the grace period. + Modulo-arithmetic comparisons therefore will always get the + correct answer, even with wrapping. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h5>Quiescent-State Tracking</h5> + +<p>These fields manage the propagation of quiescent states up the +combining tree. + +</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has fields +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 unsigned long qsmask; + 2 unsigned long expmask; + 3 unsigned long qsmaskinit; + 4 unsigned long expmaskinit; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->qsmask</tt> field tracks which of this +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report +quiescent states for the current normal grace period. +Such children will have a value of 1 in their corresponding bit. +Note that the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures should be +thought of as having <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures as their +children. +Similarly, the <tt>->expmask</tt> field tracks which +of this <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children still need to report +quiescent states for the current expedited grace period. +An expedited grace period has +the same conceptual properties as a normal grace period, but the +expedited implementation accepts extreme CPU overhead to obtain +much lower grace-period latency, for example, consuming a few +tens of microseconds worth of CPU time to reduce grace-period +duration from milliseconds to tens of microseconds. +The <tt>->qsmaskinit</tt> field tracks which of this +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's children cover for at least +one online CPU. +This mask is used to initialize <tt>->qsmask</tt>, +and <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> is used to initialize +<tt>->expmask</tt> and the beginning of the +normal and expedited grace periods, respectively. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why are these bitmasks protected by locking? + Come on, haven't you heard of atomic instructions??? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Lockless grace-period computation! Such a tantalizing possibility! + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff">But consider the following sequence of events: + </font> + + <ol> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0 has been in dyntick-idle + mode for quite some time. + When it wakes up, it notices that the current RCU + grace period needs it to report in, so it sets a + flag where the scheduling clock interrupt will find it. + </font><p> + <li> <font color="ffffff">Meanwhile, CPU 1 is running + <tt>force_quiescent_state()</tt>, + and notices that CPU 0 has been in dyntick idle mode, + which qualifies as an extended quiescent state. + </font><p> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0's scheduling clock + interrupt fires in the + middle of an RCU read-side critical section, and notices + that the RCU core needs something, so commences RCU softirq + processing. + </font> + <p> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0's softirq handler + executes and is just about ready + to report its quiescent state up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> + tree. + </font><p> + <li> <font color="ffffff">But CPU 1 beats it to the punch, + completing the current + grace period and starting a new one. + </font><p> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0 now reports its quiescent + state for the wrong + grace period. + That grace period might now end before the RCU read-side + critical section. + If that happens, disaster will ensue. + </font> + </ol> + + <p><font color="ffffff">So the locking is absolutely required in + order to coordinate clearing of the bits with updating of the + grace-period sequence number in <tt>->gp_seq</tt>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h5>Blocked-Task Management</h5> + +<p><tt>PREEMPT_RCU</tt> allows tasks to be preempted in the +midst of their RCU read-side critical sections, and these tasks +must be tracked explicitly. +The details of exactly why and how they are tracked will be covered +in a separate article on RCU read-side processing. +For now, it is enough to know that the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure tracks them. + +<pre> + 1 struct list_head blkd_tasks; + 2 struct list_head *gp_tasks; + 3 struct list_head *exp_tasks; + 4 bool wait_blkd_tasks; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> field is a list header for +the list of blocked and preempted tasks. +As tasks undergo context switches within RCU read-side critical +sections, their <tt>task_struct</tt> structures are enqueued +(via the <tt>task_struct</tt>'s <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt> +field) onto the head of the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list for the +leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure corresponding to the CPU +on which the outgoing context switch executed. +As these tasks later exit their RCU read-side critical sections, +they remove themselves from the list. +This list is therefore in reverse time order, so that if one of the tasks +is blocking the current grace period, all subsequent tasks must +also be blocking that same grace period. +Therefore, a single pointer into this list suffices to track +all tasks blocking a given grace period. +That pointer is stored in <tt>->gp_tasks</tt> for normal +grace periods and in <tt>->exp_tasks</tt> for expedited +grace periods. +These last two fields are <tt>NULL</tt> if either there is +no grace period in flight or if there are no blocked tasks +preventing that grace period from completing. +If either of these two pointers is referencing a task that +removes itself from the <tt>->blkd_tasks</tt> list, +then that task must advance the pointer to the next task on +the list, or set the pointer to <tt>NULL</tt> if there +are no subsequent tasks on the list. + +</p><p>For example, suppose that tasks T1, T2, and T3 are +all hard-affinitied to the largest-numbered CPU in the system. +Then if task T1 blocked in an RCU read-side +critical section, then an expedited grace period started, +then task T2 blocked in an RCU read-side critical section, +then a normal grace period started, and finally task 3 blocked +in an RCU read-side critical section, then the state of the +last leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's blocked-task list +would be as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="blkd_task.svg" alt="blkd_task.svg" width="60%"> + +</p><p>Task T1 is blocking both grace periods, task T2 is +blocking only the normal grace period, and task T3 is blocking +neither grace period. +Note that these tasks will not remove themselves from this list +immediately upon resuming execution. +They will instead remain on the list until they execute the outermost +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> that ends their RCU read-side critical +section. + +<p> +The <tt>->wait_blkd_tasks</tt> field indicates whether or not +the current grace period is waiting on a blocked task. + +<h5>Sizing the <tt>rcu_node</tt> Array</h5> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_node</tt> array is sized via a series of +C-preprocessor expressions as follows: + +<pre> + 1 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT + 2 #define RCU_FANOUT CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT + 3 #else + 4 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT + 5 # define RCU_FANOUT 64 + 6 # else + 7 # define RCU_FANOUT 32 + 8 # endif + 9 #endif +10 +11 #ifdef CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF +12 #define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF +13 #else +14 # ifdef CONFIG_64BIT +15 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 64 +16 # else +17 # define RCU_FANOUT_LEAF 32 +18 # endif +19 #endif +20 +21 #define RCU_FANOUT_1 (RCU_FANOUT_LEAF) +22 #define RCU_FANOUT_2 (RCU_FANOUT_1 * RCU_FANOUT) +23 #define RCU_FANOUT_3 (RCU_FANOUT_2 * RCU_FANOUT) +24 #define RCU_FANOUT_4 (RCU_FANOUT_3 * RCU_FANOUT) +25 +26 #if NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_1 +27 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 1 +28 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1 +29 # define NUM_RCU_NODES NUM_RCU_LVL_0 +30 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0 } +31 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0" } +32 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0" } +33 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0" } +34 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_2 +35 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 2 +36 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1 +37 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1) +38 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1) +39 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1 } +40 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1" } +41 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1" } +42 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1" } +43 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_3 +44 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 3 +45 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1 +46 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2) +47 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1) +48 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2) +49 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2 } +50 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2" } +51 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2" } +52 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2" } +53 #elif NR_CPUS <= RCU_FANOUT_4 +54 # define RCU_NUM_LVLS 4 +55 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_0 1 +56 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_1 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_3) +57 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_2 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_2) +58 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_3 DIV_ROUND_UP(NR_CPUS, RCU_FANOUT_1) +59 # define NUM_RCU_NODES (NUM_RCU_LVL_0 + NUM_RCU_LVL_1 + NUM_RCU_LVL_2 + NUM_RCU_LVL_3) +60 # define NUM_RCU_LVL_INIT { NUM_RCU_LVL_0, NUM_RCU_LVL_1, NUM_RCU_LVL_2, NUM_RCU_LVL_3 } +61 # define RCU_NODE_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_0", "rcu_node_1", "rcu_node_2", "rcu_node_3" } +62 # define RCU_FQS_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_fqs_0", "rcu_node_fqs_1", "rcu_node_fqs_2", "rcu_node_fqs_3" } +63 # define RCU_EXP_NAME_INIT { "rcu_node_exp_0", "rcu_node_exp_1", "rcu_node_exp_2", "rcu_node_exp_3" } +64 #else +65 # error "CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT insufficient for NR_CPUS" +66 #endif +</pre> + +<p>The maximum number of levels in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure +is currently limited to four, as specified by lines 21-24 +and the structure of the subsequent “if” statement. +For 32-bit systems, this allows 16*32*32*32=524,288 CPUs, which +should be sufficient for the next few years at least. +For 64-bit systems, 16*64*64*64=4,194,304 CPUs is allowed, which +should see us through the next decade or so. +This four-level tree also allows kernels built with +<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT=8</tt> to support up to 4096 CPUs, +which might be useful in very large systems having eight CPUs per +socket (but please note that no one has yet shown any measurable +performance degradation due to misaligned socket and <tt>rcu_node</tt> +boundaries). +In addition, building kernels with a full four levels of <tt>rcu_node</tt> +tree permits better testing of RCU's combining-tree code. + +</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt> symbol controls how many children +are permitted at each non-leaf level of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree. +If the <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt> Kconfig option is not specified, +it is set based on the word size of the system, which is also +the Kconfig default. + +</p><p>The <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> symbol controls how many CPUs are +handled by each leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +Experience has shown that allowing a given leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure to handle 64 CPUs, as permitted by the number of bits in +the <tt>->qsmask</tt> field on a 64-bit system, results in +excessive contention for the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures' +<tt>->lock</tt> fields. +The number of CPUs per leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is therefore +limited to 16 given the default value of <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>. +If <tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt> is unspecified, the value +selected is based on the word size of the system, just as for +<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FANOUT</tt>. +Lines 11-19 perform this computation. + +</p><p>Lines 21-24 compute the maximum number of CPUs supported by +a single-level (which contains a single <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure), +two-level, three-level, and four-level <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree, +respectively, given the fanout specified by <tt>RCU_FANOUT</tt> +and <tt>RCU_FANOUT_LEAF</tt>. +These numbers of CPUs are retained in the +<tt>RCU_FANOUT_1</tt>, +<tt>RCU_FANOUT_2</tt>, +<tt>RCU_FANOUT_3</tt>, and +<tt>RCU_FANOUT_4</tt> +C-preprocessor variables, respectively. + +</p><p>These variables are used to control the C-preprocessor <tt>#if</tt> +statement spanning lines 26-66 that computes the number of +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures required for each level of the tree, +as well as the number of levels required. +The number of levels is placed in the <tt>NUM_RCU_LVLS</tt> +C-preprocessor variable by lines 27, 35, 44, and 54. +The number of <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures for the topmost level +of the tree is always exactly one, and this value is unconditionally +placed into <tt>NUM_RCU_LVL_0</tt> by lines 28, 36, 45, and 55. +The rest of the levels (if any) of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree +are computed by dividing the maximum number of CPUs by the +fanout supported by the number of levels from the current level down, +rounding up. This computation is performed by lines 37, +46-47, and 56-58. +Lines 31-33, 40-42, 50-52, and 62-63 create initializers +for lockdep lock-class names. +Finally, lines 64-66 produce an error if the maximum number of +CPUs is too large for the specified fanout. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_segcblist Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_segcblist</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +The <tt>rcu_segcblist</tt> structure maintains a segmented list of +callbacks as follows: + +<pre> + 1 #define RCU_DONE_TAIL 0 + 2 #define RCU_WAIT_TAIL 1 + 3 #define RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL 2 + 4 #define RCU_NEXT_TAIL 3 + 5 #define RCU_CBLIST_NSEGS 4 + 6 + 7 struct rcu_segcblist { + 8 struct rcu_head *head; + 9 struct rcu_head **tails[RCU_CBLIST_NSEGS]; +10 unsigned long gp_seq[RCU_CBLIST_NSEGS]; +11 long len; +12 long len_lazy; +13 }; +</pre> + +<p> +The segments are as follows: + +<ol> +<li> <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt>: Callbacks whose grace periods have elapsed. + These callbacks are ready to be invoked. +<li> <tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt>: Callbacks that are waiting for the + current grace period. + Note that different CPUs can have different ideas about which + grace period is current, hence the <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field. +<li> <tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt>: Callbacks waiting for the next + grace period to start. +<li> <tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt>: Callbacks that have not yet been + associated with a grace period. +</ol> + +<p> +The <tt>->head</tt> pointer references the first callback or +is <tt>NULL</tt> if the list contains no callbacks (which is +<i>not</i> the same as being empty). +Each element of the <tt>->tails[]</tt> array references the +<tt>->next</tt> pointer of the last callback in the corresponding +segment of the list, or the list's <tt>->head</tt> pointer if +that segment and all previous segments are empty. +If the corresponding segment is empty but some previous segment is +not empty, then the array element is identical to its predecessor. +Older callbacks are closer to the head of the list, and new callbacks +are added at the tail. +This relationship between the <tt>->head</tt> pointer, the +<tt>->tails[]</tt> array, and the callbacks is shown in this +diagram: + +</p><p><img src="nxtlist.svg" alt="nxtlist.svg" width="40%"> + +</p><p>In this figure, the <tt>->head</tt> pointer references the +first +RCU callback in the list. +The <tt>->tails[RCU_DONE_TAIL]</tt> array element references +the <tt>->head</tt> pointer itself, indicating that none +of the callbacks is ready to invoke. +The <tt>->tails[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt> array element references callback +CB 2's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, which indicates that +CB 1 and CB 2 are both waiting on the current grace period, +give or take possible disagreements about exactly which grace period +is the current one. +The <tt>->tails[RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL]</tt> array element +references the same RCU callback that <tt>->tails[RCU_WAIT_TAIL]</tt> +does, which indicates that there are no callbacks waiting on the next +RCU grace period. +The <tt>->tails[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element references +CB 4's <tt>->next</tt> pointer, indicating that all the +remaining RCU callbacks have not yet been assigned to an RCU grace +period. +Note that the <tt>->tails[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element +always references the last RCU callback's <tt>->next</tt> pointer +unless the callback list is empty, in which case it references +the <tt>->head</tt> pointer. + +<p> +There is one additional important special case for the +<tt>->tails[RCU_NEXT_TAIL]</tt> array element: It can be <tt>NULL</tt> +when this list is <i>disabled</i>. +Lists are disabled when the corresponding CPU is offline or when +the corresponding CPU's callbacks are offloaded to a kthread, +both of which are described elsewhere. + +</p><p>CPUs advance their callbacks from the +<tt>RCU_NEXT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_NEXT_READY_TAIL</tt> to the +<tt>RCU_WAIT_TAIL</tt> to the <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> list segments +as grace periods advance. + +</p><p>The <tt>->gp_seq[]</tt> array records grace-period +numbers corresponding to the list segments. +This is what allows different CPUs to have different ideas as to +which is the current grace period while still avoiding premature +invocation of their callbacks. +In particular, this allows CPUs that go idle for extended periods +to determine which of their callbacks are ready to be invoked after +reawakening. + +</p><p>The <tt>->len</tt> counter contains the number of +callbacks in <tt>->head</tt>, and the +<tt>->len_lazy</tt> contains the number of those callbacks that +are known to only free memory, and whose invocation can therefore +be safely deferred. + +<p><b>Important note</b>: It is the <tt>->len</tt> field that +determines whether or not there are callbacks associated with +this <tt>rcu_segcblist</tt> structure, <i>not</i> the <tt>->head</tt> +pointer. +The reason for this is that all the ready-to-invoke callbacks +(that is, those in the <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> segment) are extracted +all at once at callback-invocation time. +If callback invocation must be postponed, for example, because a +high-priority process just woke up on this CPU, then the remaining +callbacks are placed back on the <tt>RCU_DONE_TAIL</tt> segment. +Either way, the <tt>->len</tt> and <tt>->len_lazy</tt> counts +are adjusted after the corresponding callbacks have been invoked, and so +again it is the <tt>->len</tt> count that accurately reflects whether +or not there are callbacks associated with this <tt>rcu_segcblist</tt> +structure. +Of course, off-CPU sampling of the <tt>->len</tt> count requires +the use of appropriate synchronization, for example, memory barriers. +This synchronization can be a bit subtle, particularly in the case +of <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt>. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_data Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_data</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> maintains the per-CPU state for the +corresponding flavor of RCU. +The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding +CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated. +This structure is the +focus of quiescent-state detection and RCU callback queuing. +It also tracks its relationship to the corresponding leaf +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure to allow more-efficient +propagation of quiescent states up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +combining tree. +Like the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, it provides a local +copy of the grace-period information to allow for-free +synchronized +access to this information from the corresponding CPU. +Finally, this structure records past dyntick-idle state +for the corresponding CPU and also tracks statistics. + +</p><p>The <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's fields are discussed, +singly and in groups, in the following sections. + +<h5>Connection to Other Data Structures</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 int cpu; + 2 struct rcu_state *rsp; + 3 struct rcu_node *mynode; + 4 struct rcu_dynticks *dynticks; + 5 unsigned long grpmask; + 6 bool beenonline; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->cpu</tt> field contains the number of the +corresponding CPU, the <tt>->rsp</tt> pointer references +the corresponding <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure (and is most frequently +used to locate the name of the corresponding flavor of RCU for tracing), +and the <tt>->mynode</tt> field references the corresponding +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +The <tt>->mynode</tt> is used to propagate quiescent states +up the combining tree. +<p>The <tt>->dynticks</tt> pointer references the +<tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure corresponding to this +CPU. +Recall that a single per-CPU instance of the <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> +structure is shared among all flavors of RCU. +These first four fields are constant and therefore require not +synchronization. + +</p><p>The <tt>->grpmask</tt> field indicates the bit in +the <tt>->mynode->qsmask</tt> corresponding to this +<tt>rcu_data</tt> structure, and is also used when propagating +quiescent states. +The <tt>->beenonline</tt> flag is set whenever the corresponding +CPU comes online, which means that the debugfs tracing need not dump +out any <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure for which this flag is not set. + +<h5>Quiescent-State and Grace-Period Tracking</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 unsigned long gp_seq; + 2 unsigned long gp_seq_needed; + 3 bool cpu_no_qs; + 4 bool core_needs_qs; + 5 bool gpwrap; + 6 unsigned long rcu_qs_ctr_snap; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->gp_seq</tt> and <tt>->gp_seq_needed</tt> +fields are the counterparts of the fields of the same name +in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> and <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. +They may each lag up to one behind their <tt>rcu_node</tt> +counterparts, but in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> and +<tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL</tt> kernels can lag +arbitrarily far behind for CPUs in dyntick-idle mode (but these counters +will catch up upon exit from dyntick-idle mode). +If the lower two bits of a given <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> are zero, then this <tt>rcu_data</tt> +structure believes that RCU is idle. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + All this replication of the grace period numbers can only cause + massive confusion. + Why not just keep a global sequence number and be done with it??? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because if there was only a single global sequence + numbers, there would need to be a single global lock to allow + safely accessing and updating it. + And if we are not going to have a single global lock, we need + to carefully manage the numbers on a per-node basis. + Recall from the answer to a previous Quick Quiz that the consequences + of applying a previously sampled quiescent state to the wrong + grace period are quite severe. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The <tt>->cpu_no_qs</tt> flag indicates that the +CPU has not yet passed through a quiescent state, +while the <tt>->core_needs_qs</tt> flag indicates that the +RCU core needs a quiescent state from the corresponding CPU. +The <tt>->gpwrap</tt> field indicates that the corresponding +CPU has remained idle for so long that the +<tt>gp_seq</tt> counter is in danger of overflow, which +will cause the CPU to disregard the values of its counters on +its next exit from idle. +Finally, the <tt>rcu_qs_ctr_snap</tt> field is used to detect +cases where a given operation has resulted in a quiescent state +for all flavors of RCU, for example, <tt>cond_resched()</tt> +when RCU has indicated a need for quiescent states. + +<h5>RCU Callback Handling</h5> + +<p>In the absence of CPU-hotplug events, RCU callbacks are invoked by +the same CPU that registered them. +This is strictly a cache-locality optimization: callbacks can and +do get invoked on CPUs other than the one that registered them. +After all, if the CPU that registered a given callback has gone +offline before the callback can be invoked, there really is no other +choice. + +</p><p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 struct rcu_segcblist cblist; + 2 long qlen_last_fqs_check; + 3 unsigned long n_cbs_invoked; + 4 unsigned long n_nocbs_invoked; + 5 unsigned long n_cbs_orphaned; + 6 unsigned long n_cbs_adopted; + 7 unsigned long n_force_qs_snap; + 8 long blimit; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->cblist</tt> structure is the segmented callback list +described earlier. +The CPU advances the callbacks in its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure +whenever it notices that another RCU grace period has completed. +The CPU detects the completion of an RCU grace period by noticing +that the value of its <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field differs from that of its leaf +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +Recall that each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field is updated at the beginnings and ends of each +grace period. + +<p> +The <tt>->qlen_last_fqs_check</tt> and +<tt>->n_force_qs_snap</tt> coordinate the forcing of quiescent +states from <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and friends when callback +lists grow excessively long. + +</p><p>The <tt>->n_cbs_invoked</tt>, +<tt>->n_cbs_orphaned</tt>, and <tt>->n_cbs_adopted</tt> +fields count the number of callbacks invoked, +sent to other CPUs when this CPU goes offline, +and received from other CPUs when those other CPUs go offline. +The <tt>->n_nocbs_invoked</tt> is used when the CPU's callbacks +are offloaded to a kthread. + +<p> +Finally, the <tt>->blimit</tt> counter is the maximum number of +RCU callbacks that may be invoked at a given time. + +<h5>Dyntick-Idle Handling</h5> + +<p>This portion of the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structure is declared +as follows: + +<pre> + 1 int dynticks_snap; + 2 unsigned long dynticks_fqs; +</pre> + +The <tt>->dynticks_snap</tt> field is used to take a snapshot +of the corresponding CPU's dyntick-idle state when forcing +quiescent states, and is therefore accessed from other CPUs. +Finally, the <tt>->dynticks_fqs</tt> field is used to +count the number of times this CPU is determined to be in +dyntick-idle state, and is used for tracing and debugging purposes. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_dynticks Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> maintains the per-CPU dyntick-idle state +for the corresponding CPU. +Unlike the other structures, <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> is not +replicated over the different flavors of RCU. +The fields in this structure may be accessed only from the corresponding +CPU (and from tracing) unless otherwise stated. +Its fields are as follows: + +<pre> + 1 long dynticks_nesting; + 2 long dynticks_nmi_nesting; + 3 atomic_t dynticks; + 4 bool rcu_need_heavy_qs; + 5 unsigned long rcu_qs_ctr; + 6 bool rcu_urgent_qs; +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> field counts the +nesting depth of process execution, so that in normal circumstances +this counter has value zero or one. +NMIs, irqs, and tracers are counted by the <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> +field. +Because NMIs cannot be masked, changes to this variable have to be +undertaken carefully using an algorithm provided by Andy Lutomirski. +The initial transition from idle adds one, and nested transitions +add two, so that a nesting level of five is represented by a +<tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> value of nine. +This counter can therefore be thought of as counting the number +of reasons why this CPU cannot be permitted to enter dyntick-idle +mode, aside from process-level transitions. + +<p>However, it turns out that when running in non-idle kernel context, +the Linux kernel is fully capable of entering interrupt handlers that +never exit and perhaps also vice versa. +Therefore, whenever the <tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> field is +incremented up from zero, the <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> field +is set to a large positive number, and whenever the +<tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> field is decremented down to zero, +the the <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> field is set to zero. +Assuming that the number of misnested interrupts is not sufficient +to overflow the counter, this approach corrects the +<tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> field every time the corresponding +CPU enters the idle loop from process context. + +</p><p>The <tt>->dynticks</tt> field counts the corresponding +CPU's transitions to and from dyntick-idle mode, so that this counter +has an even value when the CPU is in dyntick-idle mode and an odd +value otherwise. + +</p><p>The <tt>->rcu_need_heavy_qs</tt> field is used +to record the fact that the RCU core code would really like to +see a quiescent state from the corresponding CPU, so much so that +it is willing to call for heavy-weight dyntick-counter operations. +This flag is checked by RCU's context-switch and <tt>cond_resched()</tt> +code, which provide a momentary idle sojourn in response. + +</p><p>The <tt>->rcu_qs_ctr</tt> field is used to record +quiescent states from <tt>cond_resched()</tt>. +Because <tt>cond_resched()</tt> can execute quite frequently, this +must be quite lightweight, as in a non-atomic increment of this +per-CPU field. + +</p><p>Finally, the <tt>->rcu_urgent_qs</tt> field is used to record +the fact that the RCU core code would really like to see a quiescent +state from the corresponding CPU, with the various other fields indicating +just how badly RCU wants this quiescent state. +This flag is checked by RCU's context-switch and <tt>cond_resched()</tt> +code, which, if nothing else, non-atomically increment <tt>->rcu_qs_ctr</tt> +in response. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why not simply combine the <tt>->dynticks_nesting</tt> + and <tt>->dynticks_nmi_nesting</tt> counters into a + single counter that just counts the number of reasons that + the corresponding CPU is non-idle? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because this would fail in the presence of interrupts whose + handlers never return and of handlers that manage to return + from a made-up interrupt. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Additional fields are present for some special-purpose +builds, and are discussed separately. + +<h3><a name="The rcu_head Structure"> +The <tt>rcu_head</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>Each <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure represents an RCU callback. +These structures are normally embedded within RCU-protected data +structures whose algorithms use asynchronous grace periods. +In contrast, when using algorithms that block waiting for RCU grace periods, +RCU users need not provide <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures. + +</p><p>The <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure has fields as follows: + +<pre> + 1 struct rcu_head *next; + 2 void (*func)(struct rcu_head *head); +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->next</tt> field is used +to link the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures together in the +lists within the <tt>rcu_data</tt> structures. +The <tt>->func</tt> field is a pointer to the function +to be called when the callback is ready to be invoked, and +this function is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt> +structure. +However, <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> uses the <tt>->func</tt> +field to record the offset of the <tt>rcu_head</tt> +structure within the enclosing RCU-protected data structure. + +</p><p>Both of these fields are used internally by RCU. +From the viewpoint of RCU users, this structure is an +opaque “cookie”. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Given that the callback function <tt>->func</tt> + is passed a pointer to the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure, + how is that function supposed to find the beginning of the + enclosing RCU-protected data structure? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + In actual practice, there is a separate callback function per + type of RCU-protected data structure. + The callback function can therefore use the <tt>container_of()</tt> + macro in the Linux kernel (or other pointer-manipulation facilities + in other software environments) to find the beginning of the + enclosing structure. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="RCU-Specific Fields in the task_struct Structure"> +RCU-Specific Fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> Structure</a></h3> + +<p>The <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU</tt> implementation uses some +additional fields in the <tt>task_struct</tt> structure: + +<pre> + 1 #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU + 2 int rcu_read_lock_nesting; + 3 union rcu_special rcu_read_unlock_special; + 4 struct list_head rcu_node_entry; + 5 struct rcu_node *rcu_blocked_node; + 6 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_PREEMPT_RCU */ + 7 #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU + 8 unsigned long rcu_tasks_nvcsw; + 9 bool rcu_tasks_holdout; +10 struct list_head rcu_tasks_holdout_list; +11 int rcu_tasks_idle_cpu; +12 #endif /* #ifdef CONFIG_TASKS_RCU */ +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>->rcu_read_lock_nesting</tt> field records the +nesting level for RCU read-side critical sections, and +the <tt>->rcu_read_unlock_special</tt> field is a bitmask +that records special conditions that require <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> +to do additional work. +The <tt>->rcu_node_entry</tt> field is used to form lists of +tasks that have blocked within preemptible-RCU read-side critical +sections and the <tt>->rcu_blocked_node</tt> field references +the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure whose list this task is a member of, +or <tt>NULL</tt> if it is not blocked within a preemptible-RCU +read-side critical section. + +<p>The <tt>->rcu_tasks_nvcsw</tt> field tracks the number of +voluntary context switches that this task had undergone at the +beginning of the current tasks-RCU grace period, +<tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout</tt> is set if the current tasks-RCU +grace period is waiting on this task, <tt>->rcu_tasks_holdout_list</tt> +is a list element enqueuing this task on the holdout list, +and <tt>->rcu_tasks_idle_cpu</tt> tracks which CPU this +idle task is running, but only if the task is currently running, +that is, if the CPU is currently idle. + +<h3><a name="Accessor Functions"> +Accessor Functions</a></h3> + +<p>The following listing shows the +<tt>rcu_get_root()</tt>, <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first</tt>, +<tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt>, and +<tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> function and macros: + +<pre> + 1 static struct rcu_node *rcu_get_root(struct rcu_state *rsp) + 2 { + 3 return &rsp->node[0]; + 4 } + 5 + 6 #define rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \ + 7 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \ + 8 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++) + 9 + 10 #define rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first(rsp, rnp) \ + 11 for ((rnp) = &(rsp)->node[0]; \ + 12 (rnp) < (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; (rnp)++) + 13 + 14 #define rcu_for_each_leaf_node(rsp, rnp) \ + 15 for ((rnp) = (rsp)->level[NUM_RCU_LVLS - 1]; \ + 16 (rnp) < &(rsp)->node[NUM_RCU_NODES]; (rnp)++) +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>rcu_get_root()</tt> simply returns a pointer to the +first element of the specified <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's +<tt>->node[]</tt> array, which is the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure. + +</p><p>As noted earlier, the <tt>rcu_for_each_node_breadth_first()</tt> +macro takes advantage of the layout of the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structures in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's +<tt>->node[]</tt> array, performing a breadth-first traversal by +simply traversing the array in order. +The <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> macro operates +similarly, but traverses only the first part of the array, thus excluding +the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. +Finally, the <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> macro traverses only +the last part of the array, thus traversing only the leaf +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + What do <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> and + <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> do if the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree + contains only a single node? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + In the single-node case, + <tt>rcu_for_each_nonleaf_node_breadth_first()</tt> is a no-op + and <tt>rcu_for_each_leaf_node()</tt> traverses the single node. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Summary"> +Summary</a></h3> + +So each flavor of RCU is represented by an <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure, +which contains a combining tree of <tt>rcu_node</tt> and +<tt>rcu_data</tt> structures. +Finally, in <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> kernels, each CPU's dyntick-idle +state is tracked by an <tt>rcu_dynticks</tt> structure. + +If you made it this far, you are well prepared to read the code +walkthroughs in the other articles in this series. + +<h3><a name="Acknowledgments"> +Acknowledgments</a></h3> + +I owe thanks to Cyrill Gorcunov, Mathieu Desnoyers, Dhaval Giani, Paul +Turner, Abhishek Srivastava, Matt Kowalczyk, and Serge Hallyn +for helping me get this document into a more human-readable state. + +<h3><a name="Legal Statement"> +Legal Statement</a></h3> + +<p>This work represents the view of the author and does not necessarily +represent the view of IBM. + +</p><p>Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds. + +</p><p>Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or +service marks of others. + +</body></html> diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2bf12b468 --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Data-Structures/HugeTreeClassicRCU.svg @@ -0,0 +1,939 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!-- Creator: fig2dev Version 3.2 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+ <head><title>A Tour Through TREE_RCU's Expedited Grace Periods</title> + <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + +<h2>Introduction</h2> + +This document describes RCU's expedited grace periods. +Unlike RCU's normal grace periods, which accept long latencies to attain +high efficiency and minimal disturbance, expedited grace periods accept +lower efficiency and significant disturbance to attain shorter latencies. + +<p> +There are three flavors of RCU (RCU-bh, RCU-preempt, and RCU-sched), +but only two flavors of expedited grace periods because the RCU-bh +expedited grace period maps onto the RCU-sched expedited grace period. +Each of the remaining two implementations is covered in its own section. + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Expedited Grace Period Design"> + Expedited Grace Period Design</a> +<li> <a href="#RCU-preempt Expedited Grace Periods"> + RCU-preempt Expedited Grace Periods</a> +<li> <a href="#RCU-sched Expedited Grace Periods"> + RCU-sched Expedited Grace Periods</a> +<li> <a href="#Expedited Grace Period and CPU Hotplug"> + Expedited Grace Period and CPU Hotplug</a> +<li> <a href="#Expedited Grace Period Refinements"> + Expedited Grace Period Refinements</a> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="Expedited Grace Period Design"> +Expedited Grace Period Design</a></h2> + +<p> +The expedited RCU grace periods cannot be accused of being subtle, +given that they for all intents and purposes hammer every CPU that +has not yet provided a quiescent state for the current expedited +grace period. +The one saving grace is that the hammer has grown a bit smaller +over time: The old call to <tt>try_stop_cpus()</tt> has been +replaced with a set of calls to <tt>smp_call_function_single()</tt>, +each of which results in an IPI to the target CPU. +The corresponding handler function checks the CPU's state, motivating +a faster quiescent state where possible, and triggering a report +of that quiescent state. +As always for RCU, once everything has spent some time in a quiescent +state, the expedited grace period has completed. + +<p> +The details of the <tt>smp_call_function_single()</tt> handler's +operation depend on the RCU flavor, as described in the following +sections. + +<h2><a name="RCU-preempt Expedited Grace Periods"> +RCU-preempt Expedited Grace Periods</a></h2> + +<p> +The overall flow of the handling of a given CPU by an RCU-preempt +expedited grace period is shown in the following diagram: + +<p><img src="ExpRCUFlow.svg" alt="ExpRCUFlow.svg" width="55%"> + +<p> +The solid arrows denote direct action, for example, a function call. +The dotted arrows denote indirect action, for example, an IPI +or a state that is reached after some time. + +<p> +If a given CPU is offline or idle, <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> +will ignore it because idle and offline CPUs are already residing +in quiescent states. +Otherwise, the expedited grace period will use +<tt>smp_call_function_single()</tt> to send the CPU an IPI, which +is handled by <tt>sync_rcu_exp_handler()</tt>. + +<p> +However, because this is preemptible RCU, <tt>sync_rcu_exp_handler()</tt> +can check to see if the CPU is currently running in an RCU read-side +critical section. +If not, the handler can immediately report a quiescent state. +Otherwise, it sets flags so that the outermost <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> +invocation will provide the needed quiescent-state report. +This flag-setting avoids the previous forced preemption of all +CPUs that might have RCU read-side critical sections. +In addition, this flag-setting is done so as to avoid increasing +the overhead of the common-case fastpath through the scheduler. + +<p> +Again because this is preemptible RCU, an RCU read-side critical section +can be preempted. +When that happens, RCU will enqueue the task, which will the continue to +block the current expedited grace period until it resumes and finds its +outermost <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>. +The CPU will report a quiescent state just after enqueuing the task because +the CPU is no longer blocking the grace period. +It is instead the preempted task doing the blocking. +The list of blocked tasks is managed by <tt>rcu_preempt_ctxt_queue()</tt>, +which is called from <tt>rcu_preempt_note_context_switch()</tt>, which +in turn is called from <tt>rcu_note_context_switch()</tt>, which in +turn is called from the scheduler. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why not just have the expedited grace period check the + state of all the CPUs? + After all, that would avoid all those real-time-unfriendly IPIs. +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because we want the RCU read-side critical sections to run fast, + which means no memory barriers. + Therefore, it is not possible to safely check the state from some + other CPU. + And even if it was possible to safely check the state, it would + still be necessary to IPI the CPU to safely interact with the + upcoming <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> invocation, which means that + the remote state testing would not help the worst-case + latency that real-time applications care about. + + <p><font color="ffffff">One way to prevent your real-time + application from getting hit with these IPIs is to + build your kernel with <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL=y</tt>. + RCU would then perceive the CPU running your application + as being idle, and it would be able to safely detect that + state without needing to IPI the CPU. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Please note that this is just the overall flow: +Additional complications can arise due to races with CPUs going idle +or offline, among other things. + +<h2><a name="RCU-sched Expedited Grace Periods"> +RCU-sched Expedited Grace Periods</a></h2> + +<p> +The overall flow of the handling of a given CPU by an RCU-sched +expedited grace period is shown in the following diagram: + +<p><img src="ExpSchedFlow.svg" alt="ExpSchedFlow.svg" width="55%"> + +<p> +As with RCU-preempt's <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_sched_expedited()</tt> ignores offline and +idle CPUs, again because they are in remotely detectable +quiescent states. +However, the <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> handler +is <tt>sync_sched_exp_handler()</tt>, and because the +<tt>rcu_read_lock_sched()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt> +leave no trace of their invocation, in general it is not possible to tell +whether or not the current CPU is in an RCU read-side critical section. +The best that <tt>sync_sched_exp_handler()</tt> can do is to check +for idle, on the off-chance that the CPU went idle while the IPI +was in flight. +If the CPU is idle, then tt>sync_sched_exp_handler()</tt> reports +the quiescent state. + +<p> +Otherwise, the handler invokes <tt>resched_cpu()</tt>, which forces +a future context switch. +At the time of the context switch, the CPU reports the quiescent state. +Should the CPU go offline first, it will report the quiescent state +at that time. + +<h2><a name="Expedited Grace Period and CPU Hotplug"> +Expedited Grace Period and CPU Hotplug</a></h2> + +<p> +The expedited nature of expedited grace periods require a much tighter +interaction with CPU hotplug operations than is required for normal +grace periods. +In addition, attempting to IPI offline CPUs will result in splats, but +failing to IPI online CPUs can result in too-short grace periods. +Neither option is acceptable in production kernels. + +<p> +The interaction between expedited grace periods and CPU hotplug operations +is carried out at several levels: + +<ol> +<li> The number of CPUs that have ever been online is tracked + by the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's <tt>->ncpus</tt> + field. + The <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's <tt>->ncpus_snap</tt> + field tracks the number of CPUs that have ever been online + at the beginning of an RCU expedited grace period. + Note that this number never decreases, at least in the absence + of a time machine. +<li> The identities of the CPUs that have ever been online is + tracked by the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's + <tt>->expmaskinitnext</tt> field. + The <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> + field tracks the identities of the CPUs that were online + at least once at the beginning of the most recent RCU + expedited grace period. + The <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's <tt>->ncpus</tt> and + <tt>->ncpus_snap</tt> fields are used to detect when + new CPUs have come online for the first time, that is, + when the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->expmaskinitnext</tt> + field has changed since the beginning of the last RCU + expedited grace period, which triggers an update of each + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> + field from its <tt>->expmaskinitnext</tt> field. +<li> Each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->expmaskinit</tt> + field is used to initialize that structure's + <tt>->expmask</tt> at the beginning of each RCU + expedited grace period. + This means that only those CPUs that have been online at least + once will be considered for a given grace period. +<li> Any CPU that goes offline will clear its bit in its leaf + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->qsmaskinitnext</tt> + field, so any CPU with that bit clear can safely be ignored. + However, it is possible for a CPU coming online or going offline + to have this bit set for some time while <tt>cpu_online</tt> + returns <tt>false</tt>. +<li> For each non-idle CPU that RCU believes is currently online, the grace + period invokes <tt>smp_call_function_single()</tt>. + If this succeeds, the CPU was fully online. + Failure indicates that the CPU is in the process of coming online + or going offline, in which case it is necessary to wait for a + short time period and try again. + The purpose of this wait (or series of waits, as the case may be) + is to permit a concurrent CPU-hotplug operation to complete. +<li> In the case of RCU-sched, one of the last acts of an outgoing CPU + is to invoke <tt>rcu_report_dead()</tt>, which + reports a quiescent state for that CPU. + However, this is likely paranoia-induced redundancy. <!-- @@@ --> +</ol> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why all the dancing around with multiple counters and masks + tracking CPUs that were once online? + Why not just have a single set of masks tracking the currently + online CPUs and be done with it? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Maintaining single set of masks tracking the online CPUs <i>sounds</i> + easier, at least until you try working out all the race conditions + between grace-period initialization and CPU-hotplug operations. + For example, suppose initialization is progressing down the + tree while a CPU-offline operation is progressing up the tree. + This situation can result in bits set at the top of the tree + that have no counterparts at the bottom of the tree. + Those bits will never be cleared, which will result in + grace-period hangs. + In short, that way lies madness, to say nothing of a great many + bugs, hangs, and deadlocks. + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + In contrast, the current multi-mask multi-counter scheme ensures + that grace-period initialization will always see consistent masks + up and down the tree, which brings significant simplifications + over the single-mask method. + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + This is an instance of + <a href="http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~library/TR-repository/reports/reports-1992/cucs-039-92.ps.gz"><font color="ffffff"> + deferring work in order to avoid synchronization</a>. + Lazily recording CPU-hotplug events at the beginning of the next + grace period greatly simplifies maintenance of the CPU-tracking + bitmasks in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h2><a name="Expedited Grace Period Refinements"> +Expedited Grace Period Refinements</a></h2> + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Idle-CPU Checks">Idle-CPU checks</a>. +<li> <a href="#Batching via Sequence Counter"> + Batching via sequence counter</a>. +<li> <a href="#Funnel Locking and Wait/Wakeup"> + Funnel locking and wait/wakeup</a>. +<li> <a href="#Use of Workqueues">Use of Workqueues</a>. +<li> <a href="#Stall Warnings">Stall warnings</a>. +<li> <a href="#Mid-Boot Operation">Mid-boot operation</a>. +</ol> + +<h3><a name="Idle-CPU Checks">Idle-CPU Checks</a></h3> + +<p> +Each expedited grace period checks for idle CPUs when initially forming +the mask of CPUs to be IPIed and again just before IPIing a CPU +(both checks are carried out by <tt>sync_rcu_exp_select_cpus()</tt>). +If the CPU is idle at any time between those two times, the CPU will +not be IPIed. +Instead, the task pushing the grace period forward will include the +idle CPUs in the mask passed to <tt>rcu_report_exp_cpu_mult()</tt>. + +<p> +For RCU-sched, there is an additional check for idle in the IPI +handler, <tt>sync_sched_exp_handler()</tt>. +If the IPI has interrupted the idle loop, then +<tt>sync_sched_exp_handler()</tt> invokes <tt>rcu_report_exp_rdp()</tt> +to report the corresponding quiescent state. + +<p> +For RCU-preempt, there is no specific check for idle in the +IPI handler (<tt>sync_rcu_exp_handler()</tt>), but because +RCU read-side critical sections are not permitted within the +idle loop, if <tt>sync_rcu_exp_handler()</tt> sees that the CPU is within +RCU read-side critical section, the CPU cannot possibly be idle. +Otherwise, <tt>sync_rcu_exp_handler()</tt> invokes +<tt>rcu_report_exp_rdp()</tt> to report the corresponding quiescent +state, regardless of whether or not that quiescent state was due to +the CPU being idle. + +<p> +In summary, RCU expedited grace periods check for idle when building +the bitmask of CPUs that must be IPIed, just before sending each IPI, +and (either explicitly or implicitly) within the IPI handler. + +<h3><a name="Batching via Sequence Counter"> +Batching via Sequence Counter</a></h3> + +<p> +If each grace-period request was carried out separately, expedited +grace periods would have abysmal scalability and +problematic high-load characteristics. +Because each grace-period operation can serve an unlimited number of +updates, it is important to <i>batch</i> requests, so that a single +expedited grace-period operation will cover all requests in the +corresponding batch. + +<p> +This batching is controlled by a sequence counter named +<tt>->expedited_sequence</tt> in the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure. +This counter has an odd value when there is an expedited grace period +in progress and an even value otherwise, so that dividing the counter +value by two gives the number of completed grace periods. +During any given update request, the counter must transition from +even to odd and then back to even, thus indicating that a grace +period has elapsed. +Therefore, if the initial value of the counter is <tt>s</tt>, +the updater must wait until the counter reaches at least the +value <tt>(s+3)&~0x1</tt>. +This counter is managed by the following access functions: + +<ol> +<li> <tt>rcu_exp_gp_seq_start()</tt>, which marks the start of + an expedited grace period. +<li> <tt>rcu_exp_gp_seq_end()</tt>, which marks the end of an + expedited grace period. +<li> <tt>rcu_exp_gp_seq_snap()</tt>, which obtains a snapshot of + the counter. +<li> <tt>rcu_exp_gp_seq_done()</tt>, which returns <tt>true</tt> + if a full expedited grace period has elapsed since the + corresponding call to <tt>rcu_exp_gp_seq_snap()</tt>. +</ol> + +<p> +Again, only one request in a given batch need actually carry out +a grace-period operation, which means there must be an efficient +way to identify which of many concurrent reqeusts will initiate +the grace period, and that there be an efficient way for the +remaining requests to wait for that grace period to complete. +However, that is the topic of the next section. + +<h3><a name="Funnel Locking and Wait/Wakeup"> +Funnel Locking and Wait/Wakeup</a></h3> + +<p> +The natural way to sort out which of a batch of updaters will initiate +the expedited grace period is to use the <tt>rcu_node</tt> combining +tree, as implemented by the <tt>exp_funnel_lock()</tt> function. +The first updater corresponding to a given grace period arriving +at a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure records its desired grace-period +sequence number in the <tt>->exp_seq_rq</tt> field and moves up +to the next level in the tree. +Otherwise, if the <tt>->exp_seq_rq</tt> field already contains +the sequence number for the desired grace period or some later one, +the updater blocks on one of four wait queues in the +<tt>->exp_wq[]</tt> array, using the second-from-bottom +and third-from bottom bits as an index. +An <tt>->exp_lock</tt> field in the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure +synchronizes access to these fields. + +<p> +An empty <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree is shown in the following diagram, +with the white cells representing the <tt>->exp_seq_rq</tt> field +and the red cells representing the elements of the +<tt>->exp_wq[]</tt> array. + +<p><img src="Funnel0.svg" alt="Funnel0.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +The next diagram shows the situation after the arrival of Task A +and Task B at the leftmost and rightmost leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structures, respectively. +The current value of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's +<tt>->expedited_sequence</tt> field is zero, so adding three and +clearing the bottom bit results in the value two, which both tasks +record in the <tt>->exp_seq_rq</tt> field of their respective +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures: + +<p><img src="Funnel1.svg" alt="Funnel1.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Each of Tasks A and B will move up to the root +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +Suppose that Task A wins, recording its desired grace-period sequence +number and resulting in the state shown below: + +<p><img src="Funnel2.svg" alt="Funnel2.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Task A now advances to initiate a new grace period, while Task B +moves up to the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, and, seeing that +its desired sequence number is already recorded, blocks on +<tt>->exp_wq[1]</tt>. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why <tt>->exp_wq[1]</tt>? + Given that the value of these tasks' desired sequence number is + two, so shouldn't they instead block on <tt>->exp_wq[2]</tt>? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + No. + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + Recall that the bottom bit of the desired sequence number indicates + whether or not a grace period is currently in progress. + It is therefore necessary to shift the sequence number right one + bit position to obtain the number of the grace period. + This results in <tt>->exp_wq[1]</tt>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +If Tasks C and D also arrive at this point, they will compute the +same desired grace-period sequence number, and see that both leaf +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structures already have that value recorded. +They will therefore block on their respective <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structures' <tt>->exp_wq[1]</tt> fields, as shown below: + +<p><img src="Funnel3.svg" alt="Funnel3.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Task A now acquires the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's +<tt>->exp_mutex</tt> and initiates the grace period, which +increments <tt>->expedited_sequence</tt>. +Therefore, if Tasks E and F arrive, they will compute +a desired sequence number of 4 and will record this value as +shown below: + +<p><img src="Funnel4.svg" alt="Funnel4.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Tasks E and F will propagate up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +combining tree, with Task F blocking on the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure and Task E wait for Task A to finish so that +it can start the next grace period. +The resulting state is as shown below: + +<p><img src="Funnel5.svg" alt="Funnel5.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Once the grace period completes, Task A +starts waking up the tasks waiting for this grace period to complete, +increments the <tt>->expedited_sequence</tt>, +acquires the <tt>->exp_wake_mutex</tt> and then releases the +<tt>->exp_mutex</tt>. +This results in the following state: + +<p><img src="Funnel6.svg" alt="Funnel6.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Task E can then acquire <tt>->exp_mutex</tt> and increment +<tt>->expedited_sequence</tt> to the value three. +If new tasks G and H arrive and moves up the combining tree at the +same time, the state will be as follows: + +<p><img src="Funnel7.svg" alt="Funnel7.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Note that three of the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +waitqueues are now occupied. +However, at some point, Task A will wake up the +tasks blocked on the <tt>->exp_wq</tt> waitqueues, resulting +in the following state: + +<p><img src="Funnel8.svg" alt="Funnel8.svg" width="75%"> + +<p> +Execution will continue with Tasks E and H completing +their grace periods and carrying out their wakeups. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + What happens if Task A takes so long to do its wakeups + that Task E's grace period completes? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Then Task E will block on the <tt>->exp_wake_mutex</tt>, + which will also prevent it from releasing <tt>->exp_mutex</tt>, + which in turn will prevent the next grace period from starting. + This last is important in preventing overflow of the + <tt>->exp_wq[]</tt> array. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Use of Workqueues">Use of Workqueues</a></h3> + +<p> +In earlier implementations, the task requesting the expedited +grace period also drove it to completion. +This straightforward approach had the disadvantage of needing to +account for POSIX signals sent to user tasks, +so more recent implemementations use the Linux kernel's +<a href="https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/core-api/workqueue.rst">workqueues</a>. + +<p> +The requesting task still does counter snapshotting and funnel-lock +processing, but the task reaching the top of the funnel lock +does a <tt>schedule_work()</tt> (from <tt>_synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> +so that a workqueue kthread does the actual grace-period processing. +Because workqueue kthreads do not accept POSIX signals, grace-period-wait +processing need not allow for POSIX signals. + +In addition, this approach allows wakeups for the previous expedited +grace period to be overlapped with processing for the next expedited +grace period. +Because there are only four sets of waitqueues, it is necessary to +ensure that the previous grace period's wakeups complete before the +next grace period's wakeups start. +This is handled by having the <tt>->exp_mutex</tt> +guard expedited grace-period processing and the +<tt>->exp_wake_mutex</tt> guard wakeups. +The key point is that the <tt>->exp_mutex</tt> is not released +until the first wakeup is complete, which means that the +<tt>->exp_wake_mutex</tt> has already been acquired at that point. +This approach ensures that the previous grace period's wakeups can +be carried out while the current grace period is in process, but +that these wakeups will complete before the next grace period starts. +This means that only three waitqueues are required, guaranteeing that +the four that are provided are sufficient. + +<h3><a name="Stall Warnings">Stall Warnings</a></h3> + +<p> +Expediting grace periods does nothing to speed things up when RCU +readers take too long, and therefore expedited grace periods check +for stalls just as normal grace periods do. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But why not just let the normal grace-period machinery + detect the stalls, given that a given reader must block + both normal and expedited grace periods? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because it is quite possible that at a given time there + is no normal grace period in progress, in which case the + normal grace period cannot emit a stall warning. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +The <tt>synchronize_sched_expedited_wait()</tt> function loops waiting +for the expedited grace period to end, but with a timeout set to the +current RCU CPU stall-warning time. +If this time is exceeded, any CPUs or <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures +blocking the current grace period are printed. +Each stall warning results in another pass through the loop, but the +second and subsequent passes use longer stall times. + +<h3><a name="Mid-Boot Operation">Mid-boot operation</a></h3> + +<p> +The use of workqueues has the advantage that the expedited +grace-period code need not worry about POSIX signals. +Unfortunately, it has the +corresponding disadvantage that workqueues cannot be used until +they are initialized, which does not happen until some time after +the scheduler spawns the first task. +Given that there are parts of the kernel that really do want to +execute grace periods during this mid-boot “dead zone”, +expedited grace periods must do something else during thie time. + +<p> +What they do is to fall back to the old practice of requiring that the +requesting task drive the expedited grace period, as was the case +before the use of workqueues. +However, the requesting task is only required to drive the grace period +during the mid-boot dead zone. +Before mid-boot, a synchronous grace period is a no-op. +Some time after mid-boot, workqueues are used. + +<p> +Non-expedited non-SRCU synchronous grace periods must also operate +normally during mid-boot. +This is handled by causing non-expedited grace periods to take the +expedited code path during mid-boot. + +<p> +The current code assumes that there are no POSIX signals during +the mid-boot dead zone. +However, if an overwhelming need for POSIX signals somehow arises, +appropriate adjustments can be made to the expedited stall-warning code. +One such adjustment would reinstate the pre-workqueue stall-warning +checks, but only during the mid-boot dead zone. + +<p> +With this refinement, synchronous grace periods can now be used from +task context pretty much any time during the life of the kernel. + +<h3><a name="Summary"> +Summary</a></h3> + +<p> +Expedited grace periods use a sequence-number approach to promote +batching, so that a single grace-period operation can serve numerous +requests. +A funnel lock is used to efficiently identify the one task out of +a concurrent group that will request the grace period. +All members of the group will block on waitqueues provided in +the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +The actual grace-period processing is carried out by a workqueue. + +<p> +CPU-hotplug operations are noted lazily in order to prevent the need +for tight synchronization between expedited grace periods and +CPU-hotplug operations. +The dyntick-idle counters are used to avoid sending IPIs to idle CPUs, +at least in the common case. +RCU-preempt and RCU-sched use different IPI handlers and different +code to respond to the state changes carried out by those handlers, +but otherwise use common code. + +<p> +Quiescent states are tracked using the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree, +and once all necessary quiescent states have been reported, +all tasks waiting on this expedited grace period are awakened. +A pair of mutexes are used to allow one grace period's wakeups +to proceed concurrently with the next grace period's processing. + +<p> +This combination of mechanisms allows expedited grace periods to +run reasonably efficiently. +However, for non-time-critical tasks, normal grace periods should be +used instead because their longer duration permits much higher +degrees of batching, and thus much lower per-request 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b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/Tree-RCU-Diagram.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e5b42a798 --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/Tree-RCU-Diagram.html @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> + <html> + <head><title>A Diagram of TREE_RCU's Grace-Period Memory Ordering</title> + <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + +<p><img src="TreeRCU-gp.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp.svg"> + +</body></html> diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/Tree-RCU-Memory-Ordering.html b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/Tree-RCU-Memory-Ordering.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a346ce011 --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/Tree-RCU-Memory-Ordering.html @@ -0,0 +1,705 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> + <html> + <head><title>A Tour Through TREE_RCU's Grace-Period Memory Ordering</title> + <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + + <p>August 8, 2017</p> + <p>This article was contributed by Paul E. McKenney</p> + +<h3>Introduction</h3> + +<p>This document gives a rough visual overview of how Tree RCU's +grace-period memory ordering guarantee is provided. + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#What Is Tree RCU's Grace Period Memory Ordering Guarantee?"> + What Is Tree RCU's Grace Period Memory Ordering Guarantee?</a> +<li> <a href="#Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Building Blocks"> + Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Building Blocks</a> +<li> <a href="#Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Components"> + Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Components</a> +<li> <a href="#Putting It All Together">Putting It All Together</a> +</ol> + +<h3><a name="What Is Tree RCU's Grace Period Memory Ordering Guarantee?"> +What Is Tree RCU's Grace Period Memory Ordering Guarantee?</a></h3> + +<p>RCU grace periods provide extremely strong memory-ordering guarantees +for non-idle non-offline code. +Any code that happens after the end of a given RCU grace period is guaranteed +to see the effects of all accesses prior to the beginning of that grace +period that are within RCU read-side critical sections. +Similarly, any code that happens before the beginning of a given RCU grace +period is guaranteed to see the effects of all accesses following the end +of that grace period that are within RCU read-side critical sections. + +<p>This guarantee is particularly pervasive for <tt>synchronize_sched()</tt>, +for which RCU-sched read-side critical sections include any region +of code for which preemption is disabled. +Given that each individual machine instruction can be thought of as +an extremely small region of preemption-disabled code, one can think of +<tt>synchronize_sched()</tt> as <tt>smp_mb()</tt> on steroids. + +<p>RCU updaters use this guarantee by splitting their updates into +two phases, one of which is executed before the grace period and +the other of which is executed after the grace period. +In the most common use case, phase one removes an element from +a linked RCU-protected data structure, and phase two frees that element. +For this to work, any readers that have witnessed state prior to the +phase-one update (in the common case, removal) must not witness state +following the phase-two update (in the common case, freeing). + +<p>The RCU implementation provides this guarantee using a network +of lock-based critical sections, memory barriers, and per-CPU +processing, as is described in the following sections. + +<h3><a name="Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Building Blocks"> +Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Building Blocks</a></h3> + +<p>The workhorse for RCU's grace-period memory ordering is the +critical section for the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->lock</tt>. +These critical sections use helper functions for lock acquisition, including +<tt>raw_spin_lock_rcu_node()</tt>, +<tt>raw_spin_lock_irq_rcu_node()</tt>, and +<tt>raw_spin_lock_irqsave_rcu_node()</tt>. +Their lock-release counterparts are +<tt>raw_spin_unlock_rcu_node()</tt>, +<tt>raw_spin_unlock_irq_rcu_node()</tt>, and +<tt>raw_spin_unlock_irqrestore_rcu_node()</tt>, +respectively. +For completeness, a +<tt>raw_spin_trylock_rcu_node()</tt> +is also provided. +The key point is that the lock-acquisition functions, including +<tt>raw_spin_trylock_rcu_node()</tt>, all invoke +<tt>smp_mb__after_unlock_lock()</tt> immediately after successful +acquisition of the lock. + +<p>Therefore, for any given <tt>rcu_node</tt> struction, any access +happening before one of the above lock-release functions will be seen +by all CPUs as happening before any access happening after a later +one of the above lock-acquisition functions. +Furthermore, any access happening before one of the +above lock-release function on any given CPU will be seen by all +CPUs as happening before any access happening after a later one +of the above lock-acquisition functions executing on that same CPU, +even if the lock-release and lock-acquisition functions are operating +on different <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. +Tree RCU uses these two ordering guarantees to form an ordering +network among all CPUs that were in any way involved in the grace +period, including any CPUs that came online or went offline during +the grace period in question. + +<p>The following litmus test exhibits the ordering effects of these +lock-acquisition and lock-release functions: + +<pre> + 1 int x, y, z; + 2 + 3 void task0(void) + 4 { + 5 raw_spin_lock_rcu_node(rnp); + 6 WRITE_ONCE(x, 1); + 7 r1 = READ_ONCE(y); + 8 raw_spin_unlock_rcu_node(rnp); + 9 } +10 +11 void task1(void) +12 { +13 raw_spin_lock_rcu_node(rnp); +14 WRITE_ONCE(y, 1); +15 r2 = READ_ONCE(z); +16 raw_spin_unlock_rcu_node(rnp); +17 } +18 +19 void task2(void) +20 { +21 WRITE_ONCE(z, 1); +22 smp_mb(); +23 r3 = READ_ONCE(x); +24 } +25 +26 WARN_ON(r1 == 0 && r2 == 0 && r3 == 0); +</pre> + +<p>The <tt>WARN_ON()</tt> is evaluated at “the end of time”, +after all changes have propagated throughout the system. +Without the <tt>smp_mb__after_unlock_lock()</tt> provided by the +acquisition functions, this <tt>WARN_ON()</tt> could trigger, for example +on PowerPC. +The <tt>smp_mb__after_unlock_lock()</tt> invocations prevent this +<tt>WARN_ON()</tt> from triggering. + +<p>This approach must be extended to include idle CPUs, which need +RCU's grace-period memory ordering guarantee to extend to any +RCU read-side critical sections preceding and following the current +idle sojourn. +This case is handled by calls to the strongly ordered +<tt>atomic_add_return()</tt> read-modify-write atomic operation that +is invoked within <tt>rcu_dynticks_eqs_enter()</tt> at idle-entry +time and within <tt>rcu_dynticks_eqs_exit()</tt> at idle-exit time. +The grace-period kthread invokes <tt>rcu_dynticks_snap()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_dynticks_in_eqs_since()</tt> (both of which invoke +an <tt>atomic_add_return()</tt> of zero) to detect idle CPUs. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But what about CPUs that remain offline for the entire + grace period? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Such CPUs will be offline at the beginning of the grace period, + so the grace period won't expect quiescent states from them. + Races between grace-period start and CPU-hotplug operations + are mediated by the CPU's leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's + <tt>->lock</tt> as described above. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The approach must be extended to handle one final case, that +of waking a task blocked in <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. +This task might be affinitied to a CPU that is not yet aware that +the grace period has ended, and thus might not yet be subject to +the grace period's memory ordering. +Therefore, there is an <tt>smp_mb()</tt> after the return from +<tt>wait_for_completion()</tt> in the <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> +code path. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + What? Where??? + I don't see any <tt>smp_mb()</tt> after the return from + <tt>wait_for_completion()</tt>!!! +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + That would be because I spotted the need for that + <tt>smp_mb()</tt> during the creation of this documentation, + and it is therefore unlikely to hit mainline before v4.14. + Kudos to Lance Roy, Will Deacon, Peter Zijlstra, and + Jonathan Cameron for asking questions that sensitized me + to the rather elaborate sequence of events that demonstrate + the need for this memory barrier. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Tree RCU's grace--period memory-ordering guarantees rely most +heavily on the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->lock</tt> +field, so much so that it is necessary to abbreviate this pattern +in the diagrams in the next section. +For example, consider the <tt>rcu_prepare_for_idle()</tt> function +shown below, which is one of several functions that enforce ordering +of newly arrived RCU callbacks against future grace periods: + +<pre> + 1 static void rcu_prepare_for_idle(void) + 2 { + 3 bool needwake; + 4 struct rcu_data *rdp; + 5 struct rcu_dynticks *rdtp = this_cpu_ptr(&rcu_dynticks); + 6 struct rcu_node *rnp; + 7 struct rcu_state *rsp; + 8 int tne; + 9 +10 if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_RCU_NOCB_CPU_ALL) || +11 rcu_is_nocb_cpu(smp_processor_id())) +12 return; +13 tne = READ_ONCE(tick_nohz_active); +14 if (tne != rdtp->tick_nohz_enabled_snap) { +15 if (rcu_cpu_has_callbacks(NULL)) +16 invoke_rcu_core(); +17 rdtp->tick_nohz_enabled_snap = tne; +18 return; +19 } +20 if (!tne) +21 return; +22 if (rdtp->all_lazy && +23 rdtp->nonlazy_posted != rdtp->nonlazy_posted_snap) { +24 rdtp->all_lazy = false; +25 rdtp->nonlazy_posted_snap = rdtp->nonlazy_posted; +26 invoke_rcu_core(); +27 return; +28 } +29 if (rdtp->last_accelerate == jiffies) +30 return; +31 rdtp->last_accelerate = jiffies; +32 for_each_rcu_flavor(rsp) { +33 rdp = this_cpu_ptr(rsp->rda); +34 if (rcu_segcblist_pend_cbs(&rdp->cblist)) +35 continue; +36 rnp = rdp->mynode; +37 raw_spin_lock_rcu_node(rnp); +38 needwake = rcu_accelerate_cbs(rsp, rnp, rdp); +39 raw_spin_unlock_rcu_node(rnp); +40 if (needwake) +41 rcu_gp_kthread_wake(rsp); +42 } +43 } +</pre> + +<p>But the only part of <tt>rcu_prepare_for_idle()</tt> that really +matters for this discussion are lines 37–39. +We will therefore abbreviate this function as follows: + +</p><p><img src="rcu_node-lock.svg" alt="rcu_node-lock.svg"> + +<p>The box represents the <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->lock</tt> +critical section, with the double line on top representing the additional +<tt>smp_mb__after_unlock_lock()</tt>. + +<h3><a name="Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Components"> +Tree RCU Grace Period Memory Ordering Components</a></h3> + +<p>Tree RCU's grace-period memory-ordering guarantee is provided by +a number of RCU components: + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Callback Registry">Callback Registry</a> +<li> <a href="#Grace-Period Initialization">Grace-Period Initialization</a> +<li> <a href="#Self-Reported Quiescent States"> + Self-Reported Quiescent States</a> +<li> <a href="#Dynamic Tick Interface">Dynamic Tick Interface</a> +<li> <a href="#CPU-Hotplug Interface">CPU-Hotplug Interface</a> +<li> <a href="Forcing Quiescent States">Forcing Quiescent States</a> +<li> <a href="Grace-Period Cleanup">Grace-Period Cleanup</a> +<li> <a href="Callback Invocation">Callback Invocation</a> +</ol> + +<p>Each of the following section looks at the corresponding component +in detail. + +<h4><a name="Callback Registry">Callback Registry</a></h4> + +<p>If RCU's grace-period guarantee is to mean anything at all, any +access that happens before a given invocation of <tt>call_rcu()</tt> +must also happen before the corresponding grace period. +The implementation of this portion of RCU's grace period guarantee +is shown in the following figure: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-callback-registry.svg" alt="TreeRCU-callback-registry.svg"> + +<p>Because <tt>call_rcu()</tt> normally acts only on CPU-local state, +it provides no ordering guarantees, either for itself or for +phase one of the update (which again will usually be removal of +an element from an RCU-protected data structure). +It simply enqueues the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure on a per-CPU list, +which cannot become associated with a grace period until a later +call to <tt>rcu_accelerate_cbs()</tt>, as shown in the diagram above. + +<p>One set of code paths shown on the left invokes +<tt>rcu_accelerate_cbs()</tt> via +<tt>note_gp_changes()</tt>, either directly from <tt>call_rcu()</tt> (if +the current CPU is inundated with queued <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures) +or more likely from an <tt>RCU_SOFTIRQ</tt> handler. +Another code path in the middle is taken only in kernels built with +<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FAST_NO_HZ=y</tt>, which invokes +<tt>rcu_accelerate_cbs()</tt> via <tt>rcu_prepare_for_idle()</tt>. +The final code path on the right is taken only in kernels built with +<tt>CONFIG_HOTPLUG_CPU=y</tt>, which invokes +<tt>rcu_accelerate_cbs()</tt> via +<tt>rcu_advance_cbs()</tt>, <tt>rcu_migrate_callbacks</tt>, +<tt>rcutree_migrate_callbacks()</tt>, and <tt>takedown_cpu()</tt>, +which in turn is invoked on a surviving CPU after the outgoing +CPU has been completely offlined. + +<p>There are a few other code paths within grace-period processing +that opportunistically invoke <tt>rcu_accelerate_cbs()</tt>. +However, either way, all of the CPU's recently queued <tt>rcu_head</tt> +structures are associated with a future grace-period number under +the protection of the CPU's lead <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->lock</tt>. +In all cases, there is full ordering against any prior critical section +for that same <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->lock</tt>, and +also full ordering against any of the current task's or CPU's prior critical +sections for any <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->lock</tt>. + +<p>The next section will show how this ordering ensures that any +accesses prior to the <tt>call_rcu()</tt> (particularly including phase +one of the update) +happen before the start of the corresponding grace period. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But what about <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + The <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> passes <tt>call_rcu()</tt> + to <tt>wait_rcu_gp()</tt>, which invokes it. + So either way, it eventually comes down to <tt>call_rcu()</tt>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h4><a name="Grace-Period Initialization">Grace-Period Initialization</a></h4> + +<p>Grace-period initialization is carried out by +the grace-period kernel thread, which makes several passes over the +<tt>rcu_node</tt> tree within the <tt>rcu_gp_init()</tt> function. +This means that showing the full flow of ordering through the +grace-period computation will require duplicating this tree. +If you find this confusing, please note that the state of the +<tt>rcu_node</tt> changes over time, just like Heraclitus's river. +However, to keep the <tt>rcu_node</tt> river tractable, the +grace-period kernel thread's traversals are presented in multiple +parts, starting in this section with the various phases of +grace-period initialization. + +<p>The first ordering-related grace-period initialization action is to +advance the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's <tt>->gp_seq</tt> +grace-period-number counter, as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-gp-init-1.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp-init-1.svg" width="75%"> + +<p>The actual increment is carried out using <tt>smp_store_release()</tt>, +which helps reject false-positive RCU CPU stall detection. +Note that only the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure is touched. + +<p>The first pass through the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree updates bitmasks +based on CPUs having come online or gone offline since the start of +the previous grace period. +In the common case where the number of online CPUs for this <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure has not transitioned to or from zero, +this pass will scan only the leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures. +However, if the number of online CPUs for a given leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure has transitioned from zero, +<tt>rcu_init_new_rnp()</tt> will be invoked for the first incoming CPU. +Similarly, if the number of online CPUs for a given leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure has transitioned to zero, +<tt>rcu_cleanup_dead_rnp()</tt> will be invoked for the last outgoing CPU. +The diagram below shows the path of ordering if the leftmost +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure onlines its first CPU and if the next +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has no online CPUs +(or, alternatively if the leftmost <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure offlines +its last CPU and if the next <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure has no online CPUs). + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-gp-init-2.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp-init-1.svg" width="75%"> + +<p>The final <tt>rcu_gp_init()</tt> pass through the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +tree traverses breadth-first, setting each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field to the newly advanced value from the +<tt>rcu_state</tt> structure, as shown in the following diagram. + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-gp-init-3.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp-init-1.svg" width="75%"> + +<p>This change will also cause each CPU's next call to +<tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt> +to notice that a new grace period has started, as described in the next +section. +But because the grace-period kthread started the grace period at the +root (with the advancing of the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field) before setting each leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure's <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field, each CPU's observation of +the start of the grace period will happen after the actual start +of the grace period. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But what about the CPU that started the grace period? + Why wouldn't it see the start of the grace period right when + it started that grace period? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + In some deep philosophical and overly anthromorphized + sense, yes, the CPU starting the grace period is immediately + aware of having done so. + However, if we instead assume that RCU is not self-aware, + then even the CPU starting the grace period does not really + become aware of the start of this grace period until its + first call to <tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt>. + On the other hand, this CPU potentially gets early notification + because it invokes <tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt> during its + last <tt>rcu_gp_init()</tt> pass through its leaf + <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h4><a name="Self-Reported Quiescent States"> +Self-Reported Quiescent States</a></h4> + +<p>When all entities that might block the grace period have reported +quiescent states (or as described in a later section, had quiescent +states reported on their behalf), the grace period can end. +Online non-idle CPUs report their own quiescent states, as shown +in the following diagram: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-qs.svg" alt="TreeRCU-qs.svg" width="75%"> + +<p>This is for the last CPU to report a quiescent state, which signals +the end of the grace period. +Earlier quiescent states would push up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree +only until they encountered an <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure that +is waiting for additional quiescent states. +However, ordering is nevertheless preserved because some later quiescent +state will acquire that <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->lock</tt>. + +<p>Any number of events can lead up to a CPU invoking +<tt>note_gp_changes</tt> (or alternatively, directly invoking +<tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt>), at which point that CPU will notice +the start of a new grace period while holding its leaf +<tt>rcu_node</tt> lock. +Therefore, all execution shown in this diagram happens after the +start of the grace period. +In addition, this CPU will consider any RCU read-side critical +section that started before the invocation of <tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt> +to have started before the grace period, and thus a critical +section that the grace period must wait on. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But a RCU read-side critical section might have started + after the beginning of the grace period + (the advancing of <tt>->gp_seq</tt> from earlier), so why should + the grace period wait on such a critical section? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + It is indeed not necessary for the grace period to wait on such + a critical section. + However, it is permissible to wait on it. + And it is furthermore important to wait on it, as this + lazy approach is far more scalable than a “big bang” + all-at-once grace-period start could possibly be. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If the CPU does a context switch, a quiescent state will be +noted by <tt>rcu_node_context_switch()</tt> on the left. +On the other hand, if the CPU takes a scheduler-clock interrupt +while executing in usermode, a quiescent state will be noted by +<tt>rcu_check_callbacks()</tt> on the right. +Either way, the passage through a quiescent state will be noted +in a per-CPU variable. + +<p>The next time an <tt>RCU_SOFTIRQ</tt> handler executes on +this CPU (for example, after the next scheduler-clock +interrupt), <tt>__rcu_process_callbacks()</tt> will invoke +<tt>rcu_check_quiescent_state()</tt>, which will notice the +recorded quiescent state, and invoke +<tt>rcu_report_qs_rdp()</tt>. +If <tt>rcu_report_qs_rdp()</tt> verifies that the quiescent state +really does apply to the current grace period, it invokes +<tt>rcu_report_rnp()</tt> which traverses up the <tt>rcu_node</tt> +tree as shown at the bottom of the diagram, clearing bits from +each <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's <tt>->qsmask</tt> field, +and propagating up the tree when the result is zero. + +<p>Note that traversal passes upwards out of a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure only if the current CPU is reporting the last quiescent +state for the subtree headed by that <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +A key point is that if a CPU's traversal stops at a given <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure, then there will be a later traversal by another CPU +(or perhaps the same one) that proceeds upwards +from that point, and the <tt>rcu_node</tt> <tt>->lock</tt> +guarantees that the first CPU's quiescent state happens before the +remainder of the second CPU's traversal. +Applying this line of thought repeatedly shows that all CPUs' +quiescent states happen before the last CPU traverses through +the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, the “last CPU” +being the one that clears the last bit in the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure's <tt>->qsmask</tt> field. + +<h4><a name="Dynamic Tick Interface">Dynamic Tick Interface</a></h4> + +<p>Due to energy-efficiency considerations, RCU is forbidden from +disturbing idle CPUs. +CPUs are therefore required to notify RCU when entering or leaving idle +state, which they do via fully ordered value-returning atomic operations +on a per-CPU variable. +The ordering effects are as shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-dyntick.svg" alt="TreeRCU-dyntick.svg" width="50%"> + +<p>The RCU grace-period kernel thread samples the per-CPU idleness +variable while holding the corresponding CPU's leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure's <tt>->lock</tt>. +This means that any RCU read-side critical sections that precede the +idle period (the oval near the top of the diagram above) will happen +before the end of the current grace period. +Similarly, the beginning of the current grace period will happen before +any RCU read-side critical sections that follow the +idle period (the oval near the bottom of the diagram above). + +<p>Plumbing this into the full grace-period execution is described +<a href="#Forcing Quiescent States">below</a>. + +<h4><a name="CPU-Hotplug Interface">CPU-Hotplug Interface</a></h4> + +<p>RCU is also forbidden from disturbing offline CPUs, which might well +be powered off and removed from the system completely. +CPUs are therefore required to notify RCU of their comings and goings +as part of the corresponding CPU hotplug operations. +The ordering effects are shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-hotplug.svg" alt="TreeRCU-hotplug.svg" width="50%"> + +<p>Because CPU hotplug operations are much less frequent than idle transitions, +they are heavier weight, and thus acquire the CPU's leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> +structure's <tt>->lock</tt> and update this structure's +<tt>->qsmaskinitnext</tt>. +The RCU grace-period kernel thread samples this mask to detect CPUs +having gone offline since the beginning of this grace period. + +<p>Plumbing this into the full grace-period execution is described +<a href="#Forcing Quiescent States">below</a>. + +<h4><a name="Forcing Quiescent States">Forcing Quiescent States</a></h4> + +<p>As noted above, idle and offline CPUs cannot report their own +quiescent states, and therefore the grace-period kernel thread +must do the reporting on their behalf. +This process is called “forcing quiescent states”, it is +repeated every few jiffies, and its ordering effects are shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-gp-fqs.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp-fqs.svg" width="100%"> + +<p>Each pass of quiescent state forcing is guaranteed to traverse the +leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structures, and if there are no new quiescent +states due to recently idled and/or offlined CPUs, then only the +leaves are traversed. +However, if there is a newly offlined CPU as illustrated on the left +or a newly idled CPU as illustrated on the right, the corresponding +quiescent state will be driven up towards the root. +As with self-reported quiescent states, the upwards driving stops +once it reaches an <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure that has quiescent +states outstanding from other CPUs. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + The leftmost drive to root stopped before it reached + the root <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, which means that + there are still CPUs subordinate to that structure on + which the current grace period is waiting. + Given that, how is it possible that the rightmost drive + to root ended the grace period? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Good analysis! + It is in fact impossible in the absence of bugs in RCU. + But this diagram is complex enough as it is, so simplicity + overrode accuracy. + You can think of it as poetic license, or you can think of + it as misdirection that is resolved in the + <a href="#Putting It All Together">stitched-together diagram</a>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h4><a name="Grace-Period Cleanup">Grace-Period Cleanup</a></h4> + +<p>Grace-period cleanup first scans the <tt>rcu_node</tt> tree +breadth-first advancing all the <tt>->gp_seq</tt> fields, then it +advances the <tt>rcu_state</tt> structure's <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field. +The ordering effects are shown below: + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-gp-cleanup.svg" alt="TreeRCU-gp-cleanup.svg" width="75%"> + +<p>As indicated by the oval at the bottom of the diagram, once +grace-period cleanup is complete, the next grace period can begin. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But when precisely does the grace period end? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + There is no useful single point at which the grace period + can be said to end. + The earliest reasonable candidate is as soon as the last + CPU has reported its quiescent state, but it may be some + milliseconds before RCU becomes aware of this. + The latest reasonable candidate is once the <tt>rcu_state</tt> + structure's <tt>->gp_seq</tt> field has been updated, + but it is quite possible that some CPUs have already completed + phase two of their updates by that time. + In short, if you are going to work with RCU, you need to + learn to embrace uncertainty. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + + +<h4><a name="Callback Invocation">Callback Invocation</a></h4> + +<p>Once a given CPU's leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->gp_seq</tt> field has been updated, that CPU can begin +invoking its RCU callbacks that were waiting for this grace period +to end. +These callbacks are identified by <tt>rcu_advance_cbs()</tt>, +which is usually invoked by <tt>__note_gp_changes()</tt>. +As shown in the diagram below, this invocation can be triggered by +the scheduling-clock interrupt (<tt>rcu_check_callbacks()</tt> on +the left) or by idle entry (<tt>rcu_cleanup_after_idle()</tt> on +the right, but only for kernels build with +<tt>CONFIG_RCU_FAST_NO_HZ=y</tt>). +Either way, <tt>RCU_SOFTIRQ</tt> is raised, which results in +<tt>rcu_do_batch()</tt> invoking the callbacks, which in turn +allows those callbacks to carry out (either directly or indirectly +via wakeup) the needed phase-two processing for each update. + +</p><p><img src="TreeRCU-callback-invocation.svg" alt="TreeRCU-callback-invocation.svg" width="60%"> + +<p>Please note that callback invocation can also be prompted by any +number of corner-case code paths, for example, when a CPU notes that +it has excessive numbers of callbacks queued. +In all cases, the CPU acquires its leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure's +<tt>->lock</tt> before invoking callbacks, which preserves the +required ordering against the newly completed grace period. + +<p>However, if the callback function communicates to other CPUs, +for example, doing a wakeup, then it is that function's responsibility +to maintain ordering. +For example, if the callback function wakes up a task that runs on +some other CPU, proper ordering must in place in both the callback +function and the task being awakened. +To see why this is important, consider the top half of the +<a href="#Grace-Period Cleanup">grace-period cleanup</a> diagram. +The callback might be running on a CPU corresponding to the leftmost +leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, and awaken a task that is to run on +a CPU corresponding to the rightmost leaf <tt>rcu_node</tt> structure, +and the grace-period kernel thread might not yet have reached the +rightmost leaf. +In this case, the grace period's memory ordering might not yet have +reached that CPU, so again the callback function and the awakened +task must supply proper ordering. + +<h3><a name="Putting It All Together">Putting It All Together</a></h3> + +<p>A stitched-together diagram is +<a href="Tree-RCU-Diagram.html">here</a>. + +<h3><a name="Legal Statement"> +Legal Statement</a></h3> + +<p>This work represents the view of the author and does not necessarily +represent the view of IBM. + +</p><p>Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds. + +</p><p>Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or +service marks of others. + +</body></html> diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/TreeRCU-callback-invocation.svg b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/TreeRCU-callback-invocation.svg new file mode 100644 index 000000000..832408313 --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Memory-Ordering/TreeRCU-callback-invocation.svg @@ -0,0 +1,486 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!-- Creator: fig2dev Version 3.2 Patchlevel 5e --> + +<!-- CreationDate: Wed Dec 9 17:35:03 2015 --> + +<!-- Magnification: 2.000 --> + +<svg + xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" + xmlns:cc="http://creativecommons.org/ns#" + 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<text + style="font-size:192px;font-style:normal;font-weight:bold;text-anchor:start;fill:#000000;stroke-width:0.025in;font-family:Courier" + id="text202-6-6-2-6" + font-size="192" + font-weight="bold" + font-style="normal" + y="-3526.4448" + x="4241.8574" + xml:space="preserve">->qsmaskinitnext</text> + <text + sodipodi:linespacing="125%" + style="font-size:192px;font-style:normal;font-weight:bold;line-height:125%;text-anchor:start;fill:#000000;stroke-width:0.025in;font-family:Courier" + id="text202-7-5-1-2-3-2" + font-size="192" + font-weight="bold" + font-style="normal" + y="-2987.4167" + x="6305.1484" + xml:space="preserve"><tspan + id="tspan3104-6-9" + style="font-size:159.57754517px;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;font-stretch:normal;text-align:start;line-height:125%;writing-mode:lr-tb;text-anchor:start;font-family:Liberation Sans;-inkscape-font-specification:Liberation Sans">Leaf</tspan></text> + </g> + <g + id="g4504-7-2" + 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x="684.00067" + y="213.91006" + id="text4461-2-1" + sodipodi:linespacing="125%"><tspan + sodipodi:role="line" + id="tspan4463-2-0" + x="684.00067" + y="213.91006">thread4()</tspan></text> + </g> +</svg> diff --git a/Documentation/RCU/Design/Requirements/Requirements.html b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Requirements/Requirements.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49690228b --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/RCU/Design/Requirements/Requirements.html @@ -0,0 +1,3324 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> + <html> + <head><title>A Tour Through RCU's Requirements [LWN.net]</title> + <meta HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=utf-8"> + +<h1>A Tour Through RCU's Requirements</h1> + +<p>Copyright IBM Corporation, 2015</p> +<p>Author: Paul E. McKenney</p> +<p><i>The initial version of this document appeared in the +<a href="https://lwn.net/">LWN</a> articles +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/652156/">here</a>, +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/652677/">here</a>, and +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/653326/">here</a>.</i></p> + +<h2>Introduction</h2> + +<p> +Read-copy update (RCU) is a synchronization mechanism that is often +used as a replacement for reader-writer locking. +RCU is unusual in that updaters do not block readers, +which means that RCU's read-side primitives can be exceedingly fast +and scalable. +In addition, updaters can make useful forward progress concurrently +with readers. +However, all this concurrency between RCU readers and updaters does raise +the question of exactly what RCU readers are doing, which in turn +raises the question of exactly what RCU's requirements are. + +<p> +This document therefore summarizes RCU's requirements, and can be thought +of as an informal, high-level specification for RCU. +It is important to understand that RCU's specification is primarily +empirical in nature; +in fact, I learned about many of these requirements the hard way. +This situation might cause some consternation, however, not only +has this learning process been a lot of fun, but it has also been +a great privilege to work with so many people willing to apply +technologies in interesting new ways. + +<p> +All that aside, here are the categories of currently known RCU requirements: +</p> + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Fundamental Requirements"> + Fundamental Requirements</a> +<li> <a href="#Fundamental Non-Requirements">Fundamental Non-Requirements</a> +<li> <a href="#Parallelism Facts of Life"> + Parallelism Facts of Life</a> +<li> <a href="#Quality-of-Implementation Requirements"> + Quality-of-Implementation Requirements</a> +<li> <a href="#Linux Kernel Complications"> + Linux Kernel Complications</a> +<li> <a href="#Software-Engineering Requirements"> + Software-Engineering Requirements</a> +<li> <a href="#Other RCU Flavors"> + Other RCU Flavors</a> +<li> <a href="#Possible Future Changes"> + Possible Future Changes</a> +</ol> + +<p> +This is followed by a <a href="#Summary">summary</a>, +however, the answers to each quick quiz immediately follows the quiz. +Select the big white space with your mouse to see the answer. + +<h2><a name="Fundamental Requirements">Fundamental Requirements</a></h2> + +<p> +RCU's fundamental requirements are the closest thing RCU has to hard +mathematical requirements. +These are: + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Grace-Period Guarantee"> + Grace-Period Guarantee</a> +<li> <a href="#Publish-Subscribe Guarantee"> + Publish-Subscribe Guarantee</a> +<li> <a href="#Memory-Barrier Guarantees"> + Memory-Barrier Guarantees</a> +<li> <a href="#RCU Primitives Guaranteed to Execute Unconditionally"> + RCU Primitives Guaranteed to Execute Unconditionally</a> +<li> <a href="#Guaranteed Read-to-Write Upgrade"> + Guaranteed Read-to-Write Upgrade</a> +</ol> + +<h3><a name="Grace-Period Guarantee">Grace-Period Guarantee</a></h3> + +<p> +RCU's grace-period guarantee is unusual in being premeditated: +Jack Slingwine and I had this guarantee firmly in mind when we started +work on RCU (then called “rclock”) in the early 1990s. +That said, the past two decades of experience with RCU have produced +a much more detailed understanding of this guarantee. + +<p> +RCU's grace-period guarantee allows updaters to wait for the completion +of all pre-existing RCU read-side critical sections. +An RCU read-side critical section +begins with the marker <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and ends with +the marker <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>. +These markers may be nested, and RCU treats a nested set as one +big RCU read-side critical section. +Production-quality implementations of <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> are extremely lightweight, and in +fact have exactly zero overhead in Linux kernels built for production +use with <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=n</tt>. + +<p> +This guarantee allows ordering to be enforced with extremely low +overhead to readers, for example: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 int x, y; + 2 + 3 void thread0(void) + 4 { + 5 rcu_read_lock(); + 6 r1 = READ_ONCE(x); + 7 r2 = READ_ONCE(y); + 8 rcu_read_unlock(); + 9 } +10 +11 void thread1(void) +12 { +13 WRITE_ONCE(x, 1); +14 synchronize_rcu(); +15 WRITE_ONCE(y, 1); +16 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Because the <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> on line 14 waits for +all pre-existing readers, any instance of <tt>thread0()</tt> that +loads a value of zero from <tt>x</tt> must complete before +<tt>thread1()</tt> stores to <tt>y</tt>, so that instance must +also load a value of zero from <tt>y</tt>. +Similarly, any instance of <tt>thread0()</tt> that loads a value of +one from <tt>y</tt> must have started after the +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> started, and must therefore also load +a value of one from <tt>x</tt>. +Therefore, the outcome: +<blockquote> +<pre> +(r1 == 0 && r2 == 1) +</pre> +</blockquote> +cannot happen. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Wait a minute! + You said that updaters can make useful forward progress concurrently + with readers, but pre-existing readers will block + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>!!! + Just who are you trying to fool??? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + First, if updaters do not wish to be blocked by readers, they can use + <tt>call_rcu()</tt> or <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt>, which will + be discussed later. + Second, even when using <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, the other + update-side code does run concurrently with readers, whether + pre-existing or not. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This scenario resembles one of the first uses of RCU in +<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DYNIX">DYNIX/ptx</a>, +which managed a distributed lock manager's transition into +a state suitable for handling recovery from node failure, +more or less as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 #define STATE_NORMAL 0 + 2 #define STATE_WANT_RECOVERY 1 + 3 #define STATE_RECOVERING 2 + 4 #define STATE_WANT_NORMAL 3 + 5 + 6 int state = STATE_NORMAL; + 7 + 8 void do_something_dlm(void) + 9 { +10 int state_snap; +11 +12 rcu_read_lock(); +13 state_snap = READ_ONCE(state); +14 if (state_snap == STATE_NORMAL) +15 do_something(); +16 else +17 do_something_carefully(); +18 rcu_read_unlock(); +19 } +20 +21 void start_recovery(void) +22 { +23 WRITE_ONCE(state, STATE_WANT_RECOVERY); +24 synchronize_rcu(); +25 WRITE_ONCE(state, STATE_RECOVERING); +26 recovery(); +27 WRITE_ONCE(state, STATE_WANT_NORMAL); +28 synchronize_rcu(); +29 WRITE_ONCE(state, STATE_NORMAL); +30 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The RCU read-side critical section in <tt>do_something_dlm()</tt> +works with the <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> in <tt>start_recovery()</tt> +to guarantee that <tt>do_something()</tt> never runs concurrently +with <tt>recovery()</tt>, but with little or no synchronization +overhead in <tt>do_something_dlm()</tt>. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why is the <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> on line 28 needed? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Without that extra grace period, memory reordering could result in + <tt>do_something_dlm()</tt> executing <tt>do_something()</tt> + concurrently with the last bits of <tt>recovery()</tt>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +In order to avoid fatal problems such as deadlocks, +an RCU read-side critical section must not contain calls to +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. +Similarly, an RCU read-side critical section must not +contain anything that waits, directly or indirectly, on completion of +an invocation of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. + +<p> +Although RCU's grace-period guarantee is useful in and of itself, with +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/573497/">quite a few use cases</a>, +it would be good to be able to use RCU to coordinate read-side +access to linked data structures. +For this, the grace-period guarantee is not sufficient, as can +be seen in function <tt>add_gp_buggy()</tt> below. +We will look at the reader's code later, but in the meantime, just think of +the reader as locklessly picking up the <tt>gp</tt> pointer, +and, if the value loaded is non-<tt>NULL</tt>, locklessly accessing the +<tt>->a</tt> and <tt>->b</tt> fields. + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool add_gp_buggy(int a, int b) + 2 { + 3 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), GFP_KERNEL); + 4 if (!p) + 5 return -ENOMEM; + 6 spin_lock(&gp_lock); + 7 if (rcu_access_pointer(gp)) { + 8 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); + 9 return false; +10 } +11 p->a = a; +12 p->b = a; +13 gp = p; /* ORDERING BUG */ +14 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +15 return true; +16 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The problem is that both the compiler and weakly ordered CPUs are within +their rights to reorder this code as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool add_gp_buggy_optimized(int a, int b) + 2 { + 3 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), GFP_KERNEL); + 4 if (!p) + 5 return -ENOMEM; + 6 spin_lock(&gp_lock); + 7 if (rcu_access_pointer(gp)) { + 8 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); + 9 return false; +10 } +<b>11 gp = p; /* ORDERING BUG */ +12 p->a = a; +13 p->b = a;</b> +14 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +15 return true; +16 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +If an RCU reader fetches <tt>gp</tt> just after +<tt>add_gp_buggy_optimized</tt> executes line 11, +it will see garbage in the <tt>->a</tt> and <tt>->b</tt> +fields. +And this is but one of many ways in which compiler and hardware optimizations +could cause trouble. +Therefore, we clearly need some way to prevent the compiler and the CPU from +reordering in this manner, which brings us to the publish-subscribe +guarantee discussed in the next section. + +<h3><a name="Publish-Subscribe Guarantee">Publish/Subscribe Guarantee</a></h3> + +<p> +RCU's publish-subscribe guarantee allows data to be inserted +into a linked data structure without disrupting RCU readers. +The updater uses <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> to insert the +new data, and readers use <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> to +access data, whether new or old. +The following shows an example of insertion: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool add_gp(int a, int b) + 2 { + 3 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), GFP_KERNEL); + 4 if (!p) + 5 return -ENOMEM; + 6 spin_lock(&gp_lock); + 7 if (rcu_access_pointer(gp)) { + 8 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); + 9 return false; +10 } +11 p->a = a; +12 p->b = a; +13 rcu_assign_pointer(gp, p); +14 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +15 return true; +16 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> on line 13 is conceptually +equivalent to a simple assignment statement, but also guarantees +that its assignment will +happen after the two assignments in lines 11 and 12, +similar to the C11 <tt>memory_order_release</tt> store operation. +It also prevents any number of “interesting” compiler +optimizations, for example, the use of <tt>gp</tt> as a scratch +location immediately preceding the assignment. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> does nothing to prevent the + two assignments to <tt>p->a</tt> and <tt>p->b</tt> + from being reordered. + Can't that also cause problems? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + No, it cannot. + The readers cannot see either of these two fields until + the assignment to <tt>gp</tt>, by which time both fields are + fully initialized. + So reordering the assignments + to <tt>p->a</tt> and <tt>p->b</tt> cannot possibly + cause any problems. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +It is tempting to assume that the reader need not do anything special +to control its accesses to the RCU-protected data, +as shown in <tt>do_something_gp_buggy()</tt> below: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool do_something_gp_buggy(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 p = gp; /* OPTIMIZATIONS GALORE!!! */ + 5 if (p) { + 6 do_something(p->a, p->b); + 7 rcu_read_unlock(); + 8 return true; + 9 } +10 rcu_read_unlock(); +11 return false; +12 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +However, this temptation must be resisted because there are a +surprisingly large number of ways that the compiler +(to say nothing of +<a href="https://h71000.www7.hp.com/wizard/wiz_2637.html">DEC Alpha CPUs</a>) +can trip this code up. +For but one example, if the compiler were short of registers, it +might choose to refetch from <tt>gp</tt> rather than keeping +a separate copy in <tt>p</tt> as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool do_something_gp_buggy_optimized(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 if (gp) { /* OPTIMIZATIONS GALORE!!! */ +<b> 5 do_something(gp->a, gp->b);</b> + 6 rcu_read_unlock(); + 7 return true; + 8 } + 9 rcu_read_unlock(); +10 return false; +11 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +If this function ran concurrently with a series of updates that +replaced the current structure with a new one, +the fetches of <tt>gp->a</tt> +and <tt>gp->b</tt> might well come from two different structures, +which could cause serious confusion. +To prevent this (and much else besides), <tt>do_something_gp()</tt> uses +<tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> to fetch from <tt>gp</tt>: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool do_something_gp(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 p = rcu_dereference(gp); + 5 if (p) { + 6 do_something(p->a, p->b); + 7 rcu_read_unlock(); + 8 return true; + 9 } +10 rcu_read_unlock(); +11 return false; +12 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +The <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> uses volatile casts and (for DEC Alpha) +memory barriers in the Linux kernel. +Should a +<a href="http://www.rdrop.com/users/paulmck/RCU/consume.2015.07.13a.pdf">high-quality implementation of C11 <tt>memory_order_consume</tt> [PDF]</a> +ever appear, then <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> could be implemented +as a <tt>memory_order_consume</tt> load. +Regardless of the exact implementation, a pointer fetched by +<tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> may not be used outside of the +outermost RCU read-side critical section containing that +<tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>, unless protection of +the corresponding data element has been passed from RCU to some +other synchronization mechanism, most commonly locking or +<a href="https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/RCU/rcuref.txt">reference counting</a>. + +<p> +In short, updaters use <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> and readers +use <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>, and these two RCU API elements +work together to ensure that readers have a consistent view of +newly added data elements. + +<p> +Of course, it is also necessary to remove elements from RCU-protected +data structures, for example, using the following process: + +<ol> +<li> Remove the data element from the enclosing structure. +<li> Wait for all pre-existing RCU read-side critical sections + to complete (because only pre-existing readers can possibly have + a reference to the newly removed data element). +<li> At this point, only the updater has a reference to the + newly removed data element, so it can safely reclaim + the data element, for example, by passing it to <tt>kfree()</tt>. +</ol> + +This process is implemented by <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt>: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool remove_gp_synchronous(void) + 2 { + 3 struct foo *p; + 4 + 5 spin_lock(&gp_lock); + 6 p = rcu_access_pointer(gp); + 7 if (!p) { + 8 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); + 9 return false; +10 } +11 rcu_assign_pointer(gp, NULL); +12 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +13 synchronize_rcu(); +14 kfree(p); +15 return true; +16 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This function is straightforward, with line 13 waiting for a grace +period before line 14 frees the old data element. +This waiting ensures that readers will reach line 7 of +<tt>do_something_gp()</tt> before the data element referenced by +<tt>p</tt> is freed. +The <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt> on line 6 is similar to +<tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>, except that: + +<ol> +<li> The value returned by <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt> + cannot be dereferenced. + If you want to access the value pointed to as well as + the pointer itself, use <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> + instead of <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt>. +<li> The call to <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt> need not be + protected. + In contrast, <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> must either be + within an RCU read-side critical section or in a code + segment where the pointer cannot change, for example, in + code protected by the corresponding update-side lock. +</ol> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Without the <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> or the + <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt>, what destructive optimizations + might the compiler make use of? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Let's start with what happens to <tt>do_something_gp()</tt> + if it fails to use <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>. + It could reuse a value formerly fetched from this same pointer. + It could also fetch the pointer from <tt>gp</tt> in a byte-at-a-time + manner, resulting in <i>load tearing</i>, in turn resulting a bytewise + mash-up of two distinct pointer values. + It might even use value-speculation optimizations, where it makes + a wrong guess, but by the time it gets around to checking the + value, an update has changed the pointer to match the wrong guess. + Too bad about any dereferences that returned pre-initialization garbage + in the meantime! + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + For <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt>, as long as all modifications + to <tt>gp</tt> are carried out while holding <tt>gp_lock</tt>, + the above optimizations are harmless. + However, <tt>sparse</tt> will complain if you + define <tt>gp</tt> with <tt>__rcu</tt> and then + access it without using + either <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt> or <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +In short, RCU's publish-subscribe guarantee is provided by the combination +of <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> and <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>. +This guarantee allows data elements to be safely added to RCU-protected +linked data structures without disrupting RCU readers. +This guarantee can be used in combination with the grace-period +guarantee to also allow data elements to be removed from RCU-protected +linked data structures, again without disrupting RCU readers. + +<p> +This guarantee was only partially premeditated. +DYNIX/ptx used an explicit memory barrier for publication, but had nothing +resembling <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> for subscription, nor did it +have anything resembling the <tt>smp_read_barrier_depends()</tt> +that was later subsumed into <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> and later +still into <tt>READ_ONCE()</tt>. +The need for these operations made itself known quite suddenly at a +late-1990s meeting with the DEC Alpha architects, back in the days when +DEC was still a free-standing company. +It took the Alpha architects a good hour to convince me that any sort +of barrier would ever be needed, and it then took me a good <i>two</i> hours +to convince them that their documentation did not make this point clear. +More recent work with the C and C++ standards committees have provided +much education on tricks and traps from the compiler. +In short, compilers were much less tricky in the early 1990s, but in +2015, don't even think about omitting <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>! + +<h3><a name="Memory-Barrier Guarantees">Memory-Barrier Guarantees</a></h3> + +<p> +The previous section's simple linked-data-structure scenario clearly +demonstrates the need for RCU's stringent memory-ordering guarantees on +systems with more than one CPU: + +<ol> +<li> Each CPU that has an RCU read-side critical section that + begins before <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> starts is + guaranteed to execute a full memory barrier between the time + that the RCU read-side critical section ends and the time that + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> returns. + Without this guarantee, a pre-existing RCU read-side critical section + might hold a reference to the newly removed <tt>struct foo</tt> + after the <tt>kfree()</tt> on line 14 of + <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt>. +<li> Each CPU that has an RCU read-side critical section that ends + after <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> returns is guaranteed + to execute a full memory barrier between the time that + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> begins and the time that the RCU + read-side critical section begins. + Without this guarantee, a later RCU read-side critical section + running after the <tt>kfree()</tt> on line 14 of + <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt> might + later run <tt>do_something_gp()</tt> and find the + newly deleted <tt>struct foo</tt>. +<li> If the task invoking <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> remains + on a given CPU, then that CPU is guaranteed to execute a full + memory barrier sometime during the execution of + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. + This guarantee ensures that the <tt>kfree()</tt> on + line 14 of <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt> really does + execute after the removal on line 11. +<li> If the task invoking <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> migrates + among a group of CPUs during that invocation, then each of the + CPUs in that group is guaranteed to execute a full memory barrier + sometime during the execution of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. + This guarantee also ensures that the <tt>kfree()</tt> on + line 14 of <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt> really does + execute after the removal on + line 11, but also in the case where the thread executing the + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> migrates in the meantime. +</ol> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Given that multiple CPUs can start RCU read-side critical sections + at any time without any ordering whatsoever, how can RCU possibly + tell whether or not a given RCU read-side critical section starts + before a given instance of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + If RCU cannot tell whether or not a given + RCU read-side critical section starts before a + given instance of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, + then it must assume that the RCU read-side critical section + started first. + In other words, a given instance of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> + can avoid waiting on a given RCU read-side critical section only + if it can prove that <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> started first. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + A related question is “When <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> + doesn't generate any code, why does it matter how it relates + to a grace period?” + The answer is that it is not the relationship of + <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> itself that is important, but rather + the relationship of the code within the enclosed RCU read-side + critical section to the code preceding and following the + grace period. + If we take this viewpoint, then a given RCU read-side critical + section begins before a given grace period when some access + preceding the grace period observes the effect of some access + within the critical section, in which case none of the accesses + within the critical section may observe the effects of any + access following the grace period. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + As of late 2016, mathematical models of RCU take this + viewpoint, for example, see slides 62 and 63 + of the + <a href="http://www2.rdrop.com/users/paulmck/scalability/paper/LinuxMM.2016.10.04c.LCE.pdf">2016 LinuxCon EU</a> + presentation. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + The first and second guarantees require unbelievably strict ordering! + Are all these memory barriers <i> really</i> required? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Yes, they really are required. + To see why the first guarantee is required, consider the following + sequence of events: + </font> + + <ol> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 1: <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 1: <tt>q = rcu_dereference(gp); + /* Very likely to return p. */</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 0: <tt>list_del_rcu(p);</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 0: <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> starts. + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 1: <tt>do_something_with(q->a); + /* No smp_mb(), so might happen after kfree(). */</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 1: <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 0: <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> returns. + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 0: <tt>kfree(p);</tt> + </font> + </ol> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + Therefore, there absolutely must be a full memory barrier between the + end of the RCU read-side critical section and the end of the + grace period. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + The sequence of events demonstrating the necessity of the second rule + is roughly similar: + </font> + + <ol> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0: <tt>list_del_rcu(p);</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0: <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> starts. + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 1: <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 1: <tt>q = rcu_dereference(gp); + /* Might return p if no memory barrier. */</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0: <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> returns. + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 0: <tt>kfree(p);</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff"> + CPU 1: <tt>do_something_with(q->a); /* Boom!!! */</tt> + </font> + <li> <font color="ffffff">CPU 1: <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> + </font> + </ol> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + And similarly, without a memory barrier between the beginning of the + grace period and the beginning of the RCU read-side critical section, + CPU 1 might end up accessing the freelist. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + The “as if” rule of course applies, so that any + implementation that acts as if the appropriate memory barriers + were in place is a correct implementation. + That said, it is much easier to fool yourself into believing + that you have adhered to the as-if rule than it is to actually + adhere to it! +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + You claim that <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> + generate absolutely no code in some kernel builds. + This means that the compiler might arbitrarily rearrange consecutive + RCU read-side critical sections. + Given such rearrangement, if a given RCU read-side critical section + is done, how can you be sure that all prior RCU read-side critical + sections are done? + Won't the compiler rearrangements make that impossible to determine? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + In cases where <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> + generate absolutely no code, RCU infers quiescent states only at + special locations, for example, within the scheduler. + Because calls to <tt>schedule()</tt> had better prevent calling-code + accesses to shared variables from being rearranged across the call to + <tt>schedule()</tt>, if RCU detects the end of a given RCU read-side + critical section, it will necessarily detect the end of all prior + RCU read-side critical sections, no matter how aggressively the + compiler scrambles the code. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + Again, this all assumes that the compiler cannot scramble code across + calls to the scheduler, out of interrupt handlers, into the idle loop, + into user-mode code, and so on. + But if your kernel build allows that sort of scrambling, you have broken + far more than just RCU! +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Note that these memory-barrier requirements do not replace the fundamental +RCU requirement that a grace period wait for all pre-existing readers. +On the contrary, the memory barriers called out in this section must operate in +such a way as to <i>enforce</i> this fundamental requirement. +Of course, different implementations enforce this requirement in different +ways, but enforce it they must. + +<h3><a name="RCU Primitives Guaranteed to Execute Unconditionally">RCU Primitives Guaranteed to Execute Unconditionally</a></h3> + +<p> +The common-case RCU primitives are unconditional. +They are invoked, they do their job, and they return, with no possibility +of error, and no need to retry. +This is a key RCU design philosophy. + +<p> +However, this philosophy is pragmatic rather than pigheaded. +If someone comes up with a good justification for a particular conditional +RCU primitive, it might well be implemented and added. +After all, this guarantee was reverse-engineered, not premeditated. +The unconditional nature of the RCU primitives was initially an +accident of implementation, and later experience with synchronization +primitives with conditional primitives caused me to elevate this +accident to a guarantee. +Therefore, the justification for adding a conditional primitive to +RCU would need to be based on detailed and compelling use cases. + +<h3><a name="Guaranteed Read-to-Write Upgrade">Guaranteed Read-to-Write Upgrade</a></h3> + +<p> +As far as RCU is concerned, it is always possible to carry out an +update within an RCU read-side critical section. +For example, that RCU read-side critical section might search for +a given data element, and then might acquire the update-side +spinlock in order to update that element, all while remaining +in that RCU read-side critical section. +Of course, it is necessary to exit the RCU read-side critical section +before invoking <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, however, this +inconvenience can be avoided through use of the +<tt>call_rcu()</tt> and <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> API members +described later in this document. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But how does the upgrade-to-write operation exclude other readers? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + It doesn't, just like normal RCU updates, which also do not exclude + RCU readers. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +This guarantee allows lookup code to be shared between read-side +and update-side code, and was premeditated, appearing in the earliest +DYNIX/ptx RCU documentation. + +<h2><a name="Fundamental Non-Requirements">Fundamental Non-Requirements</a></h2> + +<p> +RCU provides extremely lightweight readers, and its read-side guarantees, +though quite useful, are correspondingly lightweight. +It is therefore all too easy to assume that RCU is guaranteeing more +than it really is. +Of course, the list of things that RCU does not guarantee is infinitely +long, however, the following sections list a few non-guarantees that +have caused confusion. +Except where otherwise noted, these non-guarantees were premeditated. + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Readers Impose Minimal Ordering"> + Readers Impose Minimal Ordering</a> +<li> <a href="#Readers Do Not Exclude Updaters"> + Readers Do Not Exclude Updaters</a> +<li> <a href="#Updaters Only Wait For Old Readers"> + Updaters Only Wait For Old Readers</a> +<li> <a href="#Grace Periods Don't Partition Read-Side Critical Sections"> + Grace Periods Don't Partition Read-Side Critical Sections</a> +<li> <a href="#Read-Side Critical Sections Don't Partition Grace Periods"> + Read-Side Critical Sections Don't Partition Grace Periods</a> +<li> <a href="#Disabling Preemption Does Not Block Grace Periods"> + Disabling Preemption Does Not Block Grace Periods</a> +</ol> + +<h3><a name="Readers Impose Minimal Ordering">Readers Impose Minimal Ordering</a></h3> + +<p> +Reader-side markers such as <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> provide absolutely no ordering guarantees +except through their interaction with the grace-period APIs such as +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. +To see this, consider the following pair of threads: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 void thread0(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 WRITE_ONCE(x, 1); + 5 rcu_read_unlock(); + 6 rcu_read_lock(); + 7 WRITE_ONCE(y, 1); + 8 rcu_read_unlock(); + 9 } +10 +11 void thread1(void) +12 { +13 rcu_read_lock(); +14 r1 = READ_ONCE(y); +15 rcu_read_unlock(); +16 rcu_read_lock(); +17 r2 = READ_ONCE(x); +18 rcu_read_unlock(); +19 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +After <tt>thread0()</tt> and <tt>thread1()</tt> execute +concurrently, it is quite possible to have + +<blockquote> +<pre> +(r1 == 1 && r2 == 0) +</pre> +</blockquote> + +(that is, <tt>y</tt> appears to have been assigned before <tt>x</tt>), +which would not be possible if <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> had much in the way of ordering +properties. +But they do not, so the CPU is within its rights +to do significant reordering. +This is by design: Any significant ordering constraints would slow down +these fast-path APIs. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Can't the compiler also reorder this code? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + No, the volatile casts in <tt>READ_ONCE()</tt> and + <tt>WRITE_ONCE()</tt> prevent the compiler from reordering in + this particular case. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Readers Do Not Exclude Updaters">Readers Do Not Exclude Updaters</a></h3> + +<p> +Neither <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> nor <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> +exclude updates. +All they do is to prevent grace periods from ending. +The following example illustrates this: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 void thread0(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 r1 = READ_ONCE(y); + 5 if (r1) { + 6 do_something_with_nonzero_x(); + 7 r2 = READ_ONCE(x); + 8 WARN_ON(!r2); /* BUG!!! */ + 9 } +10 rcu_read_unlock(); +11 } +12 +13 void thread1(void) +14 { +15 spin_lock(&my_lock); +16 WRITE_ONCE(x, 1); +17 WRITE_ONCE(y, 1); +18 spin_unlock(&my_lock); +19 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +If the <tt>thread0()</tt> function's <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> +excluded the <tt>thread1()</tt> function's update, +the <tt>WARN_ON()</tt> could never fire. +But the fact is that <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> does not exclude +much of anything aside from subsequent grace periods, of which +<tt>thread1()</tt> has none, so the +<tt>WARN_ON()</tt> can and does fire. + +<h3><a name="Updaters Only Wait For Old Readers">Updaters Only Wait For Old Readers</a></h3> + +<p> +It might be tempting to assume that after <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> +completes, there are no readers executing. +This temptation must be avoided because +new readers can start immediately after <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> +starts, and <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> is under no +obligation to wait for these new readers. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Suppose that synchronize_rcu() did wait until <i>all</i> + readers had completed instead of waiting only on + pre-existing readers. + For how long would the updater be able to rely on there + being no readers? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + For no time at all. + Even if <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> were to wait until + all readers had completed, a new reader might start immediately after + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> completed. + Therefore, the code following + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> can <i>never</i> rely on there being + no readers. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Grace Periods Don't Partition Read-Side Critical Sections"> +Grace Periods Don't Partition Read-Side Critical Sections</a></h3> + +<p> +It is tempting to assume that if any part of one RCU read-side critical +section precedes a given grace period, and if any part of another RCU +read-side critical section follows that same grace period, then all of +the first RCU read-side critical section must precede all of the second. +However, this just isn't the case: A single grace period does not +partition the set of RCU read-side critical sections. +An example of this situation can be illustrated as follows, where +<tt>x</tt>, <tt>y</tt>, and <tt>z</tt> are initially all zero: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 void thread0(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 WRITE_ONCE(a, 1); + 5 WRITE_ONCE(b, 1); + 6 rcu_read_unlock(); + 7 } + 8 + 9 void thread1(void) +10 { +11 r1 = READ_ONCE(a); +12 synchronize_rcu(); +13 WRITE_ONCE(c, 1); +14 } +15 +16 void thread2(void) +17 { +18 rcu_read_lock(); +19 r2 = READ_ONCE(b); +20 r3 = READ_ONCE(c); +21 rcu_read_unlock(); +22 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +It turns out that the outcome: + +<blockquote> +<pre> +(r1 == 1 && r2 == 0 && r3 == 1) +</pre> +</blockquote> + +is entirely possible. +The following figure show how this can happen, with each circled +<tt>QS</tt> indicating the point at which RCU recorded a +<i>quiescent state</i> for each thread, that is, a state in which +RCU knows that the thread cannot be in the midst of an RCU read-side +critical section that started before the current grace period: + +<p><img src="GPpartitionReaders1.svg" alt="GPpartitionReaders1.svg" width="60%"></p> + +<p> +If it is necessary to partition RCU read-side critical sections in this +manner, it is necessary to use two grace periods, where the first +grace period is known to end before the second grace period starts: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 void thread0(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 WRITE_ONCE(a, 1); + 5 WRITE_ONCE(b, 1); + 6 rcu_read_unlock(); + 7 } + 8 + 9 void thread1(void) +10 { +11 r1 = READ_ONCE(a); +12 synchronize_rcu(); +13 WRITE_ONCE(c, 1); +14 } +15 +16 void thread2(void) +17 { +18 r2 = READ_ONCE(c); +19 synchronize_rcu(); +20 WRITE_ONCE(d, 1); +21 } +22 +23 void thread3(void) +24 { +25 rcu_read_lock(); +26 r3 = READ_ONCE(b); +27 r4 = READ_ONCE(d); +28 rcu_read_unlock(); +29 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Here, if <tt>(r1 == 1)</tt>, then +<tt>thread0()</tt>'s write to <tt>b</tt> must happen +before the end of <tt>thread1()</tt>'s grace period. +If in addition <tt>(r4 == 1)</tt>, then +<tt>thread3()</tt>'s read from <tt>b</tt> must happen +after the beginning of <tt>thread2()</tt>'s grace period. +If it is also the case that <tt>(r2 == 1)</tt>, then the +end of <tt>thread1()</tt>'s grace period must precede the +beginning of <tt>thread2()</tt>'s grace period. +This mean that the two RCU read-side critical sections cannot overlap, +guaranteeing that <tt>(r3 == 1)</tt>. +As a result, the outcome: + +<blockquote> +<pre> +(r1 == 1 && r2 == 1 && r3 == 0 && r4 == 1) +</pre> +</blockquote> + +cannot happen. + +<p> +This non-requirement was also non-premeditated, but became apparent +when studying RCU's interaction with memory ordering. + +<h3><a name="Read-Side Critical Sections Don't Partition Grace Periods"> +Read-Side Critical Sections Don't Partition Grace Periods</a></h3> + +<p> +It is also tempting to assume that if an RCU read-side critical section +happens between a pair of grace periods, then those grace periods cannot +overlap. +However, this temptation leads nowhere good, as can be illustrated by +the following, with all variables initially zero: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 void thread0(void) + 2 { + 3 rcu_read_lock(); + 4 WRITE_ONCE(a, 1); + 5 WRITE_ONCE(b, 1); + 6 rcu_read_unlock(); + 7 } + 8 + 9 void thread1(void) +10 { +11 r1 = READ_ONCE(a); +12 synchronize_rcu(); +13 WRITE_ONCE(c, 1); +14 } +15 +16 void thread2(void) +17 { +18 rcu_read_lock(); +19 WRITE_ONCE(d, 1); +20 r2 = READ_ONCE(c); +21 rcu_read_unlock(); +22 } +23 +24 void thread3(void) +25 { +26 r3 = READ_ONCE(d); +27 synchronize_rcu(); +28 WRITE_ONCE(e, 1); +29 } +30 +31 void thread4(void) +32 { +33 rcu_read_lock(); +34 r4 = READ_ONCE(b); +35 r5 = READ_ONCE(e); +36 rcu_read_unlock(); +37 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In this case, the outcome: + +<blockquote> +<pre> +(r1 == 1 && r2 == 1 && r3 == 1 && r4 == 0 && r5 == 1) +</pre> +</blockquote> + +is entirely possible, as illustrated below: + +<p><img src="ReadersPartitionGP1.svg" alt="ReadersPartitionGP1.svg" width="100%"></p> + +<p> +Again, an RCU read-side critical section can overlap almost all of a +given grace period, just so long as it does not overlap the entire +grace period. +As a result, an RCU read-side critical section cannot partition a pair +of RCU grace periods. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + How long a sequence of grace periods, each separated by an RCU + read-side critical section, would be required to partition the RCU + read-side critical sections at the beginning and end of the chain? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + In theory, an infinite number. + In practice, an unknown number that is sensitive to both implementation + details and timing considerations. + Therefore, even in practice, RCU users must abide by the + theoretical rather than the practical answer. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Disabling Preemption Does Not Block Grace Periods"> +Disabling Preemption Does Not Block Grace Periods</a></h3> + +<p> +There was a time when disabling preemption on any given CPU would block +subsequent grace periods. +However, this was an accident of implementation and is not a requirement. +And in the current Linux-kernel implementation, disabling preemption +on a given CPU in fact does not block grace periods, as Oleg Nesterov +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/20150614193825.GA19582@redhat.com">demonstrated</a>. + +<p> +If you need a preempt-disable region to block grace periods, you need to add +<tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>, for example +as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 preempt_disable(); + 2 rcu_read_lock(); + 3 do_something(); + 4 rcu_read_unlock(); + 5 preempt_enable(); + 6 + 7 /* Spinlocks implicitly disable preemption. */ + 8 spin_lock(&mylock); + 9 rcu_read_lock(); +10 do_something(); +11 rcu_read_unlock(); +12 spin_unlock(&mylock); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +In theory, you could enter the RCU read-side critical section first, +but it is more efficient to keep the entire RCU read-side critical +section contained in the preempt-disable region as shown above. +Of course, RCU read-side critical sections that extend outside of +preempt-disable regions will work correctly, but such critical sections +can be preempted, which forces <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> to do +more work. +And no, this is <i>not</i> an invitation to enclose all of your RCU +read-side critical sections within preempt-disable regions, because +doing so would degrade real-time response. + +<p> +This non-requirement appeared with preemptible RCU. +If you need a grace period that waits on non-preemptible code regions, use +<a href="#Sched Flavor">RCU-sched</a>. + +<h2><a name="Parallelism Facts of Life">Parallelism Facts of Life</a></h2> + +<p> +These parallelism facts of life are by no means specific to RCU, but +the RCU implementation must abide by them. +They therefore bear repeating: + +<ol> +<li> Any CPU or task may be delayed at any time, + and any attempts to avoid these delays by disabling + preemption, interrupts, or whatever are completely futile. + This is most obvious in preemptible user-level + environments and in virtualized environments (where + a given guest OS's VCPUs can be preempted at any time by + the underlying hypervisor), but can also happen in bare-metal + environments due to ECC errors, NMIs, and other hardware + events. + Although a delay of more than about 20 seconds can result + in splats, the RCU implementation is obligated to use + algorithms that can tolerate extremely long delays, but where + “extremely long” is not long enough to allow + wrap-around when incrementing a 64-bit counter. +<li> Both the compiler and the CPU can reorder memory accesses. + Where it matters, RCU must use compiler directives and + memory-barrier instructions to preserve ordering. +<li> Conflicting writes to memory locations in any given cache line + will result in expensive cache misses. + Greater numbers of concurrent writes and more-frequent + concurrent writes will result in more dramatic slowdowns. + RCU is therefore obligated to use algorithms that have + sufficient locality to avoid significant performance and + scalability problems. +<li> As a rough rule of thumb, only one CPU's worth of processing + may be carried out under the protection of any given exclusive + lock. + RCU must therefore use scalable locking designs. +<li> Counters are finite, especially on 32-bit systems. + RCU's use of counters must therefore tolerate counter wrap, + or be designed such that counter wrap would take way more + time than a single system is likely to run. + An uptime of ten years is quite possible, a runtime + of a century much less so. + As an example of the latter, RCU's dyntick-idle nesting counter + allows 54 bits for interrupt nesting level (this counter + is 64 bits even on a 32-bit system). + Overflowing this counter requires 2<sup>54</sup> + half-interrupts on a given CPU without that CPU ever going idle. + If a half-interrupt happened every microsecond, it would take + 570 years of runtime to overflow this counter, which is currently + believed to be an acceptably long time. +<li> Linux systems can have thousands of CPUs running a single + Linux kernel in a single shared-memory environment. + RCU must therefore pay close attention to high-end scalability. +</ol> + +<p> +This last parallelism fact of life means that RCU must pay special +attention to the preceding facts of life. +The idea that Linux might scale to systems with thousands of CPUs would +have been met with some skepticism in the 1990s, but these requirements +would have otherwise have been unsurprising, even in the early 1990s. + +<h2><a name="Quality-of-Implementation Requirements">Quality-of-Implementation Requirements</a></h2> + +<p> +These sections list quality-of-implementation requirements. +Although an RCU implementation that ignores these requirements could +still be used, it would likely be subject to limitations that would +make it inappropriate for industrial-strength production use. +Classes of quality-of-implementation requirements are as follows: + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Specialization">Specialization</a> +<li> <a href="#Performance and Scalability">Performance and Scalability</a> +<li> <a href="#Composability">Composability</a> +<li> <a href="#Corner Cases">Corner Cases</a> +</ol> + +<p> +These classes is covered in the following sections. + +<h3><a name="Specialization">Specialization</a></h3> + +<p> +RCU is and always has been intended primarily for read-mostly situations, +which means that RCU's read-side primitives are optimized, often at the +expense of its update-side primitives. +Experience thus far is captured by the following list of situations: + +<ol> +<li> Read-mostly data, where stale and inconsistent data is not + a problem: RCU works great! +<li> Read-mostly data, where data must be consistent: + RCU works well. +<li> Read-write data, where data must be consistent: + RCU <i>might</i> work OK. + Or not. +<li> Write-mostly data, where data must be consistent: + RCU is very unlikely to be the right tool for the job, + with the following exceptions, where RCU can provide: + <ol type=a> + <li> Existence guarantees for update-friendly mechanisms. + <li> Wait-free read-side primitives for real-time use. + </ol> +</ol> + +<p> +This focus on read-mostly situations means that RCU must interoperate +with other synchronization primitives. +For example, the <tt>add_gp()</tt> and <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt> +examples discussed earlier use RCU to protect readers and locking to +coordinate updaters. +However, the need extends much farther, requiring that a variety of +synchronization primitives be legal within RCU read-side critical sections, +including spinlocks, sequence locks, atomic operations, reference +counters, and memory barriers. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + What about sleeping locks? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + These are forbidden within Linux-kernel RCU read-side critical + sections because it is not legal to place a quiescent state + (in this case, voluntary context switch) within an RCU read-side + critical section. + However, sleeping locks may be used within userspace RCU read-side + critical sections, and also within Linux-kernel sleepable RCU + <a href="#Sleepable RCU"><font color="ffffff">(SRCU)</font></a> + read-side critical sections. + In addition, the -rt patchset turns spinlocks into a + sleeping locks so that the corresponding critical sections + can be preempted, which also means that these sleeplockified + spinlocks (but not other sleeping locks!) may be acquire within + -rt-Linux-kernel RCU read-side critical sections. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + Note that it <i>is</i> legal for a normal RCU read-side + critical section to conditionally acquire a sleeping locks + (as in <tt>mutex_trylock()</tt>), but only as long as it does + not loop indefinitely attempting to conditionally acquire that + sleeping locks. + The key point is that things like <tt>mutex_trylock()</tt> + either return with the mutex held, or return an error indication if + the mutex was not immediately available. + Either way, <tt>mutex_trylock()</tt> returns immediately without + sleeping. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +It often comes as a surprise that many algorithms do not require a +consistent view of data, but many can function in that mode, +with network routing being the poster child. +Internet routing algorithms take significant time to propagate +updates, so that by the time an update arrives at a given system, +that system has been sending network traffic the wrong way for +a considerable length of time. +Having a few threads continue to send traffic the wrong way for a +few more milliseconds is clearly not a problem: In the worst case, +TCP retransmissions will eventually get the data where it needs to go. +In general, when tracking the state of the universe outside of the +computer, some level of inconsistency must be tolerated due to +speed-of-light delays if nothing else. + +<p> +Furthermore, uncertainty about external state is inherent in many cases. +For example, a pair of veterinarians might use heartbeat to determine +whether or not a given cat was alive. +But how long should they wait after the last heartbeat to decide that +the cat is in fact dead? +Waiting less than 400 milliseconds makes no sense because this would +mean that a relaxed cat would be considered to cycle between death +and life more than 100 times per minute. +Moreover, just as with human beings, a cat's heart might stop for +some period of time, so the exact wait period is a judgment call. +One of our pair of veterinarians might wait 30 seconds before pronouncing +the cat dead, while the other might insist on waiting a full minute. +The two veterinarians would then disagree on the state of the cat during +the final 30 seconds of the minute following the last heartbeat. + +<p> +Interestingly enough, this same situation applies to hardware. +When push comes to shove, how do we tell whether or not some +external server has failed? +We send messages to it periodically, and declare it failed if we +don't receive a response within a given period of time. +Policy decisions can usually tolerate short +periods of inconsistency. +The policy was decided some time ago, and is only now being put into +effect, so a few milliseconds of delay is normally inconsequential. + +<p> +However, there are algorithms that absolutely must see consistent data. +For example, the translation between a user-level SystemV semaphore +ID to the corresponding in-kernel data structure is protected by RCU, +but it is absolutely forbidden to update a semaphore that has just been +removed. +In the Linux kernel, this need for consistency is accommodated by acquiring +spinlocks located in the in-kernel data structure from within +the RCU read-side critical section, and this is indicated by the +green box in the figure above. +Many other techniques may be used, and are in fact used within the +Linux kernel. + +<p> +In short, RCU is not required to maintain consistency, and other +mechanisms may be used in concert with RCU when consistency is required. +RCU's specialization allows it to do its job extremely well, and its +ability to interoperate with other synchronization mechanisms allows +the right mix of synchronization tools to be used for a given job. + +<h3><a name="Performance and Scalability">Performance and Scalability</a></h3> + +<p> +Energy efficiency is a critical component of performance today, +and Linux-kernel RCU implementations must therefore avoid unnecessarily +awakening idle CPUs. +I cannot claim that this requirement was premeditated. +In fact, I learned of it during a telephone conversation in which I +was given “frank and open” feedback on the importance +of energy efficiency in battery-powered systems and on specific +energy-efficiency shortcomings of the Linux-kernel RCU implementation. +In my experience, the battery-powered embedded community will consider +any unnecessary wakeups to be extremely unfriendly acts. +So much so that mere Linux-kernel-mailing-list posts are +insufficient to vent their ire. + +<p> +Memory consumption is not particularly important for in most +situations, and has become decreasingly +so as memory sizes have expanded and memory +costs have plummeted. +However, as I learned from Matt Mackall's +<a href="http://elinux.org/Linux_Tiny-FAQ">bloatwatch</a> +efforts, memory footprint is critically important on single-CPU systems with +non-preemptible (<tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=n</tt>) kernels, and thus +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/20090113221724.GA15307@linux.vnet.ibm.com">tiny RCU</a> +was born. +Josh Triplett has since taken over the small-memory banner with his +<a href="https://tiny.wiki.kernel.org/">Linux kernel tinification</a> +project, which resulted in +<a href="#Sleepable RCU">SRCU</a> +becoming optional for those kernels not needing it. + +<p> +The remaining performance requirements are, for the most part, +unsurprising. +For example, in keeping with RCU's read-side specialization, +<tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> should have negligible overhead (for +example, suppression of a few minor compiler optimizations). +Similarly, in non-preemptible environments, <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> should have exactly zero overhead. + +<p> +In preemptible environments, in the case where the RCU read-side +critical section was not preempted (as will be the case for the +highest-priority real-time process), <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> should have minimal overhead. +In particular, they should not contain atomic read-modify-write +operations, memory-barrier instructions, preemption disabling, +interrupt disabling, or backwards branches. +However, in the case where the RCU read-side critical section was preempted, +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> may acquire spinlocks and disable interrupts. +This is why it is better to nest an RCU read-side critical section +within a preempt-disable region than vice versa, at least in cases +where that critical section is short enough to avoid unduly degrading +real-time latencies. + +<p> +The <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> grace-period-wait primitive is +optimized for throughput. +It may therefore incur several milliseconds of latency in addition to +the duration of the longest RCU read-side critical section. +On the other hand, multiple concurrent invocations of +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> are required to use batching optimizations +so that they can be satisfied by a single underlying grace-period-wait +operation. +For example, in the Linux kernel, it is not unusual for a single +grace-period-wait operation to serve more than +<a href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/2004-usenix-annual-technical-conference/making-rcu-safe-deep-sub-millisecond-response">1,000 separate invocations</a> +of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, thus amortizing the per-invocation +overhead down to nearly zero. +However, the grace-period optimization is also required to avoid +measurable degradation of real-time scheduling and interrupt latencies. + +<p> +In some cases, the multi-millisecond <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> +latencies are unacceptable. +In these cases, <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> may be used +instead, reducing the grace-period latency down to a few tens of +microseconds on small systems, at least in cases where the RCU read-side +critical sections are short. +There are currently no special latency requirements for +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> on large systems, but, +consistent with the empirical nature of the RCU specification, +that is subject to change. +However, there most definitely are scalability requirements: +A storm of <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> invocations on 4096 +CPUs should at least make reasonable forward progress. +In return for its shorter latencies, <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> +is permitted to impose modest degradation of real-time latency +on non-idle online CPUs. +Here, “modest” means roughly the same latency +degradation as a scheduling-clock interrupt. + +<p> +There are a number of situations where even +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>'s reduced grace-period +latency is unacceptable. +In these situations, the asynchronous <tt>call_rcu()</tt> can be +used in place of <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 struct foo { + 2 int a; + 3 int b; + 4 struct rcu_head rh; + 5 }; + 6 + 7 static void remove_gp_cb(struct rcu_head *rhp) + 8 { + 9 struct foo *p = container_of(rhp, struct foo, rh); +10 +11 kfree(p); +12 } +13 +14 bool remove_gp_asynchronous(void) +15 { +16 struct foo *p; +17 +18 spin_lock(&gp_lock); +19 p = rcu_dereference(gp); +20 if (!p) { +21 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +22 return false; +23 } +24 rcu_assign_pointer(gp, NULL); +25 call_rcu(&p->rh, remove_gp_cb); +26 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +27 return true; +28 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +A definition of <tt>struct foo</tt> is finally needed, and appears +on lines 1-5. +The function <tt>remove_gp_cb()</tt> is passed to <tt>call_rcu()</tt> +on line 25, and will be invoked after the end of a subsequent +grace period. +This gets the same effect as <tt>remove_gp_synchronous()</tt>, +but without forcing the updater to wait for a grace period to elapse. +The <tt>call_rcu()</tt> function may be used in a number of +situations where neither <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> nor +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt> would be legal, +including within preempt-disable code, <tt>local_bh_disable()</tt> code, +interrupt-disable code, and interrupt handlers. +However, even <tt>call_rcu()</tt> is illegal within NMI handlers +and from idle and offline CPUs. +The callback function (<tt>remove_gp_cb()</tt> in this case) will be +executed within softirq (software interrupt) environment within the +Linux kernel, +either within a real softirq handler or under the protection +of <tt>local_bh_disable()</tt>. +In both the Linux kernel and in userspace, it is bad practice to +write an RCU callback function that takes too long. +Long-running operations should be relegated to separate threads or +(in the Linux kernel) workqueues. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why does line 19 use <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt>? + After all, <tt>call_rcu()</tt> on line 25 stores into the + structure, which would interact badly with concurrent insertions. + Doesn't this mean that <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> is required? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Presumably the <tt>->gp_lock</tt> acquired on line 18 excludes + any changes, including any insertions that <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> + would protect against. + Therefore, any insertions will be delayed until after + <tt>->gp_lock</tt> + is released on line 25, which in turn means that + <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt> suffices. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +However, all that <tt>remove_gp_cb()</tt> is doing is +invoking <tt>kfree()</tt> on the data element. +This is a common idiom, and is supported by <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt>, +which allows “fire and forget” operation as shown below: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 struct foo { + 2 int a; + 3 int b; + 4 struct rcu_head rh; + 5 }; + 6 + 7 bool remove_gp_faf(void) + 8 { + 9 struct foo *p; +10 +11 spin_lock(&gp_lock); +12 p = rcu_dereference(gp); +13 if (!p) { +14 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +15 return false; +16 } +17 rcu_assign_pointer(gp, NULL); +18 kfree_rcu(p, rh); +19 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +20 return true; +21 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +Note that <tt>remove_gp_faf()</tt> simply invokes +<tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> and proceeds, without any need to pay any +further attention to the subsequent grace period and <tt>kfree()</tt>. +It is permissible to invoke <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> from the same +environments as for <tt>call_rcu()</tt>. +Interestingly enough, DYNIX/ptx had the equivalents of +<tt>call_rcu()</tt> and <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt>, but not +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>. +This was due to the fact that RCU was not heavily used within DYNIX/ptx, +so the very few places that needed something like +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> simply open-coded it. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Earlier it was claimed that <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and + <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> allowed updaters to avoid being blocked + by readers. + But how can that be correct, given that the invocation of the callback + and the freeing of the memory (respectively) must still wait for + a grace period to elapse? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + We could define things this way, but keep in mind that this sort of + definition would say that updates in garbage-collected languages + cannot complete until the next time the garbage collector runs, + which does not seem at all reasonable. + The key point is that in most cases, an updater using either + <tt>call_rcu()</tt> or <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> can proceed to the + next update as soon as it has invoked <tt>call_rcu()</tt> or + <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt>, without having to wait for a subsequent + grace period. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +But what if the updater must wait for the completion of code to be +executed after the end of the grace period, but has other tasks +that can be carried out in the meantime? +The polling-style <tt>get_state_synchronize_rcu()</tt> and +<tt>cond_synchronize_rcu()</tt> functions may be used for this +purpose, as shown below: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 bool remove_gp_poll(void) + 2 { + 3 struct foo *p; + 4 unsigned long s; + 5 + 6 spin_lock(&gp_lock); + 7 p = rcu_access_pointer(gp); + 8 if (!p) { + 9 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +10 return false; +11 } +12 rcu_assign_pointer(gp, NULL); +13 spin_unlock(&gp_lock); +14 s = get_state_synchronize_rcu(); +15 do_something_while_waiting(); +16 cond_synchronize_rcu(s); +17 kfree(p); +18 return true; +19 } +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +On line 14, <tt>get_state_synchronize_rcu()</tt> obtains a +“cookie” from RCU, +then line 15 carries out other tasks, +and finally, line 16 returns immediately if a grace period has +elapsed in the meantime, but otherwise waits as required. +The need for <tt>get_state_synchronize_rcu</tt> and +<tt>cond_synchronize_rcu()</tt> has appeared quite recently, +so it is too early to tell whether they will stand the test of time. + +<p> +RCU thus provides a range of tools to allow updaters to strike the +required tradeoff between latency, flexibility and CPU overhead. + +<h3><a name="Composability">Composability</a></h3> + +<p> +Composability has received much attention in recent years, perhaps in part +due to the collision of multicore hardware with object-oriented techniques +designed in single-threaded environments for single-threaded use. +And in theory, RCU read-side critical sections may be composed, and in +fact may be nested arbitrarily deeply. +In practice, as with all real-world implementations of composable +constructs, there are limitations. + +<p> +Implementations of RCU for which <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> +and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> generate no code, such as +Linux-kernel RCU when <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=n</tt>, can be +nested arbitrarily deeply. +After all, there is no overhead. +Except that if all these instances of <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> +and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> are visible to the compiler, +compilation will eventually fail due to exhausting memory, +mass storage, or user patience, whichever comes first. +If the nesting is not visible to the compiler, as is the case with +mutually recursive functions each in its own translation unit, +stack overflow will result. +If the nesting takes the form of loops, perhaps in the guise of tail +recursion, either the control variable +will overflow or (in the Linux kernel) you will get an RCU CPU stall warning. +Nevertheless, this class of RCU implementations is one +of the most composable constructs in existence. + +<p> +RCU implementations that explicitly track nesting depth +are limited by the nesting-depth counter. +For example, the Linux kernel's preemptible RCU limits nesting to +<tt>INT_MAX</tt>. +This should suffice for almost all practical purposes. +That said, a consecutive pair of RCU read-side critical sections +between which there is an operation that waits for a grace period +cannot be enclosed in another RCU read-side critical section. +This is because it is not legal to wait for a grace period within +an RCU read-side critical section: To do so would result either +in deadlock or +in RCU implicitly splitting the enclosing RCU read-side critical +section, neither of which is conducive to a long-lived and prosperous +kernel. + +<p> +It is worth noting that RCU is not alone in limiting composability. +For example, many transactional-memory implementations prohibit +composing a pair of transactions separated by an irrevocable +operation (for example, a network receive operation). +For another example, lock-based critical sections can be composed +surprisingly freely, but only if deadlock is avoided. + +<p> +In short, although RCU read-side critical sections are highly composable, +care is required in some situations, just as is the case for any other +composable synchronization mechanism. + +<h3><a name="Corner Cases">Corner Cases</a></h3> + +<p> +A given RCU workload might have an endless and intense stream of +RCU read-side critical sections, perhaps even so intense that there +was never a point in time during which there was not at least one +RCU read-side critical section in flight. +RCU cannot allow this situation to block grace periods: As long as +all the RCU read-side critical sections are finite, grace periods +must also be finite. + +<p> +That said, preemptible RCU implementations could potentially result +in RCU read-side critical sections being preempted for long durations, +which has the effect of creating a long-duration RCU read-side +critical section. +This situation can arise only in heavily loaded systems, but systems using +real-time priorities are of course more vulnerable. +Therefore, RCU priority boosting is provided to help deal with this +case. +That said, the exact requirements on RCU priority boosting will likely +evolve as more experience accumulates. + +<p> +Other workloads might have very high update rates. +Although one can argue that such workloads should instead use +something other than RCU, the fact remains that RCU must +handle such workloads gracefully. +This requirement is another factor driving batching of grace periods, +but it is also the driving force behind the checks for large numbers +of queued RCU callbacks in the <tt>call_rcu()</tt> code path. +Finally, high update rates should not delay RCU read-side critical +sections, although some small read-side delays can occur when using +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>, courtesy of this function's use +of <tt>smp_call_function_single()</tt>. + +<p> +Although all three of these corner cases were understood in the early +1990s, a simple user-level test consisting of <tt>close(open(path))</tt> +in a tight loop +in the early 2000s suddenly provided a much deeper appreciation of the +high-update-rate corner case. +This test also motivated addition of some RCU code to react to high update +rates, for example, if a given CPU finds itself with more than 10,000 +RCU callbacks queued, it will cause RCU to take evasive action by +more aggressively starting grace periods and more aggressively forcing +completion of grace-period processing. +This evasive action causes the grace period to complete more quickly, +but at the cost of restricting RCU's batching optimizations, thus +increasing the CPU overhead incurred by that grace period. + +<h2><a name="Software-Engineering Requirements"> +Software-Engineering Requirements</a></h2> + +<p> +Between Murphy's Law and “To err is human”, it is necessary to +guard against mishaps and misuse: + +<ol> +<li> It is all too easy to forget to use <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> + everywhere that it is needed, so kernels built with + <tt>CONFIG_PROVE_RCU=y</tt> will splat if + <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> is used outside of an + RCU read-side critical section. + Update-side code can use <tt>rcu_dereference_protected()</tt>, + which takes a + <a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/371986/">lockdep expression</a> + to indicate what is providing the protection. + If the indicated protection is not provided, a lockdep splat + is emitted. + + <p> + Code shared between readers and updaters can use + <tt>rcu_dereference_check()</tt>, which also takes a + lockdep expression, and emits a lockdep splat if neither + <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> nor the indicated protection + is in place. + In addition, <tt>rcu_dereference_raw()</tt> is used in those + (hopefully rare) cases where the required protection cannot + be easily described. + Finally, <tt>rcu_read_lock_held()</tt> is provided to + allow a function to verify that it has been invoked within + an RCU read-side critical section. + I was made aware of this set of requirements shortly after Thomas + Gleixner audited a number of RCU uses. +<li> A given function might wish to check for RCU-related preconditions + upon entry, before using any other RCU API. + The <tt>rcu_lockdep_assert()</tt> does this job, + asserting the expression in kernels having lockdep enabled + and doing nothing otherwise. +<li> It is also easy to forget to use <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> + and <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>, perhaps (incorrectly) + substituting a simple assignment. + To catch this sort of error, a given RCU-protected pointer may be + tagged with <tt>__rcu</tt>, after which sparse + will complain about simple-assignment accesses to that pointer. + Arnd Bergmann made me aware of this requirement, and also + supplied the needed + <a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/376011/">patch series</a>. +<li> Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_DEBUG_OBJECTS_RCU_HEAD=y</tt> + will splat if a data element is passed to <tt>call_rcu()</tt> + twice in a row, without a grace period in between. + (This error is similar to a double free.) + The corresponding <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures that are + dynamically allocated are automatically tracked, but + <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures allocated on the stack + must be initialized with <tt>init_rcu_head_on_stack()</tt> + and cleaned up with <tt>destroy_rcu_head_on_stack()</tt>. + Similarly, statically allocated non-stack <tt>rcu_head</tt> + structures must be initialized with <tt>init_rcu_head()</tt> + and cleaned up with <tt>destroy_rcu_head()</tt>. + Mathieu Desnoyers made me aware of this requirement, and also + supplied the needed + <a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/20100319013024.GA28456@Krystal">patch</a>. +<li> An infinite loop in an RCU read-side critical section will + eventually trigger an RCU CPU stall warning splat, with + the duration of “eventually” being controlled by the + <tt>RCU_CPU_STALL_TIMEOUT</tt> <tt>Kconfig</tt> option, or, + alternatively, by the + <tt>rcupdate.rcu_cpu_stall_timeout</tt> boot/sysfs + parameter. + However, RCU is not obligated to produce this splat + unless there is a grace period waiting on that particular + RCU read-side critical section. + <p> + Some extreme workloads might intentionally delay + RCU grace periods, and systems running those workloads can + be booted with <tt>rcupdate.rcu_cpu_stall_suppress</tt> + to suppress the splats. + This kernel parameter may also be set via <tt>sysfs</tt>. + Furthermore, RCU CPU stall warnings are counter-productive + during sysrq dumps and during panics. + RCU therefore supplies the <tt>rcu_sysrq_start()</tt> and + <tt>rcu_sysrq_end()</tt> API members to be called before + and after long sysrq dumps. + RCU also supplies the <tt>rcu_panic()</tt> notifier that is + automatically invoked at the beginning of a panic to suppress + further RCU CPU stall warnings. + + <p> + This requirement made itself known in the early 1990s, pretty + much the first time that it was necessary to debug a CPU stall. + That said, the initial implementation in DYNIX/ptx was quite + generic in comparison with that of Linux. +<li> Although it would be very good to detect pointers leaking out + of RCU read-side critical sections, there is currently no + good way of doing this. + One complication is the need to distinguish between pointers + leaking and pointers that have been handed off from RCU to + some other synchronization mechanism, for example, reference + counting. +<li> In kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_RCU_TRACE=y</tt>, RCU-related + information is provided via event tracing. +<li> Open-coded use of <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> and + <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt> to create typical linked + data structures can be surprisingly error-prone. + Therefore, RCU-protected + <a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/609973/#RCU List APIs">linked lists</a> + and, more recently, RCU-protected + <a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/612100/">hash tables</a> + are available. + Many other special-purpose RCU-protected data structures are + available in the Linux kernel and the userspace RCU library. +<li> Some linked structures are created at compile time, but still + require <tt>__rcu</tt> checking. + The <tt>RCU_POINTER_INITIALIZER()</tt> macro serves this + purpose. +<li> It is not necessary to use <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt> + when creating linked structures that are to be published via + a single external pointer. + The <tt>RCU_INIT_POINTER()</tt> macro is provided for + this task and also for assigning <tt>NULL</tt> pointers + at runtime. +</ol> + +<p> +This not a hard-and-fast list: RCU's diagnostic capabilities will +continue to be guided by the number and type of usage bugs found +in real-world RCU usage. + +<h2><a name="Linux Kernel Complications">Linux Kernel Complications</a></h2> + +<p> +The Linux kernel provides an interesting environment for all kinds of +software, including RCU. +Some of the relevant points of interest are as follows: + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Configuration">Configuration</a>. +<li> <a href="#Firmware Interface">Firmware Interface</a>. +<li> <a href="#Early Boot">Early Boot</a>. +<li> <a href="#Interrupts and NMIs"> + Interrupts and non-maskable interrupts (NMIs)</a>. +<li> <a href="#Loadable Modules">Loadable Modules</a>. +<li> <a href="#Hotplug CPU">Hotplug CPU</a>. +<li> <a href="#Scheduler and RCU">Scheduler and RCU</a>. +<li> <a href="#Tracing and RCU">Tracing and RCU</a>. +<li> <a href="#Energy Efficiency">Energy Efficiency</a>. +<li> <a href="#Scheduling-Clock Interrupts and RCU"> + Scheduling-Clock Interrupts and RCU</a>. +<li> <a href="#Memory Efficiency">Memory Efficiency</a>. +<li> <a href="#Performance, Scalability, Response Time, and Reliability"> + Performance, Scalability, Response Time, and Reliability</a>. +</ol> + +<p> +This list is probably incomplete, but it does give a feel for the +most notable Linux-kernel complications. +Each of the following sections covers one of the above topics. + +<h3><a name="Configuration">Configuration</a></h3> + +<p> +RCU's goal is automatic configuration, so that almost nobody +needs to worry about RCU's <tt>Kconfig</tt> options. +And for almost all users, RCU does in fact work well +“out of the box.” + +<p> +However, there are specialized use cases that are handled by +kernel boot parameters and <tt>Kconfig</tt> options. +Unfortunately, the <tt>Kconfig</tt> system will explicitly ask users +about new <tt>Kconfig</tt> options, which requires almost all of them +be hidden behind a <tt>CONFIG_RCU_EXPERT</tt> <tt>Kconfig</tt> option. + +<p> +This all should be quite obvious, but the fact remains that +Linus Torvalds recently had to +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/CA+55aFy4wcCwaL4okTs8wXhGZ5h-ibecy_Meg9C4MNQrUnwMcg@mail.gmail.com">remind</a> +me of this requirement. + +<h3><a name="Firmware Interface">Firmware Interface</a></h3> + +<p> +In many cases, kernel obtains information about the system from the +firmware, and sometimes things are lost in translation. +Or the translation is accurate, but the original message is bogus. + +<p> +For example, some systems' firmware overreports the number of CPUs, +sometimes by a large factor. +If RCU naively believed the firmware, as it used to do, +it would create too many per-CPU kthreads. +Although the resulting system will still run correctly, the extra +kthreads needlessly consume memory and can cause confusion +when they show up in <tt>ps</tt> listings. + +<p> +RCU must therefore wait for a given CPU to actually come online before +it can allow itself to believe that the CPU actually exists. +The resulting “ghost CPUs” (which are never going to +come online) cause a number of +<a href="https://paulmck.livejournal.com/37494.html">interesting complications</a>. + +<h3><a name="Early Boot">Early Boot</a></h3> + +<p> +The Linux kernel's boot sequence is an interesting process, +and RCU is used early, even before <tt>rcu_init()</tt> +is invoked. +In fact, a number of RCU's primitives can be used as soon as the +initial task's <tt>task_struct</tt> is available and the +boot CPU's per-CPU variables are set up. +The read-side primitives (<tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>, <tt>rcu_dereference()</tt>, +and <tt>rcu_access_pointer()</tt>) will operate normally very early on, +as will <tt>rcu_assign_pointer()</tt>. + +<p> +Although <tt>call_rcu()</tt> may be invoked at any +time during boot, callbacks are not guaranteed to be invoked until after +all of RCU's kthreads have been spawned, which occurs at +<tt>early_initcall()</tt> time. +This delay in callback invocation is due to the fact that RCU does not +invoke callbacks until it is fully initialized, and this full initialization +cannot occur until after the scheduler has initialized itself to the +point where RCU can spawn and run its kthreads. +In theory, it would be possible to invoke callbacks earlier, +however, this is not a panacea because there would be severe restrictions +on what operations those callbacks could invoke. + +<p> +Perhaps surprisingly, <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, +<a href="#Bottom-Half Flavor"><tt>synchronize_rcu_bh()</tt></a> +(<a href="#Bottom-Half Flavor">discussed below</a>), +<a href="#Sched Flavor"><tt>synchronize_sched()</tt></a>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_bh_expedited()</tt>, and +<tt>synchronize_sched_expedited()</tt> +will all operate normally +during very early boot, the reason being that there is only one CPU +and preemption is disabled. +This means that the call <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> (or friends) +itself is a quiescent +state and thus a grace period, so the early-boot implementation can +be a no-op. + +<p> +However, once the scheduler has spawned its first kthread, this early +boot trick fails for <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> (as well as for +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>) in <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=y</tt> +kernels. +The reason is that an RCU read-side critical section might be preempted, +which means that a subsequent <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> really does have +to wait for something, as opposed to simply returning immediately. +Unfortunately, <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> can't do this until all of +its kthreads are spawned, which doesn't happen until some time during +<tt>early_initcalls()</tt> time. +But this is no excuse: RCU is nevertheless required to correctly handle +synchronous grace periods during this time period. +Once all of its kthreads are up and running, RCU starts running +normally. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + How can RCU possibly handle grace periods before all of its + kthreads have been spawned??? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Very carefully! + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + During the “dead zone” between the time that the + scheduler spawns the first task and the time that all of RCU's + kthreads have been spawned, all synchronous grace periods are + handled by the expedited grace-period mechanism. + At runtime, this expedited mechanism relies on workqueues, but + during the dead zone the requesting task itself drives the + desired expedited grace period. + Because dead-zone execution takes place within task context, + everything works. + Once the dead zone ends, expedited grace periods go back to + using workqueues, as is required to avoid problems that would + otherwise occur when a user task received a POSIX signal while + driving an expedited grace period. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + And yes, this does mean that it is unhelpful to send POSIX + signals to random tasks between the time that the scheduler + spawns its first kthread and the time that RCU's kthreads + have all been spawned. + If there ever turns out to be a good reason for sending POSIX + signals during that time, appropriate adjustments will be made. + (If it turns out that POSIX signals are sent during this time for + no good reason, other adjustments will be made, appropriate + or otherwise.) +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +I learned of these boot-time requirements as a result of a series of +system hangs. + +<h3><a name="Interrupts and NMIs">Interrupts and NMIs</a></h3> + +<p> +The Linux kernel has interrupts, and RCU read-side critical sections are +legal within interrupt handlers and within interrupt-disabled regions +of code, as are invocations of <tt>call_rcu()</tt>. + +<p> +Some Linux-kernel architectures can enter an interrupt handler from +non-idle process context, and then just never leave it, instead stealthily +transitioning back to process context. +This trick is sometimes used to invoke system calls from inside the kernel. +These “half-interrupts” mean that RCU has to be very careful +about how it counts interrupt nesting levels. +I learned of this requirement the hard way during a rewrite +of RCU's dyntick-idle code. + +<p> +The Linux kernel has non-maskable interrupts (NMIs), and +RCU read-side critical sections are legal within NMI handlers. +Thankfully, RCU update-side primitives, including +<tt>call_rcu()</tt>, are prohibited within NMI handlers. + +<p> +The name notwithstanding, some Linux-kernel architectures +can have nested NMIs, which RCU must handle correctly. +Andy Lutomirski +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/CALCETrXLq1y7e_dKFPgou-FKHB6Pu-r8+t-6Ds+8=va7anBWDA@mail.gmail.com">surprised me</a> +with this requirement; +he also kindly surprised me with +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/CALCETrXSY9JpW3uE6H8WYk81sg56qasA2aqmjMPsq5dOtzso=g@mail.gmail.com">an algorithm</a> +that meets this requirement. + +<h3><a name="Loadable Modules">Loadable Modules</a></h3> + +<p> +The Linux kernel has loadable modules, and these modules can +also be unloaded. +After a given module has been unloaded, any attempt to call +one of its functions results in a segmentation fault. +The module-unload functions must therefore cancel any +delayed calls to loadable-module functions, for example, +any outstanding <tt>mod_timer()</tt> must be dealt with +via <tt>del_timer_sync()</tt> or similar. + +<p> +Unfortunately, there is no way to cancel an RCU callback; +once you invoke <tt>call_rcu()</tt>, the callback function is +going to eventually be invoked, unless the system goes down first. +Because it is normally considered socially irresponsible to crash the system +in response to a module unload request, we need some other way +to deal with in-flight RCU callbacks. + +<p> +RCU therefore provides +<tt><a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/217484/">rcu_barrier()</a></tt>, +which waits until all in-flight RCU callbacks have been invoked. +If a module uses <tt>call_rcu()</tt>, its exit function should therefore +prevent any future invocation of <tt>call_rcu()</tt>, then invoke +<tt>rcu_barrier()</tt>. +In theory, the underlying module-unload code could invoke +<tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> unconditionally, but in practice this would +incur unacceptable latencies. + +<p> +Nikita Danilov noted this requirement for an analogous filesystem-unmount +situation, and Dipankar Sarma incorporated <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> into RCU. +The need for <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> for module unloading became +apparent later. + +<p> +<b>Important note</b>: The <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> function is not, +repeat, <i>not</i>, obligated to wait for a grace period. +It is instead only required to wait for RCU callbacks that have +already been posted. +Therefore, if there are no RCU callbacks posted anywhere in the system, +<tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> is within its rights to return immediately. +Even if there are callbacks posted, <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> does not +necessarily need to wait for a grace period. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Wait a minute! + Each RCU callbacks must wait for a grace period to complete, + and <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> must wait for each pre-existing + callback to be invoked. + Doesn't <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> therefore need to wait for + a full grace period if there is even one callback posted anywhere + in the system? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Absolutely not!!! + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + Yes, each RCU callbacks must wait for a grace period to complete, + but it might well be partly (or even completely) finished waiting + by the time <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> is invoked. + In that case, <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> need only wait for the + remaining portion of the grace period to elapse. + So even if there are quite a few callbacks posted, + <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> might well return quite quickly. + </font> + + <p><font color="ffffff"> + So if you need to wait for a grace period as well as for all + pre-existing callbacks, you will need to invoke both + <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> and <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt>. + If latency is a concern, you can always use workqueues + to invoke them concurrently. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="Hotplug CPU">Hotplug CPU</a></h3> + +<p> +The Linux kernel supports CPU hotplug, which means that CPUs +can come and go. +It is of course illegal to use any RCU API member from an offline CPU, +with the exception of <a href="#Sleepable RCU">SRCU</a> read-side +critical sections. +This requirement was present from day one in DYNIX/ptx, but +on the other hand, the Linux kernel's CPU-hotplug implementation +is “interesting.” + +<p> +The Linux-kernel CPU-hotplug implementation has notifiers that +are used to allow the various kernel subsystems (including RCU) +to respond appropriately to a given CPU-hotplug operation. +Most RCU operations may be invoked from CPU-hotplug notifiers, +including even synchronous grace-period operations such as +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> and <tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>. + +<p> +However, all-callback-wait operations such as +<tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> are also not supported, due to the +fact that there are phases of CPU-hotplug operations where +the outgoing CPU's callbacks will not be invoked until after +the CPU-hotplug operation ends, which could also result in deadlock. +Furthermore, <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> blocks CPU-hotplug operations +during its execution, which results in another type of deadlock +when invoked from a CPU-hotplug notifier. + +<h3><a name="Scheduler and RCU">Scheduler and RCU</a></h3> + +<p> +RCU depends on the scheduler, and the scheduler uses RCU to +protect some of its data structures. +This means the scheduler is forbidden from acquiring +the runqueue locks and the priority-inheritance locks +in the middle of an outermost RCU read-side critical section unless either +(1) it releases them before exiting that same +RCU read-side critical section, or +(2) interrupts are disabled across +that entire RCU read-side critical section. +This same prohibition also applies (recursively!) to any lock that is acquired +while holding any lock to which this prohibition applies. +Adhering to this rule prevents preemptible RCU from invoking +<tt>rcu_read_unlock_special()</tt> while either runqueue or +priority-inheritance locks are held, thus avoiding deadlock. + +<p> +Prior to v4.4, it was only necessary to disable preemption across +RCU read-side critical sections that acquired scheduler locks. +In v4.4, expedited grace periods started using IPIs, and these +IPIs could force a <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> to take the slowpath. +Therefore, this expedited-grace-period change required disabling of +interrupts, not just preemption. + +<p> +For RCU's part, the preemptible-RCU <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> +implementation must be written carefully to avoid similar deadlocks. +In particular, <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> must tolerate an +interrupt where the interrupt handler invokes both +<tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>. +This possibility requires <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> to use +negative nesting levels to avoid destructive recursion via +interrupt handler's use of RCU. + +<p> +This pair of mutual scheduler-RCU requirements came as a +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/453002/">complete surprise</a>. + +<p> +As noted above, RCU makes use of kthreads, and it is necessary to +avoid excessive CPU-time accumulation by these kthreads. +This requirement was no surprise, but RCU's violation of it +when running context-switch-heavy workloads when built with +<tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL=y</tt> +<a href="http://www.rdrop.com/users/paulmck/scalability/paper/BareMetal.2015.01.15b.pdf">did come as a surprise [PDF]</a>. +RCU has made good progress towards meeting this requirement, even +for context-switch-have <tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL=y</tt> workloads, +but there is room for further improvement. + +<h3><a name="Tracing and RCU">Tracing and RCU</a></h3> + +<p> +It is possible to use tracing on RCU code, but tracing itself +uses RCU. +For this reason, <tt>rcu_dereference_raw_notrace()</tt> +is provided for use by tracing, which avoids the destructive +recursion that could otherwise ensue. +This API is also used by virtualization in some architectures, +where RCU readers execute in environments in which tracing +cannot be used. +The tracing folks both located the requirement and provided the +needed fix, so this surprise requirement was relatively painless. + +<h3><a name="Energy Efficiency">Energy Efficiency</a></h3> + +<p> +Interrupting idle CPUs is considered socially unacceptable, +especially by people with battery-powered embedded systems. +RCU therefore conserves energy by detecting which CPUs are +idle, including tracking CPUs that have been interrupted from idle. +This is a large part of the energy-efficiency requirement, +so I learned of this via an irate phone call. + +<p> +Because RCU avoids interrupting idle CPUs, it is illegal to +execute an RCU read-side critical section on an idle CPU. +(Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_PROVE_RCU=y</tt> will splat +if you try it.) +The <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt> macro and <tt>_rcuidle</tt> +event tracing is provided to work around this restriction. +In addition, <tt>rcu_is_watching()</tt> may be used to +test whether or not it is currently legal to run RCU read-side +critical sections on this CPU. +I learned of the need for diagnostics on the one hand +and <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt> on the other while inspecting +idle-loop code. +Steven Rostedt supplied <tt>_rcuidle</tt> event tracing, +which is used quite heavily in the idle loop. +However, there are some restrictions on the code placed within +<tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt>: + +<ol> +<li> Blocking is prohibited. + In practice, this is not a serious restriction given that idle + tasks are prohibited from blocking to begin with. +<li> Although nesting <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt> is permitted, they cannot + nest indefinitely deeply. + However, given that they can be nested on the order of a million + deep, even on 32-bit systems, this should not be a serious + restriction. + This nesting limit would probably be reached long after the + compiler OOMed or the stack overflowed. +<li> Any code path that enters <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt> must sequence + out of that same <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt>. + For example, the following is grossly illegal: + + <blockquote> + <pre> + 1 RCU_NONIDLE({ + 2 do_something(); + 3 goto bad_idea; /* BUG!!! */ + 4 do_something_else();}); + 5 bad_idea: + </pre> + </blockquote> + + <p> + It is just as illegal to transfer control into the middle of + <tt>RCU_NONIDLE()</tt>'s argument. + Yes, in theory, you could transfer in as long as you also + transferred out, but in practice you could also expect to get sharply + worded review comments. +</ol> + +<p> +It is similarly socially unacceptable to interrupt an +<tt>nohz_full</tt> CPU running in userspace. +RCU must therefore track <tt>nohz_full</tt> userspace +execution. +RCU must therefore be able to sample state at two points in +time, and be able to determine whether or not some other CPU spent +any time idle and/or executing in userspace. + +<p> +These energy-efficiency requirements have proven quite difficult to +understand and to meet, for example, there have been more than five +clean-sheet rewrites of RCU's energy-efficiency code, the last of +which was finally able to demonstrate +<a href="http://www.rdrop.com/users/paulmck/realtime/paper/AMPenergy.2013.04.19a.pdf">real energy savings running on real hardware [PDF]</a>. +As noted earlier, +I learned of many of these requirements via angry phone calls: +Flaming me on the Linux-kernel mailing list was apparently not +sufficient to fully vent their ire at RCU's energy-efficiency bugs! + +<h3><a name="Scheduling-Clock Interrupts and RCU"> +Scheduling-Clock Interrupts and RCU</a></h3> + +<p> +The kernel transitions between in-kernel non-idle execution, userspace +execution, and the idle loop. +Depending on kernel configuration, RCU handles these states differently: + +<table border=3> +<tr><th><tt>HZ</tt> Kconfig</th> + <th>In-Kernel</th> + <th>Usermode</th> + <th>Idle</th></tr> +<tr><th align="left"><tt>HZ_PERIODIC</tt></th> + <td>Can rely on scheduling-clock interrupt.</td> + <td>Can rely on scheduling-clock interrupt and its + detection of interrupt from usermode.</td> + <td>Can rely on RCU's dyntick-idle detection.</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left"><tt>NO_HZ_IDLE</tt></th> + <td>Can rely on scheduling-clock interrupt.</td> + <td>Can rely on scheduling-clock interrupt and its + detection of interrupt from usermode.</td> + <td>Can rely on RCU's dyntick-idle detection.</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left"><tt>NO_HZ_FULL</tt></th> + <td>Can only sometimes rely on scheduling-clock interrupt. + In other cases, it is necessary to bound kernel execution + times and/or use IPIs.</td> + <td>Can rely on RCU's dyntick-idle detection.</td> + <td>Can rely on RCU's dyntick-idle detection.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + Why can't <tt>NO_HZ_FULL</tt> in-kernel execution rely on the + scheduling-clock interrupt, just like <tt>HZ_PERIODIC</tt> + and <tt>NO_HZ_IDLE</tt> do? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + Because, as a performance optimization, <tt>NO_HZ_FULL</tt> + does not necessarily re-enable the scheduling-clock interrupt + on entry to each and every system call. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +However, RCU must be reliably informed as to whether any given +CPU is currently in the idle loop, and, for <tt>NO_HZ_FULL</tt>, +also whether that CPU is executing in usermode, as discussed +<a href="#Energy Efficiency">earlier</a>. +It also requires that the scheduling-clock interrupt be enabled when +RCU needs it to be: + +<ol> +<li> If a CPU is either idle or executing in usermode, and RCU believes + it is non-idle, the scheduling-clock tick had better be running. + Otherwise, you will get RCU CPU stall warnings. Or at best, + very long (11-second) grace periods, with a pointless IPI waking + the CPU from time to time. +<li> If a CPU is in a portion of the kernel that executes RCU read-side + critical sections, and RCU believes this CPU to be idle, you will get + random memory corruption. <b>DON'T DO THIS!!!</b> + + <br>This is one reason to test with lockdep, which will complain + about this sort of thing. +<li> If a CPU is in a portion of the kernel that is absolutely + positively no-joking guaranteed to never execute any RCU read-side + critical sections, and RCU believes this CPU to to be idle, + no problem. This sort of thing is used by some architectures + for light-weight exception handlers, which can then avoid the + overhead of <tt>rcu_irq_enter()</tt> and <tt>rcu_irq_exit()</tt> + at exception entry and exit, respectively. + Some go further and avoid the entireties of <tt>irq_enter()</tt> + and <tt>irq_exit()</tt>. + + <br>Just make very sure you are running some of your tests with + <tt>CONFIG_PROVE_RCU=y</tt>, just in case one of your code paths + was in fact joking about not doing RCU read-side critical sections. +<li> If a CPU is executing in the kernel with the scheduling-clock + interrupt disabled and RCU believes this CPU to be non-idle, + and if the CPU goes idle (from an RCU perspective) every few + jiffies, no problem. It is usually OK for there to be the + occasional gap between idle periods of up to a second or so. + + <br>If the gap grows too long, you get RCU CPU stall warnings. +<li> If a CPU is either idle or executing in usermode, and RCU believes + it to be idle, of course no problem. +<li> If a CPU is executing in the kernel, the kernel code + path is passing through quiescent states at a reasonable + frequency (preferably about once per few jiffies, but the + occasional excursion to a second or so is usually OK) and the + scheduling-clock interrupt is enabled, of course no problem. + + <br>If the gap between a successive pair of quiescent states grows + too long, you get RCU CPU stall warnings. +</ol> + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But what if my driver has a hardware interrupt handler + that can run for many seconds? + I cannot invoke <tt>schedule()</tt> from an hardware + interrupt handler, after all! +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + One approach is to do <tt>rcu_irq_exit();rcu_irq_enter();</tt> + every so often. + But given that long-running interrupt handlers can cause + other problems, not least for response time, shouldn't you + work to keep your interrupt handler's runtime within reasonable + bounds? +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +But as long as RCU is properly informed of kernel state transitions between +in-kernel execution, usermode execution, and idle, and as long as the +scheduling-clock interrupt is enabled when RCU needs it to be, you +can rest assured that the bugs you encounter will be in some other +part of RCU or some other part of the kernel! + +<h3><a name="Memory Efficiency">Memory Efficiency</a></h3> + +<p> +Although small-memory non-realtime systems can simply use Tiny RCU, +code size is only one aspect of memory efficiency. +Another aspect is the size of the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure +used by <tt>call_rcu()</tt> and <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt>. +Although this structure contains nothing more than a pair of pointers, +it does appear in many RCU-protected data structures, including +some that are size critical. +The <tt>page</tt> structure is a case in point, as evidenced by +the many occurrences of the <tt>union</tt> keyword within that structure. + +<p> +This need for memory efficiency is one reason that RCU uses hand-crafted +singly linked lists to track the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures that +are waiting for a grace period to elapse. +It is also the reason why <tt>rcu_head</tt> structures do not contain +debug information, such as fields tracking the file and line of the +<tt>call_rcu()</tt> or <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> that posted them. +Although this information might appear in debug-only kernel builds at some +point, in the meantime, the <tt>->func</tt> field will often provide +the needed debug information. + +<p> +However, in some cases, the need for memory efficiency leads to even +more extreme measures. +Returning to the <tt>page</tt> structure, the <tt>rcu_head</tt> field +shares storage with a great many other structures that are used at +various points in the corresponding page's lifetime. +In order to correctly resolve certain +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/1439976106-137226-1-git-send-email-kirill.shutemov@linux.intel.com">race conditions</a>, +the Linux kernel's memory-management subsystem needs a particular bit +to remain zero during all phases of grace-period processing, +and that bit happens to map to the bottom bit of the +<tt>rcu_head</tt> structure's <tt>->next</tt> field. +RCU makes this guarantee as long as <tt>call_rcu()</tt> +is used to post the callback, as opposed to <tt>kfree_rcu()</tt> +or some future “lazy” +variant of <tt>call_rcu()</tt> that might one day be created for +energy-efficiency purposes. + +<p> +That said, there are limits. +RCU requires that the <tt>rcu_head</tt> structure be aligned to a +two-byte boundary, and passing a misaligned <tt>rcu_head</tt> +structure to one of the <tt>call_rcu()</tt> family of functions +will result in a splat. +It is therefore necessary to exercise caution when packing +structures containing fields of type <tt>rcu_head</tt>. +Why not a four-byte or even eight-byte alignment requirement? +Because the m68k architecture provides only two-byte alignment, +and thus acts as alignment's least common denominator. + +<p> +The reason for reserving the bottom bit of pointers to +<tt>rcu_head</tt> structures is to leave the door open to +“lazy” callbacks whose invocations can safely be deferred. +Deferring invocation could potentially have energy-efficiency +benefits, but only if the rate of non-lazy callbacks decreases +significantly for some important workload. +In the meantime, reserving the bottom bit keeps this option open +in case it one day becomes useful. + +<h3><a name="Performance, Scalability, Response Time, and Reliability"> +Performance, Scalability, Response Time, and Reliability</a></h3> + +<p> +Expanding on the +<a href="#Performance and Scalability">earlier discussion</a>, +RCU is used heavily by hot code paths in performance-critical +portions of the Linux kernel's networking, security, virtualization, +and scheduling code paths. +RCU must therefore use efficient implementations, especially in its +read-side primitives. +To that end, it would be good if preemptible RCU's implementation +of <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> could be inlined, however, doing +this requires resolving <tt>#include</tt> issues with the +<tt>task_struct</tt> structure. + +<p> +The Linux kernel supports hardware configurations with up to +4096 CPUs, which means that RCU must be extremely scalable. +Algorithms that involve frequent acquisitions of global locks or +frequent atomic operations on global variables simply cannot be +tolerated within the RCU implementation. +RCU therefore makes heavy use of a combining tree based on the +<tt>rcu_node</tt> structure. +RCU is required to tolerate all CPUs continuously invoking any +combination of RCU's runtime primitives with minimal per-operation +overhead. +In fact, in many cases, increasing load must <i>decrease</i> the +per-operation overhead, witness the batching optimizations for +<tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt>, <tt>call_rcu()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_expedited()</tt>, and <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt>. +As a general rule, RCU must cheerfully accept whatever the +rest of the Linux kernel decides to throw at it. + +<p> +The Linux kernel is used for real-time workloads, especially +in conjunction with the +<a href="https://rt.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page">-rt patchset</a>. +The real-time-latency response requirements are such that the +traditional approach of disabling preemption across RCU +read-side critical sections is inappropriate. +Kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=y</tt> therefore +use an RCU implementation that allows RCU read-side critical +sections to be preempted. +This requirement made its presence known after users made it +clear that an earlier +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/107930/">real-time patch</a> +did not meet their needs, in conjunction with some +<a href="https://lkml.kernel.org/g/20050318002026.GA2693@us.ibm.com">RCU issues</a> +encountered by a very early version of the -rt patchset. + +<p> +In addition, RCU must make do with a sub-100-microsecond real-time latency +budget. +In fact, on smaller systems with the -rt patchset, the Linux kernel +provides sub-20-microsecond real-time latencies for the whole kernel, +including RCU. +RCU's scalability and latency must therefore be sufficient for +these sorts of configurations. +To my surprise, the sub-100-microsecond real-time latency budget +<a href="http://www.rdrop.com/users/paulmck/realtime/paper/bigrt.2013.01.31a.LCA.pdf"> +applies to even the largest systems [PDF]</a>, +up to and including systems with 4096 CPUs. +This real-time requirement motivated the grace-period kthread, which +also simplified handling of a number of race conditions. + +<p> +RCU must avoid degrading real-time response for CPU-bound threads, whether +executing in usermode (which is one use case for +<tt>CONFIG_NO_HZ_FULL=y</tt>) or in the kernel. +That said, CPU-bound loops in the kernel must execute +<tt>cond_resched()</tt> at least once per few tens of milliseconds +in order to avoid receiving an IPI from RCU. + +<p> +Finally, RCU's status as a synchronization primitive means that +any RCU failure can result in arbitrary memory corruption that can be +extremely difficult to debug. +This means that RCU must be extremely reliable, which in +practice also means that RCU must have an aggressive stress-test +suite. +This stress-test suite is called <tt>rcutorture</tt>. + +<p> +Although the need for <tt>rcutorture</tt> was no surprise, +the current immense popularity of the Linux kernel is posing +interesting—and perhaps unprecedented—validation +challenges. +To see this, keep in mind that there are well over one billion +instances of the Linux kernel running today, given Android +smartphones, Linux-powered televisions, and servers. +This number can be expected to increase sharply with the advent of +the celebrated Internet of Things. + +<p> +Suppose that RCU contains a race condition that manifests on average +once per million years of runtime. +This bug will be occurring about three times per <i>day</i> across +the installed base. +RCU could simply hide behind hardware error rates, given that no one +should really expect their smartphone to last for a million years. +However, anyone taking too much comfort from this thought should +consider the fact that in most jurisdictions, a successful multi-year +test of a given mechanism, which might include a Linux kernel, +suffices for a number of types of safety-critical certifications. +In fact, rumor has it that the Linux kernel is already being used +in production for safety-critical applications. +I don't know about you, but I would feel quite bad if a bug in RCU +killed someone. +Which might explain my recent focus on validation and verification. + +<h2><a name="Other RCU Flavors">Other RCU Flavors</a></h2> + +<p> +One of the more surprising things about RCU is that there are now +no fewer than five <i>flavors</i>, or API families. +In addition, the primary flavor that has been the sole focus up to +this point has two different implementations, non-preemptible and +preemptible. +The other four flavors are listed below, with requirements for each +described in a separate section. + +<ol> +<li> <a href="#Bottom-Half Flavor">Bottom-Half Flavor</a> +<li> <a href="#Sched Flavor">Sched Flavor</a> +<li> <a href="#Sleepable RCU">Sleepable RCU</a> +<li> <a href="#Tasks RCU">Tasks RCU</a> +<li> <a href="#Waiting for Multiple Grace Periods"> + Waiting for Multiple Grace Periods</a> +</ol> + +<h3><a name="Bottom-Half Flavor">Bottom-Half Flavor</a></h3> + +<p> +The softirq-disable (AKA “bottom-half”, +hence the “_bh” abbreviations) +flavor of RCU, or <i>RCU-bh</i>, was developed by +Dipankar Sarma to provide a flavor of RCU that could withstand the +network-based denial-of-service attacks researched by Robert +Olsson. +These attacks placed so much networking load on the system +that some of the CPUs never exited softirq execution, +which in turn prevented those CPUs from ever executing a context switch, +which, in the RCU implementation of that time, prevented grace periods +from ever ending. +The result was an out-of-memory condition and a system hang. + +<p> +The solution was the creation of RCU-bh, which does +<tt>local_bh_disable()</tt> +across its read-side critical sections, and which uses the transition +from one type of softirq processing to another as a quiescent state +in addition to context switch, idle, user mode, and offline. +This means that RCU-bh grace periods can complete even when some of +the CPUs execute in softirq indefinitely, thus allowing algorithms +based on RCU-bh to withstand network-based denial-of-service attacks. + +<p> +Because +<tt>rcu_read_lock_bh()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt> +disable and re-enable softirq handlers, any attempt to start a softirq +handlers during the +RCU-bh read-side critical section will be deferred. +In this case, <tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt> +will invoke softirq processing, which can take considerable time. +One can of course argue that this softirq overhead should be associated +with the code following the RCU-bh read-side critical section rather +than <tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt>, but the fact +is that most profiling tools cannot be expected to make this sort +of fine distinction. +For example, suppose that a three-millisecond-long RCU-bh read-side +critical section executes during a time of heavy networking load. +There will very likely be an attempt to invoke at least one softirq +handler during that three milliseconds, but any such invocation will +be delayed until the time of the <tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt>. +This can of course make it appear at first glance as if +<tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt> was executing very slowly. + +<p> +The +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/609973/#RCU Per-Flavor API Table">RCU-bh API</a> +includes +<tt>rcu_read_lock_bh()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_dereference_bh()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_dereference_bh_check()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_bh()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_bh_expedited()</tt>, +<tt>call_rcu_bh()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_barrier_bh()</tt>, and +<tt>rcu_read_lock_bh_held()</tt>. + +<h3><a name="Sched Flavor">Sched Flavor</a></h3> + +<p> +Before preemptible RCU, waiting for an RCU grace period had the +side effect of also waiting for all pre-existing interrupt +and NMI handlers. +However, there are legitimate preemptible-RCU implementations that +do not have this property, given that any point in the code outside +of an RCU read-side critical section can be a quiescent state. +Therefore, <i>RCU-sched</i> was created, which follows “classic” +RCU in that an RCU-sched grace period waits for for pre-existing +interrupt and NMI handlers. +In kernels built with <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=n</tt>, the RCU and RCU-sched +APIs have identical implementations, while kernels built with +<tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=y</tt> provide a separate implementation for each. + +<p> +Note well that in <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=y</tt> kernels, +<tt>rcu_read_lock_sched()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt> +disable and re-enable preemption, respectively. +This means that if there was a preemption attempt during the +RCU-sched read-side critical section, <tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt> +will enter the scheduler, with all the latency and overhead entailed. +Just as with <tt>rcu_read_unlock_bh()</tt>, this can make it look +as if <tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt> was executing very slowly. +However, the highest-priority task won't be preempted, so that task +will enjoy low-overhead <tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt> invocations. + +<p> +The +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/609973/#RCU Per-Flavor API Table">RCU-sched API</a> +includes +<tt>rcu_read_lock_sched()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_read_lock_sched_notrace()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_read_unlock_sched_notrace()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_dereference_sched()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_dereference_sched_check()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_sched()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_sched_expedited()</tt>, +<tt>call_rcu_sched()</tt>, +<tt>rcu_barrier_sched()</tt>, and +<tt>rcu_read_lock_sched_held()</tt>. +However, anything that disables preemption also marks an RCU-sched +read-side critical section, including +<tt>preempt_disable()</tt> and <tt>preempt_enable()</tt>, +<tt>local_irq_save()</tt> and <tt>local_irq_restore()</tt>, +and so on. + +<h3><a name="Sleepable RCU">Sleepable RCU</a></h3> + +<p> +For well over a decade, someone saying “I need to block within +an RCU read-side critical section” was a reliable indication +that this someone did not understand RCU. +After all, if you are always blocking in an RCU read-side critical +section, you can probably afford to use a higher-overhead synchronization +mechanism. +However, that changed with the advent of the Linux kernel's notifiers, +whose RCU read-side critical +sections almost never sleep, but sometimes need to. +This resulted in the introduction of +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/202847/">sleepable RCU</a>, +or <i>SRCU</i>. + +<p> +SRCU allows different domains to be defined, with each such domain +defined by an instance of an <tt>srcu_struct</tt> structure. +A pointer to this structure must be passed in to each SRCU function, +for example, <tt>synchronize_srcu(&ss)</tt>, where +<tt>ss</tt> is the <tt>srcu_struct</tt> structure. +The key benefit of these domains is that a slow SRCU reader in one +domain does not delay an SRCU grace period in some other domain. +That said, one consequence of these domains is that read-side code +must pass a “cookie” from <tt>srcu_read_lock()</tt> +to <tt>srcu_read_unlock()</tt>, for example, as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 int idx; + 2 + 3 idx = srcu_read_lock(&ss); + 4 do_something(); + 5 srcu_read_unlock(&ss, idx); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +As noted above, it is legal to block within SRCU read-side critical sections, +however, with great power comes great responsibility. +If you block forever in one of a given domain's SRCU read-side critical +sections, then that domain's grace periods will also be blocked forever. +Of course, one good way to block forever is to deadlock, which can +happen if any operation in a given domain's SRCU read-side critical +section can block waiting, either directly or indirectly, for that domain's +grace period to elapse. +For example, this results in a self-deadlock: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 int idx; + 2 + 3 idx = srcu_read_lock(&ss); + 4 do_something(); + 5 synchronize_srcu(&ss); + 6 srcu_read_unlock(&ss, idx); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +However, if line 5 acquired a mutex that was held across +a <tt>synchronize_srcu()</tt> for domain <tt>ss</tt>, +deadlock would still be possible. +Furthermore, if line 5 acquired a mutex that was held across +a <tt>synchronize_srcu()</tt> for some other domain <tt>ss1</tt>, +and if an <tt>ss1</tt>-domain SRCU read-side critical section +acquired another mutex that was held across as <tt>ss</tt>-domain +<tt>synchronize_srcu()</tt>, +deadlock would again be possible. +Such a deadlock cycle could extend across an arbitrarily large number +of different SRCU domains. +Again, with great power comes great responsibility. + +<p> +Unlike the other RCU flavors, SRCU read-side critical sections can +run on idle and even offline CPUs. +This ability requires that <tt>srcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>srcu_read_unlock()</tt> contain memory barriers, which means +that SRCU readers will run a bit slower than would RCU readers. +It also motivates the <tt>smp_mb__after_srcu_read_unlock()</tt> +API, which, in combination with <tt>srcu_read_unlock()</tt>, +guarantees a full memory barrier. + +<p> +Also unlike other RCU flavors, SRCU's callbacks-wait function +<tt>srcu_barrier()</tt> may be invoked from CPU-hotplug notifiers, +though this is not necessarily a good idea. +The reason that this is possible is that SRCU is insensitive +to whether or not a CPU is online, which means that <tt>srcu_barrier()</tt> +need not exclude CPU-hotplug operations. + +<p> +SRCU also differs from other RCU flavors in that SRCU's expedited and +non-expedited grace periods are implemented by the same mechanism. +This means that in the current SRCU implementation, expediting a +future grace period has the side effect of expediting all prior +grace periods that have not yet completed. +(But please note that this is a property of the current implementation, +not necessarily of future implementations.) +In addition, if SRCU has been idle for longer than the interval +specified by the <tt>srcutree.exp_holdoff</tt> kernel boot parameter +(25 microseconds by default), +and if a <tt>synchronize_srcu()</tt> invocation ends this idle period, +that invocation will be automatically expedited. + +<p> +As of v4.12, SRCU's callbacks are maintained per-CPU, eliminating +a locking bottleneck present in prior kernel versions. +Although this will allow users to put much heavier stress on +<tt>call_srcu()</tt>, it is important to note that SRCU does not +yet take any special steps to deal with callback flooding. +So if you are posting (say) 10,000 SRCU callbacks per second per CPU, +you are probably totally OK, but if you intend to post (say) 1,000,000 +SRCU callbacks per second per CPU, please run some tests first. +SRCU just might need a few adjustment to deal with that sort of load. +Of course, your mileage may vary based on the speed of your CPUs and +the size of your memory. + +<p> +The +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/609973/#RCU Per-Flavor API Table">SRCU API</a> +includes +<tt>srcu_read_lock()</tt>, +<tt>srcu_read_unlock()</tt>, +<tt>srcu_dereference()</tt>, +<tt>srcu_dereference_check()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_srcu()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_srcu_expedited()</tt>, +<tt>call_srcu()</tt>, +<tt>srcu_barrier()</tt>, and +<tt>srcu_read_lock_held()</tt>. +It also includes +<tt>DEFINE_SRCU()</tt>, +<tt>DEFINE_STATIC_SRCU()</tt>, and +<tt>init_srcu_struct()</tt> +APIs for defining and initializing <tt>srcu_struct</tt> structures. + +<h3><a name="Tasks RCU">Tasks RCU</a></h3> + +<p> +Some forms of tracing use “trampolines” to handle the +binary rewriting required to install different types of probes. +It would be good to be able to free old trampolines, which sounds +like a job for some form of RCU. +However, because it is necessary to be able to install a trace +anywhere in the code, it is not possible to use read-side markers +such as <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>. +In addition, it does not work to have these markers in the trampoline +itself, because there would need to be instructions following +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>. +Although <tt>synchronize_rcu()</tt> would guarantee that execution +reached the <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt>, it would not be able to +guarantee that execution had completely left the trampoline. + +<p> +The solution, in the form of +<a href="https://lwn.net/Articles/607117/"><i>Tasks RCU</i></a>, +is to have implicit +read-side critical sections that are delimited by voluntary context +switches, that is, calls to <tt>schedule()</tt>, +<tt>cond_resched()</tt>, and +<tt>synchronize_rcu_tasks()</tt>. +In addition, transitions to and from userspace execution also delimit +tasks-RCU read-side critical sections. + +<p> +The tasks-RCU API is quite compact, consisting only of +<tt>call_rcu_tasks()</tt>, +<tt>synchronize_rcu_tasks()</tt>, and +<tt>rcu_barrier_tasks()</tt>. + +<h3><a name="Waiting for Multiple Grace Periods"> +Waiting for Multiple Grace Periods</a></h3> + +<p> +Perhaps you have an RCU protected data structure that is accessed from +RCU read-side critical sections, from softirq handlers, and from +hardware interrupt handlers. +That is three flavors of RCU, the normal flavor, the bottom-half flavor, +and the sched flavor. +How to wait for a compound grace period? + +<p> +The best approach is usually to “just say no!” and +insert <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and <tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> +around each RCU read-side critical section, regardless of what +environment it happens to be in. +But suppose that some of the RCU read-side critical sections are +on extremely hot code paths, and that use of <tt>CONFIG_PREEMPT=n</tt> +is not a viable option, so that <tt>rcu_read_lock()</tt> and +<tt>rcu_read_unlock()</tt> are not free. +What then? + +<p> +You <i>could</i> wait on all three grace periods in succession, as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 synchronize_rcu(); + 2 synchronize_rcu_bh(); + 3 synchronize_sched(); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +This works, but triples the update-side latency penalty. +In cases where this is not acceptable, <tt>synchronize_rcu_mult()</tt> +may be used to wait on all three flavors of grace period concurrently: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 synchronize_rcu_mult(call_rcu, call_rcu_bh, call_rcu_sched); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +But what if it is necessary to also wait on SRCU? +This can be done as follows: + +<blockquote> +<pre> + 1 static void call_my_srcu(struct rcu_head *head, + 2 void (*func)(struct rcu_head *head)) + 3 { + 4 call_srcu(&my_srcu, head, func); + 5 } + 6 + 7 synchronize_rcu_mult(call_rcu, call_rcu_bh, call_rcu_sched, call_my_srcu); +</pre> +</blockquote> + +<p> +If you needed to wait on multiple different flavors of SRCU +(but why???), you would need to create a wrapper function resembling +<tt>call_my_srcu()</tt> for each SRCU flavor. + +<table> +<tr><th> </th></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Quick Quiz:</th></tr> +<tr><td> + But what if I need to wait for multiple RCU flavors, but I also need + the grace periods to be expedited? +</td></tr> +<tr><th align="left">Answer:</th></tr> +<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffff"><font color="ffffff"> + If you are using expedited grace periods, there should be less penalty + for waiting on them in succession. + But if that is nevertheless a problem, you can use workqueues + or multiple kthreads to wait on the various expedited grace + periods concurrently. +</font></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Again, it is usually better to adjust the RCU read-side critical sections +to use a single flavor of RCU, but when this is not feasible, you can use +<tt>synchronize_rcu_mult()</tt>. + +<h2><a name="Possible Future Changes">Possible Future Changes</a></h2> + +<p> +One of the tricks that RCU uses to attain update-side scalability is +to increase grace-period latency with increasing numbers of CPUs. +If this becomes a serious problem, it will be necessary to rework the +grace-period state machine so as to avoid the need for the additional +latency. + +<p> +Expedited grace periods scan the CPUs, so their latency and overhead +increases with increasing numbers of CPUs. +If this becomes a serious problem on large systems, it will be necessary +to do some redesign to avoid this scalability problem. + +<p> +RCU disables CPU hotplug in a few places, perhaps most notably in the +<tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> operations. +If there is a strong reason to use <tt>rcu_barrier()</tt> in CPU-hotplug +notifiers, it will be necessary to avoid disabling CPU hotplug. +This would introduce some complexity, so there had better be a <i>very</i> +good reason. + +<p> +The tradeoff between grace-period latency on the one hand and interruptions +of other CPUs on the other hand may need to be re-examined. +The desire is of course for zero grace-period latency as well as zero +interprocessor interrupts undertaken during an expedited grace period +operation. +While this ideal is unlikely to be achievable, it is quite possible that +further improvements can be made. + +<p> +The multiprocessor implementations of RCU use a combining tree that +groups CPUs so as to reduce lock contention and increase cache locality. +However, this combining tree does not spread its memory across NUMA +nodes nor does it align the CPU groups with hardware features such +as sockets or cores. +Such spreading and alignment is currently believed to be unnecessary +because the hotpath read-side primitives do not access the combining +tree, nor does <tt>call_rcu()</tt> in the common case. +If you believe that your architecture needs such spreading and alignment, +then your architecture should also benefit from the +<tt>rcutree.rcu_fanout_leaf</tt> boot parameter, which can be set +to the number of CPUs in a socket, NUMA node, or whatever. +If the number of CPUs is too large, use a fraction of the number of +CPUs. +If the number of CPUs is a large prime number, well, that certainly +is an “interesting” architectural choice! +More flexible arrangements might be considered, but only if +<tt>rcutree.rcu_fanout_leaf</tt> has proven inadequate, and only +if the inadequacy has been demonstrated by a carefully run and +realistic system-level workload. + +<p> +Please note that arrangements that require RCU to remap CPU numbers will +require extremely good demonstration of need and full exploration of +alternatives. + +<p> +There is an embarrassingly large number of flavors of RCU, and this +number has been increasing over time. +Perhaps it will be possible to combine some at some future date. + +<p> +RCU's various kthreads are reasonably recent additions. +It is quite likely that adjustments will be required to more gracefully +handle extreme loads. +It might also be necessary to be able to relate CPU utilization by +RCU's kthreads and softirq handlers to the code that instigated this +CPU utilization. +For example, RCU callback overhead might be charged back to the +originating <tt>call_rcu()</tt> instance, though probably not +in production kernels. + +<h2><a name="Summary">Summary</a></h2> + +<p> +This document has presented more than two decade's worth of RCU +requirements. +Given that the requirements keep changing, this will not be the last +word on this subject, but at least it serves to get an important +subset of the requirements set forth. + +<h2><a name="Acknowledgments">Acknowledgments</a></h2> + +I am grateful to Steven Rostedt, Lai Jiangshan, Ingo Molnar, +Oleg Nesterov, Borislav Petkov, Peter Zijlstra, Boqun Feng, and +Andy Lutomirski for their help in rendering +this article human readable, and to Michelle Rankin for her support +of this effort. +Other contributions are acknowledged in the Linux kernel's git archive. + +</body></html> |
