Adding upstream version 241.upstream/241upstream

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

1 files changed, 3275 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c b/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b66765b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c
@@ -0,0 +1,3275 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1+ */
+
+#include <errno.h>
+#include <fcntl.h>
+#include <fnmatch.h>
+#include <getopt.h>
+#include <glob.h>
+#include <limits.h>
+#include <linux/fs.h>
+#include <stdbool.h>
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <string.h>
+#include <sys/stat.h>
+#include <sys/xattr.h>
+#include <sysexits.h>
+#include <time.h>
+#include <unistd.h>
+
+#include "sd-path.h"
+
+#include "acl-util.h"
+#include "alloc-util.h"
+#include "btrfs-util.h"
+#include "capability-util.h"
+#include "chattr-util.h"
+#include "conf-files.h"
+#include "copy.h"
+#include "def.h"
+#include "dirent-util.h"
+#include "escape.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "fileio.h"
+#include "format-util.h"
+#include "fs-util.h"
+#include "glob-util.h"
+#include "io-util.h"
+#include "label.h"
+#include "log.h"
+#include "macro.h"
+#include "main-func.h"
+#include "missing.h"
+#include "mkdir.h"
+#include "mountpoint-util.h"
+#include "pager.h"
+#include "parse-util.h"
+#include "path-lookup.h"
+#include "path-util.h"
+#include "pretty-print.h"
+#include "rm-rf.h"
+#include "selinux-util.h"
+#include "set.h"
+#include "specifier.h"
+#include "stat-util.h"
+#include "stdio-util.h"
+#include "string-table.h"
+#include "string-util.h"
+#include "strv.h"
+#include "umask-util.h"
+#include "user-util.h"
+#include "util.h"
+
+/* This reads all files listed in /etc/tmpfiles.d/?*.conf and creates
+ * them in the file system. This is intended to be used to create
+ * properly owned directories beneath /tmp, /var/tmp, /run, which are
+ * volatile and hence need to be recreated on bootup. */
+
+typedef enum OperationMask {
+        OPERATION_CREATE = 1 << 0,
+        OPERATION_REMOVE = 1 << 1,
+        OPERATION_CLEAN  = 1 << 2,
+} OperationMask;
+
+typedef enum ItemType {
+        /* These ones take file names */
+        CREATE_FILE = 'f',
+        TRUNCATE_FILE = 'F',
+        CREATE_DIRECTORY = 'd',
+        TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY = 'D',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME = 'v',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA = 'q',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA = 'Q',
+        CREATE_FIFO = 'p',
+        CREATE_SYMLINK = 'L',
+        CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE = 'c',
+        CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE = 'b',
+        COPY_FILES = 'C',
+
+        /* These ones take globs */
+        WRITE_FILE = 'w',
+        EMPTY_DIRECTORY = 'e',
+        SET_XATTR = 't',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR = 'T',
+        SET_ACL = 'a',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_ACL = 'A',
+        SET_ATTRIBUTE = 'h',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE = 'H',
+        IGNORE_PATH = 'x',
+        IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH = 'X',
+        REMOVE_PATH = 'r',
+        RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH = 'R',
+        RELABEL_PATH = 'z',
+        RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH = 'Z',
+        ADJUST_MODE = 'm', /* legacy, 'z' is identical to this */
+} ItemType;
+
+typedef struct Item {
+        ItemType type;
+
+        char *path;
+        char *argument;
+        char **xattrs;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        acl_t acl_access;
+        acl_t acl_default;
+#endif
+        uid_t uid;
+        gid_t gid;
+        mode_t mode;
+        usec_t age;
+
+        dev_t major_minor;
+        unsigned attribute_value;
+        unsigned attribute_mask;
+
+        bool uid_set:1;
+        bool gid_set:1;
+        bool mode_set:1;
+        bool age_set:1;
+        bool mask_perms:1;
+        bool attribute_set:1;
+
+        bool keep_first_level:1;
+
+        bool force:1;
+
+        bool allow_failure:1;
+
+        OperationMask done;
+} Item;
+
+typedef struct ItemArray {
+        Item *items;
+        size_t n_items;
+        size_t allocated;
+
+        struct ItemArray *parent;
+        Set *children;
+} ItemArray;
+
+typedef enum DirectoryType {
+        DIRECTORY_RUNTIME,
+        DIRECTORY_STATE,
+        DIRECTORY_CACHE,
+        DIRECTORY_LOGS,
+        _DIRECTORY_TYPE_MAX,
+} DirectoryType;
+
+static bool arg_cat_config = false;
+static bool arg_user = false;
+static OperationMask arg_operation = 0;
+static bool arg_boot = false;
+static PagerFlags arg_pager_flags = 0;
+
+static char **arg_include_prefixes = NULL;
+static char **arg_exclude_prefixes = NULL;
+static char *arg_root = NULL;
+static char *arg_replace = NULL;
+
+#define MAX_DEPTH 256
+
+static OrderedHashmap *items = NULL, *globs = NULL;
+static Set *unix_sockets = NULL;
+
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(items, ordered_hashmap_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(globs, ordered_hashmap_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(unix_sockets, set_free_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_include_prefixes, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_exclude_prefixes, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_root, freep);
+
+static int specifier_machine_id_safe(char specifier, const void *data, const void *userdata, char **ret);
+static int specifier_directory(char specifier, const void *data, const void *userdata, char **ret);
+
+static const Specifier specifier_table[] = {
+        { 'm', specifier_machine_id_safe, NULL },
+        { 'b', specifier_boot_id,         NULL },
+        { 'H', specifier_host_name,       NULL },
+        { 'v', specifier_kernel_release,  NULL },
+
+        { 'g', specifier_group_name,      NULL },
+        { 'G', specifier_group_id,        NULL },
+        { 'U', specifier_user_id,         NULL },
+        { 'u', specifier_user_name,       NULL },
+        { 'h', specifier_user_home,       NULL },
+
+        { 't', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_RUNTIME) },
+        { 'S', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_STATE) },
+        { 'C', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_CACHE) },
+        { 'L', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_LOGS) },
+        { 'T', specifier_tmp_dir,         NULL },
+        { 'V', specifier_var_tmp_dir,     NULL },
+        {}
+};
+
+static int specifier_machine_id_safe(char specifier, const void *data, const void *userdata, char **ret) {
+        int r;
+
+        /* If /etc/machine_id is missing or empty (e.g. in a chroot environment)
+         * return a recognizable error so that the caller can skip the rule
+         * gracefully. */
+
+        r = specifier_machine_id(specifier, data, userdata, ret);
+        if (IN_SET(r, -ENOENT, -ENOMEDIUM))
+                return -ENXIO;
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int specifier_directory(char specifier, const void *data, const void *userdata, char **ret) {
+        struct table_entry {
+                uint64_t type;
+                const char *suffix;
+        };
+
+        static const struct table_entry paths_system[] = {
+                [DIRECTORY_RUNTIME] = { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_RUNTIME            },
+                [DIRECTORY_STATE] =   { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_PRIVATE      },
+                [DIRECTORY_CACHE] =   { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_CACHE        },
+                [DIRECTORY_LOGS] =    { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_LOGS         },
+        };
+
+        static const struct table_entry paths_user[] = {
+                [DIRECTORY_RUNTIME] = { SD_PATH_USER_RUNTIME              },
+                [DIRECTORY_STATE] =   { SD_PATH_USER_CONFIGURATION        },
+                [DIRECTORY_CACHE] =   { SD_PATH_USER_STATE_CACHE          },
+                [DIRECTORY_LOGS] =    { SD_PATH_USER_CONFIGURATION, "log" },
+        };
+
+        unsigned i;
+        const struct table_entry *paths;
+
+        assert_cc(ELEMENTSOF(paths_system) == ELEMENTSOF(paths_user));
+        paths = arg_user ? paths_user : paths_system;
+
+        i = PTR_TO_UINT(data);
+        assert(i < ELEMENTSOF(paths_system));
+
+        return sd_path_home(paths[i].type, paths[i].suffix, ret);
+}
+
+static int log_unresolvable_specifier(const char *filename, unsigned line) {
+        static bool notified = false;
+
+        /* In system mode, this is called when /etc is not fully initialized (e.g.
+         * in a chroot environment) where some specifiers are unresolvable. In user
+         * mode, this is called when some variables are not defined. These cases are
+         * not considered as an error so log at LOG_NOTICE only for the first time
+         * and then downgrade this to LOG_DEBUG for the rest. */
+
+        log_full(notified ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_NOTICE,
+                 "[%s:%u] Failed to resolve specifier: %s, skipping",
+                 filename, line,
+                 arg_user ? "Required $XDG_... variable not defined" : "uninitialized /etc detected");
+
+        if (!notified)
+                log_notice("All rules containing unresolvable specifiers will be skipped.");
+
+        notified = true;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int user_config_paths(char*** ret) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **config_dirs = NULL, **data_dirs = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *persistent_config = NULL, *runtime_config = NULL, *data_home = NULL;
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **res = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_dirs(&config_dirs, &data_dirs);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_config_dir(&persistent_config, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && r != -ENXIO)
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_runtime_dir(&runtime_config, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && r != -ENXIO)
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_data_dir(&data_home, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && r != -ENXIO)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend_strv_concat(&res, config_dirs, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, persistent_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, runtime_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, data_home);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend_strv_concat(&res, data_dirs, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = path_strv_make_absolute_cwd(res);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(res);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static bool needs_glob(ItemType t) {
+        return IN_SET(t,
+                      WRITE_FILE,
+                      IGNORE_PATH,
+                      IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH,
+                      REMOVE_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH,
+                      EMPTY_DIRECTORY,
+                      ADJUST_MODE,
+                      RELABEL_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH,
+                      SET_XATTR,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR,
+                      SET_ACL,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_ACL,
+                      SET_ATTRIBUTE,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE);
+}
+
+static bool takes_ownership(ItemType t) {
+        return IN_SET(t,
+                      CREATE_FILE,
+                      TRUNCATE_FILE,
+                      CREATE_DIRECTORY,
+                      EMPTY_DIRECTORY,
+                      TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA,
+                      CREATE_FIFO,
+                      CREATE_SYMLINK,
+                      CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE,
+                      CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE,
+                      COPY_FILES,
+                      WRITE_FILE,
+                      IGNORE_PATH,
+                      IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH,
+                      REMOVE_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH);
+}
+
+static struct Item* find_glob(OrderedHashmap *h, const char *match) {
+        ItemArray *j;
+        Iterator i;
+
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(j, h, i) {
+                size_t n;
+
+                for (n = 0; n < j->n_items; n++) {
+                        Item *item = j->items + n;
+
+                        if (fnmatch(item->path, match, FNM_PATHNAME|FNM_PERIOD) == 0)
+                                return item;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return NULL;
+}
+
+static int load_unix_sockets(void) {
+        _cleanup_set_free_free_ Set *sockets = NULL;
+        _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *f = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (unix_sockets)
+                return 0;
+
+        /* We maintain a cache of the sockets we found in /proc/net/unix to speed things up a little. */
+
+        sockets = set_new(&path_hash_ops);
+        if (!sockets)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        f = fopen("/proc/net/unix", "re");
+        if (!f)
+                return log_full_errno(errno == ENOENT ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_WARNING, errno,
+                                      "Failed to open /proc/net/unix, ignoring: %m");
+
+        /* Skip header */
+        r = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to skip /proc/net/unix header line: %m");
+        if (r == 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Premature end of file reading /proc/net/unix.");
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL, *s = NULL;
+                char *p;
+
+                r = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, &line);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to read /proc/net/unix line, ignoring: %m");
+                if (r == 0) /* EOF */
+                        break;
+
+                p = strchr(line, ':');
+                if (!p)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (strlen(p) < 37)
+                        continue;
+
+                p += 37;
+                p += strspn(p, WHITESPACE);
+                p += strcspn(p, WHITESPACE); /* skip one more word */
+                p += strspn(p, WHITESPACE);
+
+                if (*p != '/')
+                        continue;
+
+                s = strdup(p);
+                if (!s)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                path_simplify(s, false);
+
+                r = set_consume(sockets, s);
+                if (r == -EEXIST)
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to add AF_UNIX socket to set, ignoring: %m");
+
+                TAKE_PTR(s);
+        }
+
+        unix_sockets = TAKE_PTR(sockets);
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static bool unix_socket_alive(const char *fn) {
+        assert(fn);
+
+        if (load_unix_sockets() < 0)
+                return true;     /* We don't know, so assume yes */
+
+        return !!set_get(unix_sockets, (char*) fn);
+}
+
+static int dir_is_mount_point(DIR *d, const char *subdir) {
+
+        int mount_id_parent, mount_id;
+        int r_p, r;
+
+        r_p = name_to_handle_at_loop(dirfd(d), ".", NULL, &mount_id_parent, 0);
+        if (r_p < 0)
+                r_p = -errno;
+
+        r = name_to_handle_at_loop(dirfd(d), subdir, NULL, &mount_id, 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                r = -errno;
+
+        /* got no handle; make no assumptions, return error */
+        if (r_p < 0 && r < 0)
+                return r_p;
+
+        /* got both handles; if they differ, it is a mount point */
+        if (r_p >= 0 && r >= 0)
+                return mount_id_parent != mount_id;
+
+        /* got only one handle; assume different mount points if one
+         * of both queries was not supported by the filesystem */
+        if (IN_SET(r_p, -ENOSYS, -EOPNOTSUPP) || IN_SET(r, -ENOSYS, -EOPNOTSUPP))
+                return true;
+
+        /* return error */
+        if (r_p < 0)
+                return r_p;
+        return r;
+}
+
+static DIR* xopendirat_nomod(int dirfd, const char *path) {
+        DIR *dir;
+
+        dir = xopendirat(dirfd, path, O_NOFOLLOW|O_NOATIME);
+        if (dir)
+                return dir;
+
+        log_debug_errno(errno, "Cannot open %sdirectory \"%s\": %m", dirfd == AT_FDCWD ? "" : "sub", path);
+        if (errno != EPERM)
+                return NULL;
+
+        dir = xopendirat(dirfd, path, O_NOFOLLOW);
+        if (!dir)
+                log_debug_errno(errno, "Cannot open %sdirectory \"%s\": %m", dirfd == AT_FDCWD ? "" : "sub", path);
+
+        return dir;
+}
+
+static DIR* opendir_nomod(const char *path) {
+        return xopendirat_nomod(AT_FDCWD, path);
+}
+
+static int dir_cleanup(
+                Item *i,
+                const char *p,
+                DIR *d,
+                const struct stat *ds,
+                usec_t cutoff,
+                dev_t rootdev,
+                bool mountpoint,
+                int maxdepth,
+                bool keep_this_level) {
+
+        struct dirent *dent;
+        struct timespec times[2];
+        bool deleted = false;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        FOREACH_DIRENT_ALL(dent, d, break) {
+                struct stat s;
+                usec_t age;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *sub_path = NULL;
+
+                if (dot_or_dot_dot(dent->d_name))
+                        continue;
+
+                if (fstatat(dirfd(d), dent->d_name, &s, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) < 0) {
+                        if (errno == ENOENT)
+                                continue;
+
+                        /* FUSE, NFS mounts, SELinux might return EACCES */
+                        r = log_full_errno(errno == EACCES ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_ERR, errno,
+                                           "stat(%s/%s) failed: %m", p, dent->d_name);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                /* Stay on the same filesystem */
+                if (s.st_dev != rootdev) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s/%s\": different filesystem.", p, dent->d_name);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                /* Try to detect bind mounts of the same filesystem instance; they
+                 * do not differ in device major/minors. This type of query is not
+                 * supported on all kernels or filesystem types though. */
+                if (S_ISDIR(s.st_mode) && dir_is_mount_point(d, dent->d_name) > 0) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s/%s\": different mount of the same filesystem.",
+                                  p, dent->d_name);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                sub_path = strjoin(p, "/", dent->d_name);
+                if (!sub_path) {
+                        r = log_oom();
+                        goto finish;
+                }
+
+                /* Is there an item configured for this path? */
+                if (ordered_hashmap_get(items, sub_path)) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s\": a separate entry exists.", sub_path);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (find_glob(globs, sub_path)) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s\": a separate glob exists.", sub_path);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (S_ISDIR(s.st_mode)) {
+
+                        if (mountpoint &&
+                            streq(dent->d_name, "lost+found") &&
+                            s.st_uid == 0) {
+                                log_debug("Ignoring \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (maxdepth <= 0)
+                                log_warning("Reached max depth on \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                        else {
+                                _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *sub_dir;
+                                int q;
+
+                                sub_dir = xopendirat_nomod(dirfd(d), dent->d_name);
+                                if (!sub_dir) {
+                                        if (errno != ENOENT)
+                                                r = log_error_errno(errno, "opendir(%s) failed: %m", sub_path);
+
+                                        continue;
+                                }
+
+                                q = dir_cleanup(i, sub_path, sub_dir, &s, cutoff, rootdev, false, maxdepth-1, false);
+                                if (q < 0)
+                                        r = q;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Note: if you are wondering why we don't
+                         * support the sticky bit for excluding
+                         * directories from cleaning like we do it for
+                         * other file system objects: well, the sticky
+                         * bit already has a meaning for directories,
+                         * so we don't want to overload that. */
+
+                        if (keep_this_level) {
+                                log_debug("Keeping \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Ignore ctime, we change it when deleting */
+                        age = timespec_load(&s.st_mtim);
+                        if (age >= cutoff) {
+                                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+                                /* Follows spelling in stat(1). */
+                                log_debug("Directory \"%s\": modify time %s is too new.",
+                                          sub_path,
+                                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age));
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        age = timespec_load(&s.st_atim);
+                        if (age >= cutoff) {
+                                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+                                log_debug("Directory \"%s\": access time %s is too new.",
+                                          sub_path,
+                                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age));
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        log_debug("Removing directory \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                        if (unlinkat(dirfd(d), dent->d_name, AT_REMOVEDIR) < 0)
+                                if (!IN_SET(errno, ENOENT, ENOTEMPTY))
+                                        r = log_error_errno(errno, "rmdir(%s): %m", sub_path);
+
+                } else {
+                        /* Skip files for which the sticky bit is
+                         * set. These are semantics we define, and are
+                         * unknown elsewhere. See XDG_RUNTIME_DIR
+                         * specification for details. */
+                        if (s.st_mode & S_ISVTX) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": sticky bit set.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (mountpoint && S_ISREG(s.st_mode))
+                                if (s.st_uid == 0 && STR_IN_SET(dent->d_name,
+                                                                ".journal",
+                                                                "aquota.user",
+                                                                "aquota.group")) {
+                                        log_debug("Skipping \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                        continue;
+                                }
+
+                        /* Ignore sockets that are listed in /proc/net/unix */
+                        if (S_ISSOCK(s.st_mode) && unix_socket_alive(sub_path)) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": live socket.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Ignore device nodes */
+                        if (S_ISCHR(s.st_mode) || S_ISBLK(s.st_mode)) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": a device.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Keep files on this level around if this is
+                         * requested */
+                        if (keep_this_level) {
+                                log_debug("Keeping \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        age = timespec_load(&s.st_mtim);
+                        if (age >= cutoff) {
+                                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+                                /* Follows spelling in stat(1). */
+                                log_debug("File \"%s\": modify time %s is too new.",
+                                          sub_path,
+                                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age));
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        age = timespec_load(&s.st_atim);
+                        if (age >= cutoff) {
+                                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+                                log_debug("File \"%s\": access time %s is too new.",
+                                          sub_path,
+                                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age));
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        age = timespec_load(&s.st_ctim);
+                        if (age >= cutoff) {
+                                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+                                log_debug("File \"%s\": change time %s is too new.",
+                                          sub_path,
+                                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age));
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        log_debug("unlink \"%s\"", sub_path);
+
+                        if (unlinkat(dirfd(d), dent->d_name, 0) < 0)
+                                if (errno != ENOENT)
+                                        r = log_error_errno(errno, "unlink(%s): %m", sub_path);
+
+                        deleted = true;
+                }
+        }
+
+finish:
+        if (deleted) {
+                usec_t age1, age2;
+                char a[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX], b[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+
+                /* Restore original directory timestamps */
+                times[0] = ds->st_atim;
+                times[1] = ds->st_mtim;
+
+                age1 = timespec_load(&ds->st_atim);
+                age2 = timespec_load(&ds->st_mtim);
+                log_debug("Restoring access and modification time on \"%s\": %s, %s",
+                          p,
+                          format_timestamp_us(a, sizeof(a), age1),
+                          format_timestamp_us(b, sizeof(b), age2));
+                if (futimens(dirfd(d), times) < 0)
+                        log_error_errno(errno, "utimensat(%s): %m", p);
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static bool dangerous_hardlinks(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *value = NULL;
+        static int cached = -1;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Check whether the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is on. If we can't determine it we assume its off, as that's
+         * what the upstream default is. */
+
+        if (cached >= 0)
+                return cached;
+
+        r = read_one_line_file("/proc/sys/fs/protected_hardlinks", &value);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to read fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl: %m");
+                return true;
+        }
+
+        r = parse_boolean(value);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to parse fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl: %m");
+                return true;
+        }
+
+        cached = r == 0;
+        return cached;
+}
+
+static bool hardlink_vulnerable(const struct stat *st) {
+        assert(st);
+
+        return !S_ISDIR(st->st_mode) && st->st_nlink > 1 && dangerous_hardlinks();
+}
+
+static int fd_set_perms(Item *i, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st) {
+        struct stat stbuf;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(fd);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!i->mode_set && !i->uid_set && !i->gid_set)
+                goto shortcut;
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        if (hardlink_vulnerable(st))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                       "Refusing to set permissions on hardlinked file %s while the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is turned off.",
+                                       path);
+
+        if (i->mode_set) {
+                if (S_ISLNK(st->st_mode))
+                        log_debug("Skipping mode fix for symlink %s.", path);
+                else {
+                        mode_t m = i->mode;
+
+                        if (i->mask_perms) {
+                                if (!(st->st_mode & 0111))
+                                        m &= ~0111;
+                                if (!(st->st_mode & 0222))
+                                        m &= ~0222;
+                                if (!(st->st_mode & 0444))
+                                        m &= ~0444;
+                                if (!S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                                        m &= ~07000; /* remove sticky/sgid/suid bit, unless directory */
+                        }
+
+                        if (m == (st->st_mode & 07777))
+                                log_debug("\"%s\" has correct mode %o already.", path, st->st_mode);
+                        else {
+                                log_debug("Changing \"%s\" to mode %o.", path, m);
+                                if (fchmod_opath(fd, m) < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fchmod() of %s failed: %m", path);
+                        }
+                }
+        }
+
+        if ((i->uid_set && i->uid != st->st_uid) ||
+            (i->gid_set && i->gid != st->st_gid)) {
+                log_debug("Changing \"%s\" to owner "UID_FMT":"GID_FMT,
+                          path,
+                          i->uid_set ? i->uid : UID_INVALID,
+                          i->gid_set ? i->gid : GID_INVALID);
+
+                if (fchownat(fd,
+                             "",
+                             i->uid_set ? i->uid : UID_INVALID,
+                             i->gid_set ? i->gid : GID_INVALID,
+                             AT_EMPTY_PATH) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fchownat() of %s failed: %m", path);
+        }
+
+shortcut:
+        return label_fix(path, 0);
+}
+
+static int path_open_parent_safe(const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *dn = NULL;
+        int fd;
+
+        if (path_equal(path, "/") || !path_is_normalized(path))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Failed to open parent of '%s': invalid path.",
+                                       path);
+
+        dn = dirname_malloc(path);
+        if (!dn)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        fd = chase_symlinks(dn, NULL, CHASE_OPEN|CHASE_SAFE|CHASE_WARN, NULL);
+        if (fd < 0 && fd != -ENOLINK)
+                return log_error_errno(fd, "Failed to validate path %s: %m", path);
+
+        return fd;
+}
+
+static int path_open_safe(const char *path) {
+        int fd;
+
+        /* path_open_safe() returns a file descriptor opened with O_PATH after
+         * verifying that the path doesn't contain unsafe transitions, except
+         * for its final component as the function does not follow symlink. */
+
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!path_is_normalized(path))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Failed to open invalid path '%s'.",
+                                       path);
+
+        fd = chase_symlinks(path, NULL, CHASE_OPEN|CHASE_SAFE|CHASE_WARN|CHASE_NOFOLLOW, NULL);
+        if (fd < 0 && fd != -ENOLINK)
+                return log_error_errno(fd, "Failed to validate path %s: %m", path);
+
+        return fd;
+}
+
+static int path_set_perms(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int parse_xattrs_from_arg(Item *i) {
+        const char *p;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(i->argument);
+
+        p = i->argument;
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *name = NULL, *value = NULL, *xattr = NULL;
+
+                r = extract_first_word(&p, &xattr, NULL, EXTRACT_QUOTES|EXTRACT_CUNESCAPE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse extended attribute '%s', ignoring: %m", p);
+                if (r <= 0)
+                        break;
+
+                r = split_pair(xattr, "=", &name, &value);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse extended attribute, ignoring: %s", xattr);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (isempty(name) || isempty(value)) {
+                        log_warning("Malformed extended attribute found, ignoring: %s", xattr);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (strv_push_pair(&i->xattrs, name, value) < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                name = value = NULL;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fd_set_xattrs(Item *i, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st) {
+        char procfs_path[STRLEN("/proc/self/fd/") + DECIMAL_STR_MAX(int)];
+        char **name, **value;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(fd);
+        assert(path);
+
+        xsprintf(procfs_path, "/proc/self/fd/%i", fd);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH_PAIR(name, value, i->xattrs) {
+                log_debug("Setting extended attribute '%s=%s' on %s.", *name, *value, path);
+                if (setxattr(procfs_path, *name, *value, strlen(*value), 0) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Setting extended attribute %s=%s on %s failed: %m",
+                                               *name, *value, path);
+        }
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int path_set_xattrs(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_xattrs(i, fd, path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int parse_acls_from_arg(Item *item) {
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        int r;
+
+        assert(item);
+
+        /* If force (= modify) is set, we will not modify the acl
+         * afterwards, so the mask can be added now if necessary. */
+
+        r = parse_acl(item->argument, &item->acl_access, &item->acl_default, !item->force);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse ACL \"%s\": %m. Ignoring", item->argument);
+#else
+        log_warning_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOSYS), "ACLs are not supported. Ignoring");
+#endif
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+#if HAVE_ACL
+static int path_set_acl(const char *path, const char *pretty, acl_type_t type, acl_t acl, bool modify) {
+        _cleanup_(acl_free_charpp) char *t = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(acl_freep) acl_t dup = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Returns 0 for success, positive error if already warned,
+         * negative error otherwise. */
+
+        if (modify) {
+                r = acls_for_file(path, type, acl, &dup);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = calc_acl_mask_if_needed(&dup);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        } else {
+                dup = acl_dup(acl);
+                if (!dup)
+                        return -errno;
+
+                /* the mask was already added earlier if needed */
+        }
+
+        r = add_base_acls_if_needed(&dup, path);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        t = acl_to_any_text(dup, NULL, ',', TEXT_ABBREVIATE);
+        log_debug("Setting %s ACL %s on %s.",
+                  type == ACL_TYPE_ACCESS ? "access" : "default",
+                  strna(t), pretty);
+
+        r = acl_set_file(path, type, dup);
+        if (r < 0)
+                /* Return positive to indicate we already warned */
+                return -log_error_errno(errno,
+                                        "Setting %s ACL \"%s\" on %s failed: %m",
+                                        type == ACL_TYPE_ACCESS ? "access" : "default",
+                                        strna(t), pretty);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+#endif
+
+static int fd_set_acls(Item *item, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st) {
+        int r = 0;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        char procfs_path[STRLEN("/proc/self/fd/") + DECIMAL_STR_MAX(int)];
+        struct stat stbuf;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(fd);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        if (hardlink_vulnerable(st))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                       "Refusing to set ACLs on hardlinked file %s while the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is turned off.",
+                                       path);
+
+        if (S_ISLNK(st->st_mode)) {
+                log_debug("Skipping ACL fix for symlink %s.", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        xsprintf(procfs_path, "/proc/self/fd/%i", fd);
+
+        if (item->acl_access)
+                r = path_set_acl(procfs_path, path, ACL_TYPE_ACCESS, item->acl_access, item->force);
+
+        /* set only default acls to folders */
+        if (r == 0 && item->acl_default && S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                r = path_set_acl(procfs_path, path, ACL_TYPE_DEFAULT, item->acl_default, item->force);
+
+        if (r > 0)
+                return -r; /* already warned */
+        if (r == -EOPNOTSUPP) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "ACLs not supported by file system at %s", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "ACL operation on \"%s\" failed: %m", path);
+#endif
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int path_set_acls(Item *item, const char *path) {
+        int r = 0;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        r = fd_set_acls(item, fd, path, NULL);
+#endif
+        return r;
+}
+
+#define ATTRIBUTES_ALL                          \
+        (FS_NOATIME_FL      |                   \
+         FS_SYNC_FL         |                   \
+         FS_DIRSYNC_FL      |                   \
+         FS_APPEND_FL       |                   \
+         FS_COMPR_FL        |                   \
+         FS_NODUMP_FL       |                   \
+         FS_EXTENT_FL       |                   \
+         FS_IMMUTABLE_FL    |                   \
+         FS_JOURNAL_DATA_FL |                   \
+         FS_SECRM_FL        |                   \
+         FS_UNRM_FL         |                   \
+         FS_NOTAIL_FL       |                   \
+         FS_TOPDIR_FL       |                   \
+         FS_NOCOW_FL)
+
+static int parse_attribute_from_arg(Item *item) {
+
+        static const struct {
+                char character;
+                unsigned value;
+        } attributes[] = {
+                { 'A', FS_NOATIME_FL },      /* do not update atime */
+                { 'S', FS_SYNC_FL },         /* Synchronous updates */
+                { 'D', FS_DIRSYNC_FL },      /* dirsync behaviour (directories only) */
+                { 'a', FS_APPEND_FL },       /* writes to file may only append */
+                { 'c', FS_COMPR_FL },        /* Compress file */
+                { 'd', FS_NODUMP_FL },       /* do not dump file */
+                { 'e', FS_EXTENT_FL },       /* Extents */
+                { 'i', FS_IMMUTABLE_FL },    /* Immutable file */
+                { 'j', FS_JOURNAL_DATA_FL }, /* Reserved for ext3 */
+                { 's', FS_SECRM_FL },        /* Secure deletion */
+                { 'u', FS_UNRM_FL },         /* Undelete */
+                { 't', FS_NOTAIL_FL },       /* file tail should not be merged */
+                { 'T', FS_TOPDIR_FL },       /* Top of directory hierarchies */
+                { 'C', FS_NOCOW_FL },        /* Do not cow file */
+        };
+
+        enum {
+                MODE_ADD,
+                MODE_DEL,
+                MODE_SET
+        } mode = MODE_ADD;
+
+        unsigned value = 0, mask = 0;
+        const char *p;
+
+        assert(item);
+
+        p = item->argument;
+        if (p) {
+                if (*p == '+') {
+                        mode = MODE_ADD;
+                        p++;
+                } else if (*p == '-') {
+                        mode = MODE_DEL;
+                        p++;
+                } else  if (*p == '=') {
+                        mode = MODE_SET;
+                        p++;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (isempty(p) && mode != MODE_SET)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Setting file attribute on '%s' needs an attribute specification.",
+                                       item->path);
+
+        for (; p && *p ; p++) {
+                unsigned i, v;
+
+                for (i = 0; i < ELEMENTSOF(attributes); i++)
+                        if (*p == attributes[i].character)
+                                break;
+
+                if (i >= ELEMENTSOF(attributes))
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                               "Unknown file attribute '%c' on '%s'.",
+                                               *p, item->path);
+
+                v = attributes[i].value;
+
+                SET_FLAG(value, v, IN_SET(mode, MODE_ADD, MODE_SET));
+
+                mask |= v;
+        }
+
+        if (mode == MODE_SET)
+                mask |= ATTRIBUTES_ALL;
+
+        assert(mask != 0);
+
+        item->attribute_mask = mask;
+        item->attribute_value = value;
+        item->attribute_set = true;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fd_set_attribute(Item *item, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int procfs_fd = -1;
+        struct stat stbuf;
+        unsigned f;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(fd);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!item->attribute_set || item->attribute_mask == 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        /* Issuing the file attribute ioctls on device nodes is not
+         * safe, as that will be delivered to the drivers, not the
+         * file system containing the device node. */
+        if (!S_ISREG(st->st_mode) && !S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Setting file flags is only supported on regular files and directories, cannot set on '%s'.",
+                                       path);
+
+        f = item->attribute_value & item->attribute_mask;
+
+        /* Mask away directory-specific flags */
+        if (!S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                f &= ~FS_DIRSYNC_FL;
+
+        procfs_fd = fd_reopen(fd, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOATIME);
+        if (procfs_fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(procfs_fd, "Failed to re-open '%s': %m", path);
+
+        r = chattr_fd(procfs_fd, f, item->attribute_mask, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_full_errno(IN_SET(r, -ENOTTY, -EOPNOTSUPP) ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_WARNING,
+                               r,
+                               "Cannot set file attribute for '%s', value=0x%08x, mask=0x%08x, ignoring: %m",
+                               path, item->attribute_value, item->attribute_mask);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int path_set_attribute(Item *item, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        if (!item->attribute_set || item->attribute_mask == 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_attribute(item, fd, path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int write_one_file(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        char *bn;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->argument);
+        assert(i->type == WRITE_FILE);
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the
+         * file so we're sure that it can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        bn = basename(path);
+
+        /* Follows symlinks */
+        fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (errno == ENOENT) {
+                        log_debug_errno(errno, "Not writing missing file \"%s\": %m", path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open file \"%s\": %m", path);
+        }
+
+        /* 'w' is allowed to write into any kind of files. */
+        log_debug("Writing to \"%s\".", path);
+
+        r = loop_write(fd, i->argument, strlen(i->argument), false);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write file \"%s\": %m", path);
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int create_file(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        struct stat stbuf, *st = NULL;
+        int r = 0;
+        char *bn;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->type == CREATE_FILE);
+
+        /* 'f' operates on regular files exclusively. */
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the
+         * file so we're sure that it can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        bn = basename(path);
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFREG);
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_CREAT|O_EXCL|O_NOFOLLOW|O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                /* Even on a read-only filesystem, open(2) returns EEXIST if the
+                 * file already exists. It returns EROFS only if it needs to
+                 * create the file. */
+                if (errno != EEXIST)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create file %s: %m", path);
+
+                /* Re-open the file. At that point it must exist since open(2)
+                 * failed with EEXIST. We still need to check if the perms/mode
+                 * need to be changed. For read-only filesystems, we let
+                 * fd_set_perms() report the error if the perms need to be
+                 * modified. */
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH, i->mode);
+                if (fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to re-open file %s: %m", path);
+
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+
+                if (!S_ISREG(stbuf.st_mode)) {
+                        log_error("%s exists and is not a regular file.", path);
+                        return -EEXIST;
+                }
+
+                st = &stbuf;
+        } else {
+
+                log_debug("\"%s\" has been created.", path);
+
+                if (i->argument) {
+                        log_debug("Writing to \"%s\".", path);
+
+                        r = loop_write(fd, i->argument, strlen(i->argument), false);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write file \"%s\": %m", path);
+                }
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, st);
+}
+
+static int truncate_file(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        struct stat stbuf, *st = NULL;
+        bool erofs = false;
+        int r = 0;
+        char *bn;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->type == TRUNCATE_FILE);
+
+        /* We want to operate on regular file exclusively especially since
+         * O_TRUNC is unspecified if the file is neither a regular file nor a
+         * fifo nor a terminal device. Therefore we first open the file and make
+         * sure it's a regular one before truncating it. */
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the
+         * file so we're sure that it can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        bn = basename(path);
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFREG);
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_CREAT|O_NOFOLLOW|O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (errno != EROFS)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open/create file %s: %m", path);
+
+                /* On a read-only filesystem, we don't want to fail if the
+                 * target is already empty and the perms are set. So we still
+                 * proceed with the sanity checks and let the remaining
+                 * operations fail with EROFS if they try to modify the target
+                 * file. */
+
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH, i->mode);
+                if (fd < 0) {
+                        if (errno == ENOENT) {
+                                log_error("Cannot create file %s on a read-only file system.", path);
+                                return -EROFS;
+                        }
+
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to re-open file %s: %m", path);
+                }
+
+                erofs = true;
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+
+        if (!S_ISREG(stbuf.st_mode)) {
+                log_error("%s exists and is not a regular file.", path);
+                return -EEXIST;
+        }
+
+        if (stbuf.st_size > 0) {
+                if (ftruncate(fd, 0) < 0) {
+                        r = erofs ? -EROFS : -errno;
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to truncate file %s: %m", path);
+                }
+        } else
+                st = &stbuf;
+
+        log_debug("\"%s\" has been created.", path);
+
+        if (i->argument) {
+                log_debug("Writing to \"%s\".", path);
+
+                r = loop_write(fd, i->argument, strlen(i->argument), false);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        r = erofs ? -EROFS : r;
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write file %s: %m", path);
+                }
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, st);
+}
+
+static int copy_files(Item *i) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int dfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        char *bn;
+        int r;
+
+        log_debug("Copying tree \"%s\" to \"%s\".", i->argument, i->path);
+
+        bn = basename(i->path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and use the returned directory fd for copying the
+         * target so we're sure that the path can't be changed behind our
+         * back. */
+        dfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path);
+        if (dfd < 0)
+                return dfd;
+
+        r = copy_tree_at(AT_FDCWD, i->argument,
+                         dfd, bn,
+                         i->uid_set ? i->uid : UID_INVALID,
+                         i->gid_set ? i->gid : GID_INVALID,
+                         COPY_REFLINK | COPY_MERGE_EMPTY);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                struct stat a, b;
+
+                /* If the target already exists on read-only filesystems, trying
+                 * to create the target will not fail with EEXIST but with
+                 * EROFS. */
+                if (r == -EROFS && faccessat(dfd, bn, F_OK, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) == 0)
+                        r = -EEXIST;
+
+                if (r != -EEXIST)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy files to %s: %m", i->path);
+
+                if (stat(i->argument, &a) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", i->argument);
+
+                if (fstatat(dfd, bn, &b, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                if ((a.st_mode ^ b.st_mode) & S_IFMT) {
+                        log_debug("Can't copy to %s, file exists already and is of different type", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+        }
+
+        fd = openat(dfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to openat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, NULL);
+}
+
+typedef enum {
+        CREATION_NORMAL,
+        CREATION_EXISTING,
+        CREATION_FORCE,
+        _CREATION_MODE_MAX,
+        _CREATION_MODE_INVALID = -1
+} CreationMode;
+
+static const char *creation_mode_verb_table[_CREATION_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [CREATION_NORMAL] = "Created",
+        [CREATION_EXISTING] = "Found existing",
+        [CREATION_FORCE] = "Created replacement",
+};
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP_TO_STRING(creation_mode_verb, CreationMode);
+
+static int create_directory_or_subvolume(const char *path, mode_t mode, bool subvol, CreationMode *creation) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int pfd = -1;
+        CreationMode c;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!creation)
+                creation = &c;
+
+        pfd = path_open_parent_safe(path);
+        if (pfd < 0)
+                return pfd;
+
+        if (subvol) {
+                if (btrfs_is_subvol(empty_to_root(arg_root)) <= 0)
+
+                        /* Don't create a subvolume unless the root directory is
+                         * one, too. We do this under the assumption that if the
+                         * root directory is just a plain directory (i.e. very
+                         * light-weight), we shouldn't try to split it up into
+                         * subvolumes (i.e. more heavy-weight). Thus, chroot()
+                         * environments and suchlike will get a full brtfs
+                         * subvolume set up below their tree only if they
+                         * specifically set up a btrfs subvolume for the root
+                         * dir too. */
+
+                        subvol = false;
+                else {
+                        RUN_WITH_UMASK((~mode) & 0777)
+                                r = btrfs_subvol_make_fd(pfd, basename(path));
+                }
+        } else
+                r = 0;
+
+        if (!subvol || r == -ENOTTY)
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        r = mkdirat_label(pfd, basename(path), mode);
+
+        if (r < 0) {
+                int k;
+
+                if (!IN_SET(r, -EEXIST, -EROFS))
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create directory or subvolume \"%s\": %m", path);
+
+                k = is_dir_fd(pfd);
+                if (k == -ENOENT && r == -EROFS)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "%s does not exist and cannot be created as the file system is read-only.", path);
+                if (k < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(k, "Failed to check if %s exists: %m", path);
+                if (!k) {
+                        log_warning("\"%s\" already exists and is not a directory.", path);
+                        return -EEXIST;
+                }
+
+                *creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        } else
+                *creation = CREATION_NORMAL;
+
+        log_debug("%s directory \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(*creation), path);
+
+        r = openat(pfd, basename(path), O_NOCTTY|O_CLOEXEC|O_DIRECTORY);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open directory '%s': %m", basename(path));
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int create_directory(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_DIRECTORY, TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY));
+
+        fd = create_directory_or_subvolume(path, i->mode, false, NULL);
+        if (fd == -EEXIST)
+                return 0;
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int create_subvolume(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        int r, q = 0;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_SUBVOLUME, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA));
+
+        fd = create_directory_or_subvolume(path, i->mode, true, &creation);
+        if (fd == -EEXIST)
+                return 0;
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        if (creation == CREATION_NORMAL &&
+            IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA)) {
+                r = btrfs_subvol_auto_qgroup_fd(fd, 0, i->type == CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA);
+                if (r == -ENOTTY)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (unsupported fs or dir not a subvolume): %m", i->path);
+                else if (r == -EROFS)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (fs is read-only).", i->path);
+                else if (r == -ENOPROTOOPT)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (quota support is disabled).", i->path);
+                else if (r < 0)
+                        q = log_error_errno(r, "Failed to adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\": %m", i->path);
+                else if (r > 0)
+                        log_debug("Adjusted quota for subvolume \"%s\".", i->path);
+                else if (r == 0)
+                        log_debug("Quota for subvolume \"%s\" already in place, no change made.", i->path);
+        }
+
+        r = fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, NULL);
+        if (q < 0) /* prefer the quota change error from above */
+                return q;
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int empty_directory(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(i->type == EMPTY_DIRECTORY);
+
+        r = is_dir(path, false);
+        if (r == -ENOENT) {
+                /* Option "e" operates only on existing objects. Do not
+                 * print errors about non-existent files or directories */
+                log_debug("Skipping missing directory: %s", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "is_dir() failed on path %s: %m", path);
+        if (r == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EEXIST),
+                                       "'%s' already exists and is not a directory.",
+                                       path);
+
+        return path_set_perms(i, path);
+}
+
+static int create_device(Item *i, mode_t file_type) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int dfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        char *bn;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(file_type, S_IFBLK, S_IFCHR));
+
+        bn = basename(i->path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and use the returned directory fd for copying the
+         * target so we're sure that the path can't be changed behind our
+         * back. */
+        dfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path);
+        if (dfd < 0)
+                return dfd;
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, file_type);
+                r = mknodat(dfd, bn, i->mode | file_type, i->major_minor);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        if (r < 0) {
+                struct stat st;
+
+                if (errno == EPERM) {
+                        log_debug("We lack permissions, possibly because of cgroup configuration; "
+                                  "skipping creation of device node %s.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                if (errno != EEXIST)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create device node %s: %m", i->path);
+
+                if (fstatat(dfd, bn, &st, 0) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                if ((st.st_mode & S_IFMT) != file_type) {
+
+                        if (i->force) {
+
+                                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, file_type);
+                                        /* FIXME: need to introduce mknodat_atomic() */
+                                        r = mknod_atomic(i->path, i->mode | file_type, i->major_minor);
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                                }
+
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create device node \"%s\": %m", i->path);
+                                creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+                        } else {
+                                log_debug("%s is not a device node.", i->path);
+                                return 0;
+                        }
+                } else
+                        creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        } else
+                creation = CREATION_NORMAL;
+
+        log_debug("%s %s device node \"%s\" %u:%u.",
+                  creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation),
+                  i->type == CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE ? "block" : "char",
+                  i->path, major(i->mode), minor(i->mode));
+
+        fd = openat(dfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to openat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, NULL);
+}
+
+static int create_fifo(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int pfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        char *bn;
+        int r;
+
+        pfd = path_open_parent_safe(path);
+        if (pfd < 0)
+                return pfd;
+
+        bn = basename(path);
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFIFO);
+                r = mkfifoat(pfd, bn, i->mode);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (errno != EEXIST)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create fifo %s: %m", path);
+
+                if (fstatat(pfd, bn, &st, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+
+                if (!S_ISFIFO(st.st_mode)) {
+
+                        if (i->force) {
+                                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFIFO);
+                                        r = mkfifoat_atomic(pfd, bn, i->mode);
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                                }
+
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create fifo %s: %m", path);
+                                creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+                        } else {
+                                log_warning("\"%s\" already exists and is not a fifo.", path);
+                                return 0;
+                        }
+                } else
+                        creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        } else
+                creation = CREATION_NORMAL;
+
+        log_debug("%s fifo \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation), path);
+
+        fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to openat(%s): %m", path);
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, NULL);
+}
+
+typedef int (*action_t)(Item *i, const char *path);
+typedef int (*fdaction_t)(Item *i, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st);
+
+static int item_do(Item *i, int fd, const char *path, fdaction_t action) {
+        struct stat st;
+        int r = 0, q;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0) {
+                r = log_error_errno(errno, "fstat() on file failed: %m");
+                goto finish;
+        }
+
+        /* This returns the first error we run into, but nevertheless
+         * tries to go on */
+        r = action(i, fd, path, &st);
+
+        if (S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)) {
+                char procfs_path[STRLEN("/proc/self/fd/") + DECIMAL_STR_MAX(int)];
+                _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+                struct dirent *de;
+
+                /* The passed 'fd' was opened with O_PATH. We need to convert
+                 * it into a 'regular' fd before reading the directory content. */
+                xsprintf(procfs_path, "/proc/self/fd/%i", fd);
+
+                d = opendir(procfs_path);
+                if (!d) {
+                        log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to opendir() '%s': %m", procfs_path);
+                        if (r == 0)
+                                r = -errno;
+                        goto finish;
+                }
+
+                FOREACH_DIRENT_ALL(de, d, q = -errno; goto finish) {
+                        int de_fd;
+
+                        if (dot_or_dot_dot(de->d_name))
+                                continue;
+
+                        de_fd = openat(fd, de->d_name, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+                        if (de_fd < 0)
+                                q = log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open() file '%s': %m", de->d_name);
+                        else {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *de_path = NULL;
+
+                                de_path = path_join(path, de->d_name);
+                                if (!de_path)
+                                        q = log_oom();
+                                else
+                                        /* Pass ownership of dirent fd over */
+                                        q = item_do(i, de_fd, de_path, action);
+                        }
+
+                        if (q < 0 && r == 0)
+                                r = q;
+                }
+        }
+finish:
+        safe_close(fd);
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int glob_item(Item *i, action_t action) {
+        _cleanup_globfree_ glob_t g = {
+                .gl_opendir = (void *(*)(const char *)) opendir_nomod,
+        };
+        int r = 0, k;
+        char **fn;
+
+        k = safe_glob(i->path, GLOB_NOSORT|GLOB_BRACE, &g);
+        if (k < 0 && k != -ENOENT)
+                return log_error_errno(k, "glob(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(fn, g.gl_pathv) {
+                k = action(i, *fn);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int glob_item_recursively(Item *i, fdaction_t action) {
+        _cleanup_globfree_ glob_t g = {
+                .gl_opendir = (void *(*)(const char *)) opendir_nomod,
+        };
+        int r = 0, k;
+        char **fn;
+
+        k = safe_glob(i->path, GLOB_NOSORT|GLOB_BRACE, &g);
+        if (k < 0 && k != -ENOENT)
+                return log_error_errno(k, "glob(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(fn, g.gl_pathv) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+                /* Make sure we won't trigger/follow file object (such as
+                 * device nodes, automounts, ...) pointed out by 'fn' with
+                 * O_PATH. Note, when O_PATH is used, flags other than
+                 * O_CLOEXEC, O_DIRECTORY, and O_NOFOLLOW are ignored. */
+
+                fd = open(*fn, O_CLOEXEC|O_NOFOLLOW|O_PATH);
+                if (fd < 0) {
+                        log_error_errno(errno, "Opening '%s' failed: %m", *fn);
+                        if (r == 0)
+                                r = -errno;
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                k = item_do(i, fd, *fn, action);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+
+                /* we passed fd ownership to the previous call */
+                fd = -1;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int create_item(Item *i) {
+        CreationMode creation;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running create action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                return 0;
+
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = create_file(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = truncate_file(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = copy_files(i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case WRITE_FILE:
+                r = glob_item(i, write_one_file);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = create_directory(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = create_subvolume(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+                r = glob_item(i, empty_directory);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_FIFO:
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = create_fifo(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK: {
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+                r = symlink(i->argument, i->path);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *x = NULL;
+
+                        if (errno != EEXIST)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "symlink(%s, %s) failed: %m", i->argument, i->path);
+
+                        r = readlink_malloc(i->path, &x);
+                        if (r < 0 || !streq(i->argument, x)) {
+
+                                if (i->force) {
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+                                        r = symlink_atomic(i->argument, i->path);
+                                        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+
+                                        if (IN_SET(r, -EISDIR, -EEXIST, -ENOTEMPTY)) {
+                                                r = rm_rf(i->path, REMOVE_ROOT|REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                                                if (r < 0)
+                                                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm -fr %s failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                                                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+                                                r = symlink(i->argument, i->path) < 0 ? -errno : 0;
+                                                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                                        }
+                                        if (r < 0)
+                                                return log_error_errno(r, "symlink(%s, %s) failed: %m", i->argument, i->path);
+
+                                        creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+                                } else {
+                                        log_debug("\"%s\" is not a symlink or does not point to the correct path.", i->path);
+                                        return 0;
+                                }
+                        } else
+                                creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+                } else
+
+                        creation = CREATION_NORMAL;
+                log_debug("%s symlink \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation), i->path);
+                break;
+        }
+
+        case CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE:
+        case CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE:
+                if (have_effective_cap(CAP_MKNOD) == 0) {
+                        /* In a container we lack CAP_MKNOD. We shouldn't attempt to create the device node in that
+                         * case to avoid noise, and we don't support virtualized devices in containers anyway. */
+
+                        log_debug("We lack CAP_MKNOD, skipping creation of device node %s.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+                r = create_device(i, i->type == CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE ? S_IFBLK : S_IFCHR);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                break;
+
+        case ADJUST_MODE:
+        case RELABEL_PATH:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_perms);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_perms);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_XATTR:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_xattrs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_xattrs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ACL:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_acls);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ACL:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_acls);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_attribute);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_attribute);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int remove_item_instance(Item *i, const char *instance) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+                if (remove(instance) < 0 && errno != ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "rm(%s): %m", instance);
+
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                /* FIXME: we probably should use dir_cleanup() here instead of rm_rf() so that 'x' is honoured. */
+                log_debug("rm -rf \"%s\"", instance);
+                r = rm_rf(instance, REMOVE_ROOT|REMOVE_SUBVOLUME|REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm_rf(%s): %m", instance);
+
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                assert_not_reached("wut?");
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int remove_item(Item *i) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running remove action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+                /* FIXME: we probably should use dir_cleanup() here instead of rm_rf() so that 'x' is honoured. */
+                log_debug("rm -rf \"%s\"", i->path);
+                r = rm_rf(i->path, REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm_rf(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+                return 0;
+
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                return glob_item(i, remove_item_instance);
+
+        default:
+                return 0;
+        }
+}
+
+static int clean_item_instance(Item *i, const char* instance) {
+        _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+        struct stat s, ps;
+        bool mountpoint;
+        usec_t cutoff, n;
+        char timestamp[FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_MAX];
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        if (!i->age_set)
+                return 0;
+
+        n = now(CLOCK_REALTIME);
+        if (n < i->age)
+                return 0;
+
+        cutoff = n - i->age;
+
+        d = opendir_nomod(instance);
+        if (!d) {
+                if (IN_SET(errno, ENOENT, ENOTDIR)) {
+                        log_debug_errno(errno, "Directory \"%s\": %m", instance);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open directory %s: %m", instance);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(dirfd(d), &s) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        if (!S_ISDIR(s.st_mode))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOTDIR),
+                                       "%s is not a directory.", i->path);
+
+        if (fstatat(dirfd(d), "..", &ps, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) != 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s/..) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        mountpoint = s.st_dev != ps.st_dev || s.st_ino == ps.st_ino;
+
+        log_debug("Cleanup threshold for %s \"%s\" is %s",
+                  mountpoint ? "mount point" : "directory",
+                  instance,
+                  format_timestamp_us(timestamp, sizeof(timestamp), cutoff));
+
+        return dir_cleanup(i, instance, d, &s, cutoff, s.st_dev, mountpoint,
+                           MAX_DEPTH, i->keep_first_level);
+}
+
+static int clean_item(Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running clean action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                clean_item_instance(i, i->path);
+                return 0;
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+                return glob_item(i, clean_item_instance);
+        default:
+                return 0;
+        }
+}
+
+static int process_item(Item *i, OperationMask operation) {
+        OperationMask todo;
+        int r, q, p;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        todo = operation & ~i->done;
+        if (todo == 0) /* Everything already done? */
+                return 0;
+
+        i->done |= operation;
+
+        r = chase_symlinks(i->path, NULL, CHASE_NO_AUTOFS|CHASE_WARN, NULL);
+        if (r == -EREMOTE) {
+                log_notice_errno(r, "Skipping %s", i->path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to determine whether '%s' is below autofs, ignoring: %m", i->path);
+
+        r = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CREATE) ? create_item(i) : 0;
+        /* Failure can only be tolerated for create */
+        if (i->allow_failure)
+                r = 0;
+
+        q = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_REMOVE) ? remove_item(i) : 0;
+        p = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CLEAN) ? clean_item(i) : 0;
+
+        return r < 0 ? r :
+                q < 0 ? q :
+                p;
+}
+
+static int process_item_array(ItemArray *array, OperationMask operation) {
+        int r = 0;
+        size_t n;
+
+        assert(array);
+
+        /* Create any parent first. */
+        if (FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CREATE) && array->parent)
+                r = process_item_array(array->parent, operation & OPERATION_CREATE);
+
+        /* Clean up all children first */
+        if ((operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN)) && !set_isempty(array->children)) {
+                Iterator i;
+                ItemArray *c;
+
+                SET_FOREACH(c, array->children, i) {
+                        int k;
+
+                        k = process_item_array(c, operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN));
+                        if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        for (n = 0; n < array->n_items; n++) {
+                int k;
+
+                k = process_item(array->items + n, operation);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static void item_free_contents(Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+        free(i->path);
+        free(i->argument);
+        strv_free(i->xattrs);
+
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        acl_free(i->acl_access);
+        acl_free(i->acl_default);
+#endif
+}
+
+static ItemArray* item_array_free(ItemArray *a) {
+        size_t n;
+
+        if (!a)
+                return NULL;
+
+        for (n = 0; n < a->n_items; n++)
+                item_free_contents(a->items + n);
+
+        set_free(a->children);
+        free(a->items);
+        return mfree(a);
+}
+
+static int item_compare(const Item *a, const Item *b) {
+        /* Make sure that the ownership taking item is put first, so
+         * that we first create the node, and then can adjust it */
+
+        if (takes_ownership(a->type) && !takes_ownership(b->type))
+                return -1;
+        if (!takes_ownership(a->type) && takes_ownership(b->type))
+                return 1;
+
+        return CMP(a->type, b->type);
+}
+
+static bool item_compatible(Item *a, Item *b) {
+        assert(a);
+        assert(b);
+        assert(streq(a->path, b->path));
+
+        if (takes_ownership(a->type) && takes_ownership(b->type))
+                /* check if the items are the same */
+                return  streq_ptr(a->argument, b->argument) &&
+
+                        a->uid_set == b->uid_set &&
+                        a->uid == b->uid &&
+
+                        a->gid_set == b->gid_set &&
+                        a->gid == b->gid &&
+
+                        a->mode_set == b->mode_set &&
+                        a->mode == b->mode &&
+
+                        a->age_set == b->age_set &&
+                        a->age == b->age &&
+
+                        a->mask_perms == b->mask_perms &&
+
+                        a->keep_first_level == b->keep_first_level &&
+
+                        a->major_minor == b->major_minor;
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static bool should_include_path(const char *path) {
+        char **prefix;
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(prefix, arg_exclude_prefixes)
+                if (path_startswith(path, *prefix)) {
+                        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" matches exclude prefix \"%s\", skipping.",
+                                  path, *prefix);
+                        return false;
+                }
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(prefix, arg_include_prefixes)
+                if (path_startswith(path, *prefix)) {
+                        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" matches include prefix \"%s\".", path, *prefix);
+                        return true;
+                }
+
+        /* no matches, so we should include this path only if we
+         * have no whitelist at all */
+        if (strv_isempty(arg_include_prefixes))
+                return true;
+
+        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" does not match any include prefix, skipping.", path);
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int specifier_expansion_from_arg(Item *i) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *unescaped = NULL, *resolved = NULL;
+        char **xattr;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        if (i->argument == NULL)
+                return 0;
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+        case COPY_FILES:
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+        case WRITE_FILE:
+                r = cunescape(i->argument, 0, &unescaped);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to unescape parameter to write: %s", i->argument);
+
+                r = specifier_printf(unescaped, specifier_table, NULL, &resolved);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                free_and_replace(i->argument, resolved);
+                break;
+
+        case SET_XATTR:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                assert(i->xattrs);
+
+                STRV_FOREACH (xattr, i->xattrs) {
+                        r = specifier_printf(*xattr, specifier_table, NULL, &resolved);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        free_and_replace(*xattr, resolved);
+                }
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                break;
+        }
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int patch_var_run(const char *fname, unsigned line, char **path) {
+        const char *k;
+        char *n;
+
+        assert(path);
+        assert(*path);
+
+        /* Optionally rewrites lines referencing /var/run/, to use /run/ instead. Why bother? tmpfiles merges lines in
+         * some cases and detects conflicts in others. If files/directories are specified through two equivalent lines
+         * this is problematic as neither case will be detected. Ideally we'd detect these cases by resolving symlinks
+         * early, but that's precisely not what we can do here as this code very likely is running very early on, at a
+         * time where the paths in question are not available yet, or even more importantly, our own tmpfiles rules
+         * might create the paths that are intermediary to the listed paths. We can't really cover the generic case,
+         * but the least we can do is cover the specific case of /var/run vs. /run, as /var/run is a legacy name for
+         * /run only, and we explicitly document that and require that on systemd systems the former is a symlink to
+         * the latter. Moreover files below this path are by far the primary usecase for tmpfiles.d/. */
+
+        k = path_startswith(*path, "/var/run/");
+        if (isempty(k)) /* Don't complain about other paths than /var/run, and not about /var/run itself either. */
+                return 0;
+
+        n = strjoin("/run/", k);
+        if (!n)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        /* Also log about this briefly. We do so at LOG_NOTICE level, as we fixed up the situation automatically, hence
+         * there's no immediate need for action by the user. However, in the interest of making things less confusing
+         * to the user, let's still inform the user that these snippets should really be updated. */
+
+        log_notice("[%s:%u] Line references path below legacy directory /var/run/, updating %s → %s; please update the tmpfiles.d/ drop-in file accordingly.", fname, line, *path, n);
+
+        free_and_replace(*path, n);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_line(const char *fname, unsigned line, const char *buffer, bool *invalid_config) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *action = NULL, *mode = NULL, *user = NULL, *group = NULL, *age = NULL, *path = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(item_free_contents) Item i = {};
+        ItemArray *existing;
+        OrderedHashmap *h;
+        int r, pos;
+        bool force = false, boot = false, allow_failure = false;
+
+        assert(fname);
+        assert(line >= 1);
+        assert(buffer);
+
+        r = extract_many_words(
+                        &buffer,
+                        NULL,
+                        EXTRACT_QUOTES,
+                        &action,
+                        &path,
+                        &mode,
+                        &user,
+                        &group,
+                        &age,
+                        NULL);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        /* invalid quoting and such or an unknown specifier */
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_error_errno(r, "[%s:%u] Failed to parse line: %m", fname, line);
+        } else if (r < 2) {
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                log_error("[%s:%u] Syntax error.", fname, line);
+                return -EIO;
+        }
+
+        if (!isempty(buffer) && !streq(buffer, "-")) {
+                i.argument = strdup(buffer);
+                if (!i.argument)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (isempty(action)) {
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                log_error("[%s:%u] Command too short '%s'.", fname, line, action);
+                return -EINVAL;
+        }
+
+        for (pos = 1; action[pos]; pos++) {
+                if (action[pos] == '!' && !boot)
+                        boot = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '+' && !force)
+                        force = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '-' && !allow_failure)
+                        allow_failure = true;
+                else {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Unknown modifiers in command '%s'",
+                                  fname, line, action);
+                        return -EINVAL;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (boot && !arg_boot) {
+                log_debug("Ignoring entry %s \"%s\" because --boot is not specified.",
+                          action, path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        i.type = action[0];
+        i.force = force;
+        i.allow_failure = allow_failure;
+
+        r = specifier_printf(path, specifier_table, NULL, &i.path);
+        if (r == -ENXIO)
+                return log_unresolvable_specifier(fname, line);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_error_errno(r, "[%s:%u] Failed to replace specifiers: %s", fname, line, path);
+        }
+
+        r = patch_var_run(fname, line, &i.path);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        switch (i.type) {
+
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_FIFO:
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+        case ADJUST_MODE:
+        case RELABEL_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH:
+                if (i.argument)
+                        log_warning("[%s:%u] %c lines don't take argument fields, ignoring.", fname, line, i.type);
+
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        i.argument = strappend("/usr/share/factory/", i.path);
+                        if (!i.argument)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case WRITE_FILE:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Write file requires argument.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        i.argument = strappend("/usr/share/factory/", i.path);
+                        if (!i.argument)
+                                return log_oom();
+                } else if (!path_is_absolute(i.argument)) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Source path is not absolute.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+
+                path_simplify(i.argument, false);
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE:
+        case CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Device file requires argument.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+
+                r = parse_dev(i.argument, &i.major_minor);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error_errno(r, "[%s:%u] Can't parse device file major/minor '%s'.", fname, line, i.argument);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+
+                break;
+
+        case SET_XATTR:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Set extended attribute requires argument.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+                r = parse_xattrs_from_arg(&i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ACL:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ACL:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Set ACLs requires argument.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+                r = parse_acls_from_arg(&i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Set file attribute requires argument.", fname, line);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+                r = parse_attribute_from_arg(&i);
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                log_error("[%s:%u] Unknown command type '%c'.", fname, line, (char) i.type);
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return -EBADMSG;
+        }
+
+        if (!path_is_absolute(i.path)) {
+                log_error("[%s:%u] Path '%s' not absolute.", fname, line, i.path);
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return -EBADMSG;
+        }
+
+        path_simplify(i.path, false);
+
+        if (!should_include_path(i.path))
+                return 0;
+
+        r = specifier_expansion_from_arg(&i);
+        if (r == -ENXIO)
+                return log_unresolvable_specifier(fname, line);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_error_errno(r, "[%s:%u] Failed to substitute specifiers in argument: %m",
+                                       fname, line);
+        }
+
+        if (arg_root) {
+                char *p;
+
+                p = prefix_root(arg_root, i.path);
+                if (!p)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                free_and_replace(i.path, p);
+        }
+
+        if (!isempty(user) && !streq(user, "-")) {
+                const char *u = user;
+
+                r = get_user_creds(&u, &i.uid, NULL, NULL, NULL, USER_CREDS_ALLOW_MISSING);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "[%s:%u] Unknown user '%s'.", fname, line, user);
+                }
+
+                i.uid_set = true;
+        }
+
+        if (!isempty(group) && !streq(group, "-")) {
+                const char *g = group;
+
+                r = get_group_creds(&g, &i.gid, USER_CREDS_ALLOW_MISSING);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Unknown group '%s'.", fname, line, group);
+                        return r;
+                }
+
+                i.gid_set = true;
+        }
+
+        if (!isempty(mode) && !streq(mode, "-")) {
+                const char *mm = mode;
+                unsigned m;
+
+                if (*mm == '~') {
+                        i.mask_perms = true;
+                        mm++;
+                }
+
+                if (parse_mode(mm, &m) < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Invalid mode '%s'.", fname, line, mode);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+
+                i.mode = m;
+                i.mode_set = true;
+        } else
+                i.mode = IN_SET(i.type, CREATE_DIRECTORY, TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY, CREATE_SUBVOLUME, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA) ? 0755 : 0644;
+
+        if (!isempty(age) && !streq(age, "-")) {
+                const char *a = age;
+
+                if (*a == '~') {
+                        i.keep_first_level = true;
+                        a++;
+                }
+
+                if (parse_sec(a, &i.age) < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        log_error("[%s:%u] Invalid age '%s'.", fname, line, age);
+                        return -EBADMSG;
+                }
+
+                i.age_set = true;
+        }
+
+        h = needs_glob(i.type) ? globs : items;
+
+        existing = ordered_hashmap_get(h, i.path);
+        if (existing) {
+                size_t n;
+
+                for (n = 0; n < existing->n_items; n++) {
+                        if (!item_compatible(existing->items + n, &i)) {
+                                log_notice("[%s:%u] Duplicate line for path \"%s\", ignoring.",
+                                           fname, line, i.path);
+                                return 0;
+                        }
+                }
+        } else {
+                existing = new0(ItemArray, 1);
+                if (!existing)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = ordered_hashmap_put(h, i.path, existing);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        free(existing);
+                        return log_oom();
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (!GREEDY_REALLOC(existing->items, existing->allocated, existing->n_items + 1))
+                return log_oom();
+
+        existing->items[existing->n_items++] = i;
+        i = (struct Item) {};
+
+        /* Sort item array, to enforce stable ordering of application */
+        typesafe_qsort(existing->items, existing->n_items, item_compare);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int cat_config(char **config_dirs, char **args) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **files = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = conf_files_list_with_replacement(arg_root, config_dirs, arg_replace, &files, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return cat_files(NULL, files, 0);
+}
+
+static int help(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *link = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = terminal_urlify_man("systemd-tmpfiles", "8", &link);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        printf("%s [OPTIONS...] [CONFIGURATION FILE...]\n\n"
+               "Creates, deletes and cleans up volatile and temporary files and directories.\n\n"
+               "  -h --help                 Show this help\n"
+               "     --user                 Execute user configuration\n"
+               "     --version              Show package version\n"
+               "     --cat-config           Show configuration files\n"
+               "     --create               Create marked files/directories\n"
+               "     --clean                Clean up marked directories\n"
+               "     --remove               Remove marked files/directories\n"
+               "     --boot                 Execute actions only safe at boot\n"
+               "     --prefix=PATH          Only apply rules with the specified prefix\n"
+               "     --exclude-prefix=PATH  Ignore rules with the specified prefix\n"
+               "     --root=PATH            Operate on an alternate filesystem root\n"
+               "     --replace=PATH         Treat arguments as replacement for PATH\n"
+               "     --no-pager             Do not pipe output into a pager\n"
+               "\nSee the %s for details.\n"
+               , program_invocation_short_name
+               , link
+        );
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_argv(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+
+        enum {
+                ARG_VERSION = 0x100,
+                ARG_CAT_CONFIG,
+                ARG_USER,
+                ARG_CREATE,
+                ARG_CLEAN,
+                ARG_REMOVE,
+                ARG_BOOT,
+                ARG_PREFIX,
+                ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX,
+                ARG_ROOT,
+                ARG_REPLACE,
+                ARG_NO_PAGER,
+        };
+
+        static const struct option options[] = {
+                { "help",           no_argument,         NULL, 'h'                },
+                { "user",           no_argument,         NULL, ARG_USER           },
+                { "version",        no_argument,         NULL, ARG_VERSION        },
+                { "cat-config",     no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CAT_CONFIG     },
+                { "create",         no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CREATE         },
+                { "clean",          no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CLEAN          },
+                { "remove",         no_argument,         NULL, ARG_REMOVE         },
+                { "boot",           no_argument,         NULL, ARG_BOOT           },
+                { "prefix",         required_argument,   NULL, ARG_PREFIX         },
+                { "exclude-prefix", required_argument,   NULL, ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX },
+                { "root",           required_argument,   NULL, ARG_ROOT           },
+                { "replace",        required_argument,   NULL, ARG_REPLACE        },
+                { "no-pager",       no_argument,         NULL, ARG_NO_PAGER       },
+                {}
+        };
+
+        int c, r;
+
+        assert(argc >= 0);
+        assert(argv);
+
+        while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "h", options, NULL)) >= 0)
+
+                switch (c) {
+
+                case 'h':
+                        return help();
+
+                case ARG_VERSION:
+                        return version();
+
+                case ARG_CAT_CONFIG:
+                        arg_cat_config = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_USER:
+                        arg_user = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_CREATE:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_CREATE;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_CLEAN:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_CLEAN;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_REMOVE:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_REMOVE;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_BOOT:
+                        arg_boot = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_PREFIX:
+                        if (strv_push(&arg_include_prefixes, optarg) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX:
+                        if (strv_push(&arg_exclude_prefixes, optarg) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_ROOT:
+                        r = parse_path_argument_and_warn(optarg, true, &arg_root);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_REPLACE:
+                        if (!path_is_absolute(optarg) ||
+                            !endswith(optarg, ".conf"))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                       "The argument to --replace= must an absolute path to a config file");
+
+                        arg_replace = optarg;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_NO_PAGER:
+                        arg_pager_flags |= PAGER_DISABLE;
+                        break;
+
+                case '?':
+                        return -EINVAL;
+
+                default:
+                        assert_not_reached("Unhandled option");
+                }
+
+        if (arg_operation == 0 && !arg_cat_config)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "You need to specify at least one of --clean, --create or --remove.");
+
+        if (arg_replace && arg_cat_config)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Option --replace= is not supported with --cat-config");
+
+        if (arg_replace && optind >= argc)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "When --replace= is given, some configuration items must be specified");
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int read_config_file(char **config_dirs, const char *fn, bool ignore_enoent, bool *invalid_config) {
+        _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *_f = NULL;
+        Iterator iterator;
+        unsigned v = 0;
+        FILE *f;
+        Item *i;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        assert(fn);
+
+        if (streq(fn, "-")) {
+                log_debug("Reading config from stdin…");
+                fn = "<stdin>";
+                f = stdin;
+        } else {
+                r = search_and_fopen(fn, "re", arg_root, (const char**) config_dirs, &_f);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (ignore_enoent && r == -ENOENT) {
+                                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to open \"%s\", ignoring: %m", fn);
+                                return 0;
+                        }
+
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open '%s': %m", fn);
+                }
+                log_debug("Reading config file \"%s\"…", fn);
+                f = _f;
+        }
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL;
+                bool invalid_line = false;
+                char *l;
+                int k;
+
+                k = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, &line);
+                if (k < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(k, "Failed to read '%s': %m", fn);
+                if (k == 0)
+                        break;
+
+                v++;
+
+                l = strstrip(line);
+                if (IN_SET(*l, 0, '#'))
+                        continue;
+
+                k = parse_line(fn, v, l, &invalid_line);
+                if (k < 0) {
+                        if (invalid_line)
+                                /* Allow reporting with a special code if the caller requested this */
+                                *invalid_config = true;
+                        else if (r == 0)
+                                /* The first error becomes our return value */
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        /* we have to determine age parameter for each entry of type X */
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(i, globs, iterator) {
+                Iterator iter;
+                Item *j, *candidate_item = NULL;
+
+                if (i->type != IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH)
+                        continue;
+
+                ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(j, items, iter) {
+                        if (!IN_SET(j->type, CREATE_DIRECTORY, TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY, CREATE_SUBVOLUME, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA))
+                                continue;
+
+                        if (path_equal(j->path, i->path)) {
+                                candidate_item = j;
+                                break;
+                        }
+
+                        if ((!candidate_item && path_startswith(i->path, j->path)) ||
+                            (candidate_item && path_startswith(j->path, candidate_item->path) && (fnmatch(i->path, j->path, FNM_PATHNAME | FNM_PERIOD) == 0)))
+                                candidate_item = j;
+                }
+
+                if (candidate_item && candidate_item->age_set) {
+                        i->age = candidate_item->age;
+                        i->age_set = true;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (ferror(f)) {
+                log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to read from file %s: %m", fn);
+                if (r == 0)
+                        r = -EIO;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int parse_arguments(char **config_dirs, char **args, bool *invalid_config) {
+        char **arg;
+        int r;
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(arg, args) {
+                r = read_config_file(config_dirs, *arg, false, invalid_config);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int read_config_files(char **config_dirs, char **args, bool *invalid_config) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **files = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+        char **f;
+        int r;
+
+        r = conf_files_list_with_replacement(arg_root, config_dirs, arg_replace, &files, &p);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(f, files)
+                if (p && path_equal(*f, p)) {
+                        log_debug("Parsing arguments at position \"%s\"…", *f);
+
+                        r = parse_arguments(config_dirs, args, invalid_config);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                } else
+                        /* Just warn, ignore result otherwise.
+                         * read_config_file() has some debug output, so no need to print anything. */
+                        (void) read_config_file(config_dirs, *f, true, invalid_config);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int link_parent(ItemArray *a) {
+        const char *path;
+        char *prefix;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(a);
+
+        /* Finds the closest "parent" item array for the specified item array. Then registers the specified item array
+         * as child of it, and fills the parent in, linking them both ways. This allows us to later create parents
+         * before their children, and clean up/remove children before their parents. */
+
+        if (a->n_items <= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        path = a->items[0].path;
+        prefix = newa(char, strlen(path) + 1);
+        PATH_FOREACH_PREFIX(prefix, path) {
+                ItemArray *j;
+
+                j = ordered_hashmap_get(items, prefix);
+                if (!j)
+                        j = ordered_hashmap_get(globs, prefix);
+                if (j) {
+                        r = set_ensure_allocated(&j->children, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        r = set_put(j->children, a);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        a->parent = j;
+                        return 1;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_HASH_OPS_WITH_VALUE_DESTRUCTOR(item_array_hash_ops, char, string_hash_func, string_compare_func,
+                                              ItemArray, item_array_free);
+
+static int run(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **config_dirs = NULL;
+        bool invalid_config = false;
+        Iterator iterator;
+        ItemArray *a;
+        enum {
+                PHASE_REMOVE_AND_CLEAN,
+                PHASE_CREATE,
+                _PHASE_MAX
+        } phase;
+        int r, k;
+
+        r = parse_argv(argc, argv);
+        if (r <= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        log_setup_service();
+
+        if (arg_user) {
+                r = user_config_paths(&config_dirs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to initialize configuration directory list: %m");
+        } else {
+                config_dirs = strv_split_nulstr(CONF_PATHS_NULSTR("tmpfiles.d"));
+                if (!config_dirs)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (DEBUG_LOGGING) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
+
+                t = strv_join(config_dirs, "\n\t");
+                if (t)
+                        log_debug("Looking for configuration files in (higher priority first):\n\t%s", t);
+        }
+
+        if (arg_cat_config) {
+                (void) pager_open(arg_pager_flags);
+
+                return cat_config(config_dirs, argv + optind);
+        }
+
+        umask(0022);
+
+        mac_selinux_init();
+
+        items = ordered_hashmap_new(&item_array_hash_ops);
+        globs = ordered_hashmap_new(&item_array_hash_ops);
+        if (!items || !globs)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        /* If command line arguments are specified along with --replace, read all
+         * configuration files and insert the positional arguments at the specified
+         * place. Otherwise, if command line arguments are specified, execute just
+         * them, and finally, without --replace= or any positional arguments, just
+         * read configuration and execute it.
+         */
+        if (arg_replace || optind >= argc)
+                r = read_config_files(config_dirs, argv + optind, &invalid_config);
+        else
+                r = parse_arguments(config_dirs, argv + optind, &invalid_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Let's now link up all child/parent relationships */
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, items, iterator) {
+                r = link_parent(a);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, globs, iterator) {
+                r = link_parent(a);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* If multiple operations are requested, let's first run the remove/clean operations, and only then the create
+         * operations. i.e. that we first clean out the platform we then build on. */
+        for (phase = 0; phase < _PHASE_MAX; phase++) {
+                OperationMask op;
+
+                if (phase == PHASE_REMOVE_AND_CLEAN)
+                        op = arg_operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN);
+                else if (phase == PHASE_CREATE)
+                        op = arg_operation & OPERATION_CREATE;
+                else
+                        assert_not_reached("unexpected phase");
+
+                if (op == 0) /* Nothing requested in this phase */
+                        continue;
+
+                /* The non-globbing ones usually create things, hence we apply them first */
+                ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, items, iterator) {
+                        k = process_item_array(a, op);
+                        if (k < 0 && r >= 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+
+                /* The globbing ones usually alter things, hence we apply them second. */
+                ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, globs, iterator) {
+                        k = process_item_array(a, op);
+                        if (k < 0 && r >= 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (ERRNO_IS_RESOURCE(-r))
+                return r;
+        if (invalid_config)
+                return EX_DATAERR;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return EX_CANTCREAT;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_MAIN_FUNCTION_WITH_POSITIVE_FAILURE(run);