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diff --git a/www/lang_select.html b/www/lang_select.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3857180 --- /dev/null +++ b/www/lang_select.html @@ -0,0 +1,16070 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html><head> +<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<link href="sqlite.css" rel="stylesheet"> +<title>SELECT</title> +<!-- path= --> +</head> +<body> +<div class=nosearch> +<a href="index.html"> +<img class="logo" src="images/sqlite370_banner.gif" alt="SQLite" border="0"> +</a> +<div><!-- IE hack to prevent disappearing logo --></div> +<div class="tagline desktoponly"> +Small. Fast. 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Overview</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#simple_select_processing">2. Simple Select Processing</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#determination_of_input_data_from_clause_processing_">2.1. Determination of input data (FROM clause processing)</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#special_handling_of_cross_join_">2.2. Special handling of CROSS JOIN.</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#where_clause_filtering_">2.3. WHERE clause filtering.</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#generation_of_the_set_of_result_rows">2.4. Generation of the set of result rows</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#bare_columns_in_an_aggregate_query">2.5. Bare columns in an aggregate query</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#removal_of_duplicate_rows_distinct_processing_">2.6. Removal of duplicate rows (DISTINCT processing)</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#compound_select_statements">3. Compound Select Statements</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_order_by_clause">4. The ORDER BY clause</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_limit_clause">5. The LIMIT clause</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_values_clause">6. The VALUES clause</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_with_clause">7. The WITH Clause</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#table_valued_functions_in_the_from_clause">8. Table-valued Functions In The FROM Clause</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#deviations_from_standard_sql">9. Deviations From Standard SQL</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#strange_join_names">9.1. Strange JOIN names</a></div> +<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#precedence_of_comma_joins_and_cross_join">9.2. Precedence of comma-joins and CROSS JOIN</a></div> +</div> +</div> +<script> +function toggle_toc(){ +var sub = document.getElementById("toc_sub") +var mk = document.getElementById("toc_mk") +if( sub.style.display!="block" ){ +sub.style.display = "block"; +mk.innerHTML = "▼"; +} else { +sub.style.display = "none"; +mk.innerHTML = "►"; +} +} +</script> +</div> + + + + +<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1> +<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b> +<button id='x1861' onclick='hideorshow("x1861","x1862")'>hide</button></p> + <div id='x1862' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:669px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 669.677 1162.3"> +<path d="M55,845L667,845L667,99L55,99Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:3.24;stroke:rgb(211,211,211);" /> +<circle cx="6" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="46,17 34,21 34,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M10,17L40,17" 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The +result of a SELECT is zero or more rows of data where each row +has a fixed number of columns. A SELECT statement does not make +any changes to the database. + +</p><p>The "<a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt</a>" syntax diagram above attempts to show as much of the +SELECT statement syntax as possible in a single diagram, because some readers +find that helpful. The following "<a href="syntax/factored-select-stmt.html">factored-select-stmt</a>" is an alternative +syntax diagrams that expresses the same syntax but tries to break the syntax +down into smaller chunks. + +<p><b><a href="syntax/factored-select-stmt.html">factored-select-stmt:</a></b> +<button id='x1899' onclick='hideorshow("x1899","x1900")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x1900' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:629px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 629.266 500.04"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="45,17 33,21 33,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L39,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M60,32L91,32A15 15 0 0 0 106 17A15 15 0 0 0 91 2L60,2A15 15 0 0 0 45 17A15 15 0 0 0 60 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="75" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" 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style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M74,47 L 33,47 Q 18,47 18,32 L 18,32 Q 18,17 26,17 L 33,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="382,17 371,21 371,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M102,17L377,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M382,17L630,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +</svg> +</div> +<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b> +<button id='x1951' onclick='hideorshow("x1951","x1952")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x1952' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,44 39,48 39,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44" 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onclick='hideorshow("x1953","x1954")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x1954' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="56" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> +<polygon points="111,44 100,48 100,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M81,17 L 89,17 Q 96,17 96,30 Q 96,44 101,44 L 105,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M126,59L190,59A15 15 0 0 0 205 44L205,44A15 15 0 0 0 190 29L126,29A15 15 0 0 0 111 44L111,44A15 15 0 0 0 126 59Z" 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Some examples: +</p><ul> +<li>A <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause can be the first element in a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> + that uses a <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause, but a <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> that consists of + just a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause cannot be preceded by a <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause. +</li><li>The <a href="lang_with.html">WITH</a> clause must occur on the first SELECT of a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>. + It cannot follow a <a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator</a>. +</li></ul> + +<p>These and other similar syntax restrictions are described in the text. + +</p><p>The SELECT statement is the most complicated command in the SQL language. +To make the description easier to follow, some of the passages below describe +the way the data returned by a SELECT statement is determined as a series of +steps. It is important to keep in mind that this is purely illustrative - +in practice neither SQLite nor any other SQL engine is required to follow +this or any other specific process. + +<a name="simpleselect"></a> + +</p><h1 id="simple_select_processing"><span>2. </span>Simple Select Processing</h1> + +<p>The core of a SELECT statement is a "simple SELECT" shown by the +<a href="syntax/select-core.html">select-core</a> and <a href="syntax/simple-select-stmt.html">simple-select-stmt</a> syntax diagrams below. +In practice, most SELECT statements are simple SELECT statements. + +<p><b><a href="syntax/simple-select-stmt.html">simple-select-stmt:</a></b> +<button id='x1973' onclick='hideorshow("x1973","x1974")'>hide</button></p> + <div id='x1974' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:629px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 629.266 348.84"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="45,17 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onclick='hideorshow("x1985","x1986")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x1986' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text> +<polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon 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489,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +</svg> +</div> +<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b> +<button id='x2013' onclick='hideorshow("x2013","x2014")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x2014' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> 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style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text> +<polygon points="286,92 298,88 298,97" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M333,55 L 341,55 Q 348,55 348,70 L 348,77 Q 348,92 333,92 L 307,92 L 292,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M256,92 L 197,92 Q 182,92 182,77 L 182,70 Q 182,55 190,55 L 197,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,17 39,21 39,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L45,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text> +<polygon points="113,17 101,21 101,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path 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onclick='hideorshow("x2015","x2016")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x2016' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text> +<polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon 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/> +</svg> +</div> +<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b> +<button id='x2033' onclick='hideorshow("x2033","x2034")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x2034' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> +<polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path 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style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text> +<polygon points="143,55 131,59 131,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M120,55L137,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z" 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text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCLUDE</text> +<polygon points="567,357 555,361 555,353" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M544,357L561,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M582,372L591,372A15 15 0 0 0 606 357A15 15 0 0 0 591 342L582,342A15 15 0 0 0 567 357A15 15 0 0 0 582 372Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="586" y="357" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NO</text> +<polygon points="629,357 617,361 617,353" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M606,357L623,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M644,372L700,372A15 15 0 0 0 715 357A15 15 0 0 0 700 342L644,342A15 15 0 0 0 629 357A15 15 0 0 0 644 372Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="672" y="357" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OTHERS</text> +<polygon points="767,357 756,361 756,353" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M715,357L762,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="890,516 879,520 879,511" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M767,357 L 775,357 Q 782,357 782,372 L 782,501 Q 782,516 797,516 L 870,516 L 885,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<circle cx="894" cy="516" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="710,304 722,300 722,308" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M1001,304L716,304" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="527,516 516,520 516,511" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M710,304 L 434,304 Q 419,304 419,319 L 419,501 Q 419,516 434,516 L 507,516 L 522,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M527,516L797,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,357 434,361 434,353" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,342 L 419,349 Q 419,357 430,357 L 440,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,395 434,399 434,390" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,380 L 419,387 Q 419,395 430,395 L 440,395" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,433 434,437 434,428" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,417 L 419,425 Q 419,433 430,433 L 440,433" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,470 434,475 434,466" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,455 L 419,463 Q 419,470 430,470 L 440,470" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +</svg> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + +</p><p>Generating the results of a simple SELECT +statement is presented as a four step process in the description below: + +</p><ol> + <li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#fromclause">FROM clause</a> processing: The input data for the simple SELECT is + determined. The input data is either implicitly a single row with 0 + columns (if there is no FROM clause) or is determined by the FROM + clause. + </p></li><li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#whereclause">WHERE clause</a> processing: The input data is filtered using the WHERE + clause expression. + </p></li><li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#resultset">GROUP BY, HAVING and result-column expression</a> processing: + The set of result rows is computed by aggregating the data according to + any GROUP BY clause and calculating the result-set expressions for the + rows of the filtered input dataset. + </p></li><li> <p><a href="lang_select.html#distinct">DISTINCT/ALL keyword</a> processing: If the query is a "SELECT + DISTINCT" query, duplicate rows are removed from the set of result rows. +</p></li></ol> + +<p>There are two types of simple SELECT statement - aggregate and +non-aggregate queries. A simple SELECT statement is an aggregate query if +it contains either a GROUP BY clause or one or more aggregate functions +in the result-set. Otherwise, if a simple SELECT contains no aggregate +functions or a GROUP BY clause, it is a non-aggregate query. + +<a name="fromclause"></a> + + +</p><h2 id="determination_of_input_data_from_clause_processing_"><span>2.1. </span>Determination of input data (FROM clause processing)</h2> + +<p>The input data used by a simple SELECT query is a set of <i>N</i> rows +each <i>M</i> columns wide. + +</p><p>If the FROM clause is omitted from a simple SELECT statement, then the +input data is implicitly a single row zero columns wide (i.e. <i>N</i>=1 and +<i>M</i>=0). + +</p><p>If a FROM clause is specified, the data on which a simple SELECT query +operates comes from the one or more tables or subqueries (SELECT statements +in parentheses) specified following the FROM keyword. A subquery specified +in the <span class='yyterm'>table-or-subquery</span> following the FROM clause in a +simple SELECT statement is +handled as if it was a table containing the data returned by executing the +subquery statement. Each column of the subquery has the +<a href="datatype3.html#collation">collation sequence</a> and <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> of the corresponding expression +in the subquery statement. + +</p><p>If there is only a single table or subquery in the FROM +clause, then the input data used by the SELECT statement is the contents of the +named table. If there is more than one table or subquery in FROM clause +then the contents of all tables and/or subqueries +are joined into a single dataset for the simple SELECT statement to operate on. +Exactly how the data is combined depends on the specific <a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator</a> and +<a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint</a> used to connect the tables or subqueries together. + +</p><p>All joins in SQLite are based on the cartesian product of the left and +right-hand datasets. The columns of the cartesian product dataset are, in +order, all the columns of the left-hand dataset followed by all the columns +of the right-hand dataset. There is a row in the cartesian product dataset +formed by combining each unique combination of a row from the left-hand +and right-hand datasets. In other words, if the left-hand dataset consists of +<i>N<sub><small>left</small></sub></i> rows of +<i>M<sub><small>left</small></sub></i> columns, and the right-hand dataset of +<i>N<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> rows of +<i>M<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> columns, then the cartesian product is a +dataset of +<i>N<sub><small>left</small></sub>×N<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> +rows, each containing +<i>M<sub><small>left</small></sub>+M<sub><small>right</small></sub></i> columns. + +</p><p>If the join-operator is "CROSS JOIN", "INNER JOIN", "JOIN" or a comma +(",") and there is no ON or USING clause, then the result of the join is +simply the cartesian product of the left and right-hand datasets. +If join-operator does have ON or USING clauses, those are handled according to +the following bullet points: + +</p><ul> + <li> <p>If there is an ON clause then the ON expression is + evaluated for each row of the cartesian product as a + <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which the expression evaluates to + true are included from the dataset. + + </p></li><li> <p>If there is a USING clause + then each of the column names specified must exist in the datasets to + both the left and right of the join-operator. For each pair of named + columns, the expression "lhs.X = rhs.X" is evaluated for each row of + the cartesian product as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which + all such expressions evaluates to true are included from the + result set. When comparing values as a result of a USING clause, the + normal rules for handling affinities, collation sequences and NULL + values in comparisons apply. The column from the dataset on the + left-hand side of the join-operator is considered to be on the left-hand + side of the comparison operator (=) for the purposes of collation + sequence and affinity precedence. + + </p><p>For each pair of columns identified by a USING clause, the column + from the right-hand dataset is omitted from the joined dataset. This + is the only difference between a USING clause and its equivalent ON + constraint. + + </p></li><li> <p>If the NATURAL keyword is in the join-operator then an + implicit USING clause is added to the join-constraints. The implicit + USING clause contains each of the column names that appear in both + the left and right-hand input datasets. If the left and right-hand + input datasets feature no common column names, then the NATURAL keyword + has no effect on the results of the join. A USING or ON clause may + not be added to a join that specifies the NATURAL keyword. + + </p></li><li> <p>If the join-operator is a "LEFT JOIN" or "LEFT OUTER JOIN", then + after + the ON or USING filtering clauses have been applied, an extra row is + added to the output for each row in the original left-hand input + dataset that does not match any row in the right-hand dataset. + The added rows contain NULL values in the columns + that would normally contain values copied from the right-hand input + dataset. + + </p></li><li> <p> + <a name="rjoin"></a> + + If the join-operator is a "RIGHT JOIN" or "RIGHT OUTER JOIN", then + after the ON or USING filtering clauses have been applied, an extra row is + added to the output for each row in the original right-hand input + dataset that does not match any row in the left-hand dataset. + The added rows contain NULL values in the columns + that would normally contain values copied from the left-hand input + dataset. + + </p></li><li> <p> + <a name="fulljoin"></a> + + A "FULL JOIN" or "FULL OUTER JOIN" is a combination of a + "LEFT JOIN" and a "RIGHT JOIN". Extra rows of output are + added for each row in left dataset that matches no rows in the right, + and for each row in the right dataset that matches no rows in the + left. Unmatched columns are filled in with NULL. +</p></li></ul> + +<p>When more than two tables are joined together as part of a FROM clause, +the join operations are processed in order from left to right. In other +words, the FROM clause (A join-op-1 B join-op-2 C) is computed as +((A join-op-1 B) join-op-2 C). + +<a name="crossjoin"></a> + +</p><h2 id="special_handling_of_cross_join_"><span>2.2. </span>Special handling of CROSS JOIN.</h2> + +<p>There is no difference between the "INNER JOIN", "JOIN" and "," join +operators. They are completely interchangeable in SQLite. +The "CROSS JOIN" join operator produces the same result as the +"INNER JOIN", "JOIN" and "," operators, but is +<a href="optoverview.html#crossjoin">handled differently by the query optimizer</a> +in that it prevents the query optimizer from reordering +the tables in the join. An application programmer can use the CROSS JOIN +operator to directly influence the algorithm that is chosen to implement +the SELECT statement. Avoid using CROSS JOIN except in specific situations +where manual control of the query optimizer is desired. Avoid using +CROSS JOIN early in the development of an application as doing so is +a <a href="http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PrematureOptimization">premature +optimization</a>. The special handling of CROSS JOIN is an SQLite-specific +feature and is not a part of standard SQL. + +<a name="whereclause"></a> + + +</p><h2 id="where_clause_filtering_"><span>2.3. </span>WHERE clause filtering.</h2> + +<p>If a WHERE clause is specified, the WHERE expression is evaluated for +each row in the input data as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. Only rows for which the +WHERE clause expression evaluates to true are included from the dataset before +continuing. Rows are excluded from the result if the WHERE clause +evaluates to either false or NULL. + +</p><p>For a JOIN or INNER JOIN or CROSS JOIN, there is no difference between +a constraint expression in the WHERE clause and one in the ON clause. However, +for a LEFT JOIN or LEFT OUTER JOIN, the difference is very important. +In a LEFT JOIN, +the extra NULL row for the right-hand table is added after ON clause processing +but before WHERE clause processing. A constraint of the form "left.x=right.y" +in an ON clause will therefore allow through the added all-NULL rows of the +right table. But if that same constraint is in the WHERE clause a NULL in +"right.y" will prevent the expression "left.x=right.y" from being true, and +thus exclude that row from the output. + +<a name="resultset"></a> + + +</p><h2 id="generation_of_the_set_of_result_rows"><span>2.4. </span>Generation of the set of result rows</h2> + +<p>Once the input data from the FROM clause has been filtered by the +WHERE clause expression (if any), the set of result rows for the simple +SELECT are calculated. Exactly how this is done depends on whether the simple +SELECT is an aggregate or non-aggregate query, and whether or not a GROUP +BY clause was specified. + +</p><p> The list of expressions between the SELECT and FROM keywords is known as +the result expression list. If a result expression is the special expression +"*" then all columns in the input data are substituted for that one expression. +If the expression is the alias of a table or subquery in the FROM clause +followed by ".*" then all columns from the named table or subquery are +substituted for the single expression. It is an error to use a "*" or +"alias.*" expression in any context other than a result expression list. +It is also an error to use a "*" or "alias.*" expression in a simple SELECT +query that does not have a FROM clause. + +</p><p> The number of columns in the rows returned by a simple SELECT statement +is equal to the number of expressions in the result expression list after +substitution of * and alias.* expressions. Each result row is calculated by +evaluating the expressions in the result expression list with respect to a +single row of input data or, for aggregate queries, with respect to a group +of rows. + +</p><ul> + <li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>a non-aggregate query</b>, then + each expression in the result expression list is evaluated for each row in + the dataset filtered by the WHERE clause. + + </p></li><li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>an aggregate query without a GROUP + BY</b> clause, then each aggregate expression in the result-set is + evaluated once across the entire dataset. Each non-aggregate expression + in the result-set is evaluated once for an arbitrarily selected row of + the dataset. The same arbitrarily selected row is used for each + non-aggregate expression. Or, if the dataset contains zero rows, then + each non-aggregate expression is evaluated against a row consisting + entirely of NULL values. + + </p><p>The single row of result-set data created by evaluating the aggregate + and non-aggregate expressions in the result-set forms the result of an + aggregate query without a GROUP BY clause. An aggregate query without a + GROUP BY clause always returns exactly one row of data, even if there are + zero rows of input data. + + + </p></li><li><p>If the SELECT statement is <b>an aggregate query with a GROUP + BY</b> clause, then each of the expressions specified as part of the + GROUP BY clause is evaluated for each row of the dataset according to + the processing rules stated below for ORDER BY expressions. Each row + is then assigned to a "group" based on the results; rows for which + the results of evaluating the GROUP BY expressions are the same get + assigned to the same group. For the purposes of grouping rows, NULL + values are considered equal. The usual rules for <a href="datatype3.html#collation">selecting a + collation sequence</a> with which to compare text values apply when evaluating + expressions in a GROUP BY clause. The expressions in the GROUP BY clause + do <em>not</em> have to be expressions that appear in the result. The + expressions in a GROUP BY clause may not be aggregate expressions. + + + </p><p>If a HAVING clause is specified, it is evaluated once for each group + of rows as a <a href="lang_expr.html#booleanexpr">boolean expression</a>. If the result of evaluating the + HAVING clause is false, the group is discarded. If the HAVING clause is + an aggregate expression, it is evaluated across all rows in the group. If + a HAVING clause is a non-aggregate expression, it is evaluated with respect + to an arbitrarily selected row from the group. The HAVING expression may + refer to values, even aggregate functions, that are not in the result.</p> + + <p>Each expression in the result-set is then evaluated once for each + group of rows. If the expression is an aggregate expression, it is + evaluated across all rows in the group. Otherwise, it is evaluated against + a single arbitrarily chosen row from within the group. If there is more + than one non-aggregate expression in the result-set, then all such + expressions are evaluated for the same row. + + </p><p>Each group of input dataset rows contributes a single row to the + set of result rows. Subject to filtering associated with the DISTINCT + keyword, the number of rows returned by an aggregate query with a GROUP + BY clause is the same as the number of groups of rows produced by applying + the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses to the filtered input dataset. +</p></li></ul> + +<a name="bareagg"></a> + +<h2 id="bare_columns_in_an_aggregate_query"><span>2.5. </span>Bare columns in an aggregate query</h2> + +<p>The usual case is that all column names in an aggregate query are either +arguments to <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate functions</a> or else appear in the GROUP BY clause. +A result column which contains a column name that is not within an +aggregate function and that does not appear in the GROUP BY clause (if +one exists) is called a "bare" column. +Example: +</p><blockquote><pre> +SELECT a, b, sum(c) FROM tab1 GROUP BY a; +</pre></blockquote> +<p>In the query above, the "a" column is part of the GROUP BY clause +and so each row of the output contains one of the distinct values for +"a". The "c" column is contained within the <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#sumunc">sum()</a> aggregate function +and so that output column is the sum of all "c" values in rows that +have the same value for "a". But what is the result of the bare +column "b"? The answer is that the "b" result will be the +value for "b" in one of the input rows that form the aggregate. +The problem is that you usually do not know which input row is used +to compute "b", and so in many cases the value for "b" is undefined. +</p> +<p> +Special processing occurs when the aggregate function is +either <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">max()</a>. Example: +</p><blockquote><pre> +SELECT a, b, max(c) FROM tab1 GROUP BY a; +</pre></blockquote> + +<p>If there is exactly one <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">max()</a> aggregate +in the query, then all bare columns in the result set take values from an +input row which also contains the minimum or maximum. So in the query +above, the value of the "b" column in the output will be the value of +the "b" column in the input row that has the largest "c" value. +There are limitations on this special behavior of +<a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">min()</a> and <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">max()</a>: + +</p><ol> +<li> +<p>If the same minimum or maximum value occurs on two or more rows, +then bare values might be selected from any of those rows. The choice +is arbitrary. There is no way to predict from which row the bare values +will be choosen. The choice might be different for different bare columns +within the same query. + +</p></li><li> +<p>If there are two or more <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">max()</a> aggregates +in the query, then bare column values will be taken from one of the rows +on which one of the aggregates has their minimum or maximum value. The choice +of which <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">max()</a> aggregate determines the +selection of bare column values is arbitrary. The choice might be different +for different bare columns within the same query. + +</p></li><li> +<p>This special processing for <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">max()</a> aggregates +only works for the built-in implementation of those aggregates. If an +application overrides the built-in <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#min_agg">min()</a> or <a href="lang_aggfunc.html#max_agg">max()</a> aggregates +with application-defined alternatives, then the values selected for bare +columns will be taken from an arbitrary row. +</p></li></ol> + +<p>Most other SQL database engines disallow bare columns. If you include +a bare column in a query, other database engines will usually raise an error. +The ability to include bare columns in a query is an SQLite-specific extension.</p> + +<a name="distinct"></a> + + +<h2 id="removal_of_duplicate_rows_distinct_processing_"><span>2.6. </span>Removal of duplicate rows (DISTINCT processing)</h2> + +<p>One of the ALL or DISTINCT keywords may follow the SELECT keyword in a +simple SELECT statement. If the simple SELECT is a SELECT ALL, then the +entire set of result rows are returned by the SELECT. If neither ALL or +DISTINCT are present, then the behavior is as if ALL were specified. +If the simple SELECT is a SELECT DISTINCT, then duplicate rows are removed +from the set of result rows before it is returned. For the purposes of +detecting duplicate rows, two NULL values are considered to be equal. The +<a href="datatype3.html#colrules">usual rules</a> apply for selecting a collation +sequence to compare text values. + +<a name="compound"></a> + +</p><h1 id="compound_select_statements"><span>3. </span>Compound Select Statements</h1> + +<p>Two or more <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> statements may be connected together to form +a compound SELECT using the UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT or EXCEPT operator, +as shown by the following diagram: + +<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-select-stmt.html">compound-select-stmt:</a></b> +<button id='x2051' onclick='hideorshow("x2051","x2052")'>hide</button></p> + <div id='x2052' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:652px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 652.306 560.52"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L26,17" 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href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b> +<button id='x2053' onclick='hideorshow("x2053","x2054")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x2054' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:638px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 638.525 167.4"> +<circle cx="5" cy="29" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,29 20,33 20,24" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,29L26,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M47,44L122,44A15 15 0 0 0 137 29A15 15 0 0 0 122 14L47,14A15 15 0 0 0 32 29A15 15 0 0 0 47 44Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="85" y="29" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-name</text> +<polygon points="160,29 149,33 149,24" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M137,29L155,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon 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class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text> +<polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text> 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onclick='hideorshow("x2107","x2108")'>show</button></p> + <div id='x2108' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="56" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text> +<polygon points="111,44 100,48 100,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M81,17 L 89,17 Q 96,17 96,30 Q 96,44 101,44 L 105,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M126,59L190,59A15 15 0 0 0 205 44L205,44A15 15 0 0 0 190 29L126,29A15 15 0 0 0 111 44L111,44A15 15 0 0 0 126 59Z" 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style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M715,357L762,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="890,516 879,520 879,511" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M767,357 L 775,357 Q 782,357 782,372 L 782,501 Q 782,516 797,516 L 870,516 L 885,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<circle cx="894" cy="516" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="710,304 722,300 722,308" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M1001,304L716,304" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="527,516 516,520 516,511" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M710,304 L 434,304 Q 419,304 419,319 L 419,501 Q 419,516 434,516 L 507,516 L 522,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M527,516L797,516" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,357 434,361 434,353" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,342 L 419,349 Q 419,357 430,357 L 440,357" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,395 434,399 434,390" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,380 L 419,387 Q 419,395 430,395 L 440,395" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,433 434,437 434,428" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,417 L 419,425 Q 419,433 430,433 L 440,433" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="446,470 434,475 434,466" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M419,455 L 419,463 Q 419,470 430,470 L 440,470" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +</svg> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + +</p><p>In a compound SELECT, all the constituent SELECTs must return the same +number of result columns. As the components of a compound SELECT must +be simple SELECT statements, they may not contain <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> or <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a> clauses. +<a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a> and <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a> clauses may only occur at the end of the entire compound +SELECT, and then only if the final element of the compound is not a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause. + +</p><p>A compound SELECT created using UNION ALL operator returns all the rows +from the SELECT to the left of the UNION ALL operator, and all the rows +from the SELECT to the right of it. The UNION operator works the same way as +UNION ALL, except that duplicate rows are removed from the final result set. +The INTERSECT operator returns the intersection of the results of the left and +right SELECTs. The EXCEPT operator returns the subset of rows returned by the +left SELECT that are not also returned by the right-hand SELECT. Duplicate +rows are removed from the results of INTERSECT and EXCEPT operators before the +result set is returned. + +</p><p>For the purposes of determining duplicate rows for the results of compound +SELECT operators, NULL values are considered equal to other NULL values and +distinct from all non-NULL values. The collation sequence used to compare +two text values is determined as if the columns of the left and right-hand +SELECT statements were the left and right-hand operands of the equals (=) +operator, except that greater precedence is not assigned to a collation +sequence specified with the postfix COLLATE operator. No affinity +transformations are applied to any values when comparing rows as part of a +compound SELECT. + +</p><p>When three or more simple SELECTs are connected into a compound SELECT, +they group from left to right. In other words, if "A", "B" and "C" are all +simple SELECT statements, (A op B op C) is processed as ((A op B) op C). + +</p> + +<a name="orderby"></a> + +<h1 id="the_order_by_clause"><span>4. </span>The ORDER BY clause</h1> + +<p>If a SELECT statement that returns more than one row does not have an +ORDER BY clause, the order in which the rows are returned is undefined. +Or, if a SELECT statement does have an ORDER BY clause, then the list of +expressions attached to the ORDER BY determine the order in which rows +are returned to the user. + +</p><p> +In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> statement, only the last or right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> +may have an ORDER BY clause. That ORDER BY clause will apply across all elements of +the compound. If the right-most element of a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> is a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES</a> clause, +then no ORDER BY clause is allowed on that statement. + + +</p><p>Rows are first sorted based on the results of +evaluating the left-most expression in the ORDER BY list, then ties are broken +by evaluating the second left-most expression and so on. The order in which +two rows for which all ORDER BY expressions evaluate to equal values are +returned is undefined. Each ORDER BY expression may be optionally followed +by one of the keywords ASC (smaller values are returned first) or DESC (larger +values are returned first). If neither ASC or DESC are specified, rows +are sorted in ascending (smaller values first) order by default. + +<a name="nullslast"></a> + +</p><p>SQLite considers NULL values to be smaller than any other values +for sorting purposes. Hence, NULLs naturally appear at the beginning +of an ASC order-by and at the end of a DESC order-by. This can be changed +using the "ASC NULLS LAST" or "DESC NULLS FIRST" syntax. + +</p><p>Each ORDER BY expression is processed as follows:</p> + +<ol> +<li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is a constant integer K then the +expression is considered an alias for the K-th column of the result set +(columns are numbered from left to right starting with 1). + +</p></li><li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is an identifier that corresponds to +the alias of one of the output columns, then the expression is considered +an alias for that column. + +</p></li><li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is any other expression, it +is evaluated and the returned value used to order the output rows. If +the SELECT statement is a simple SELECT, then an ORDER BY may contain any +arbitrary expressions. However, if the SELECT is a compound SELECT, then +ORDER BY expressions that are not aliases to output columns must be exactly +the same as an expression used as an output column. +</p></li></ol> + +<p>For the purposes of sorting rows, values are compared in the same way +as for <a href="datatype3.html#comparisons">comparison expressions</a>. The collation sequence used to compare +two text values is determined as follows: + +</p><ol> + <li><p>If the ORDER BY expression is assigned a collation sequence using + the postfix <a href="lang_expr.html#collateop">COLLATE operator</a>, then the specified collation sequence is + used. + </p></li><li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is an alias to an expression + that has been assigned a collation sequence using the postfix + <a href="lang_expr.html#collateop">COLLATE operator</a>, then the collation sequence assigned to the aliased + expression is used. + </p></li><li><p>Otherwise, if the ORDER BY expression is a column or an alias of + an expression that is a column, then the default collation sequence for + the column is used. + </p></li><li><p>Otherwise, the <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a> collation sequence is used. +</p></li></ol> + +<p>In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a> statement, all ORDER BY expressions are handled +as aliases for one of the result columns of the compound. +If an ORDER BY expression is not an integer alias, then SQLite searches +the left-most SELECT in the compound for a result column that matches either +the second or third rules above. If a match is found, the search stops and +the expression is handled as an alias for the result column that it has been +matched against. Otherwise, the next SELECT to the right is tried, and so on. +If no matching expression can be found in the result columns of any +constituent SELECT, it is an error. Each term of the ORDER BY clause is +processed separately and may be matched against result columns from different +SELECT statements in the compound.</p> + +<a name="limitoffset"></a> + +<h1 id="the_limit_clause"><span>5. </span>The LIMIT clause</h1> + +<p>The LIMIT clause is used to place an upper bound on the number of rows +returned by the entire SELECT statement. + +</p><p>In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>, only the +last or right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> may contain a LIMIT clause. +In a <a href="lang_select.html#compound">compound SELECT</a>, +the LIMIT clause applies to the entire compound, not just the final SELECT. +If the right-most <a href="lang_select.html#simpleselect">simple SELECT</a> is a <a href="lang_select.html#values">VALUES clause</a> then no LIMIT clause +is allowed. + +</p><p>Any scalar expression may be used in the +LIMIT clause, so long as it evaluates to an integer or a value that can be +losslessly converted to an integer. If the expression evaluates to a NULL +value or any other value that cannot be losslessly converted to an integer, an +error is returned. If the LIMIT expression evaluates to a negative value, +then there is no upper bound on the number of rows returned. Otherwise, the +SELECT returns the first N rows of its result set only, where N is the value +that the LIMIT expression evaluates to. Or, if the SELECT statement would +return less than N rows without a LIMIT clause, then the entire result set is +returned. + +</p><p>The expression attached to the optional OFFSET clause that may follow a +LIMIT clause must also evaluate to an integer, or a value that can be +losslessly converted to an integer. If an expression has an OFFSET clause, +then the first M rows are omitted from the result set returned by the SELECT +statement and the next N rows are returned, where M and N are the values that +the OFFSET and LIMIT clauses evaluate to, respectively. Or, if the SELECT +would return less than M+N rows if it did not have a LIMIT clause, then the +first M rows are skipped and the remaining rows (if any) are returned. If the +OFFSET clause evaluates to a negative value, the results are the same as if it +had evaluated to zero. + +</p><p>Instead of a separate OFFSET clause, the LIMIT clause may specify two +scalar expressions separated by a comma. In this case, the first expression +is used as the OFFSET expression and the second as the LIMIT expression. +This is counter-intuitive, as when using the OFFSET clause the second of +the two expressions is the OFFSET and the first the LIMIT. +This reversal of the offset and limit is intentional +- it maximizes compatibility with other SQL database systems. +However, to avoid confusion, programmers are strongly encouraged to use +the form of the LIMIT clause that uses the "OFFSET" keyword and avoid +using a LIMIT clause with a comma-separated offset. + +<a name="values"></a> + +</p><h1 id="the_values_clause"><span>6. </span>The VALUES clause</h1> + +<p>The phrase "VALUES(<i>expr-list</i>)" means the same thing +as "SELECT <i>expr-list</i>". The phrase +"VALUES(<i>expr-list-1</i>),...,(<i>expr-list-N</i>)" means the same +thing as "SELECT <i>expr-list-1</i> UNION ALL ... UNION ALL +SELECT <i>expr-list-N</i>". Both forms are the same, except that +the number of SELECT statements in a compound is limited by +<a href="c3ref/c_limit_attached.html#sqlitelimitcompoundselect">SQLITE_LIMIT_COMPOUND_SELECT</a> whereas the number of rows in a +VALUES clause has no arbitrary limit. + +</p><p>There are some restrictions on the use of a VALUES clause that are +not shown on the syntax diagrams: + +</p><ul> +<li><p> +A VALUES clause cannot be followed by <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">ORDER BY</a>. + +</p></li><li><p> +A VALUES clause cannot be followed by <a href="lang_select.html#limitoffset">LIMIT</a>. +</p></li></ul> + + +<h1 id="the_with_clause"><span>7. </span>The WITH Clause</h1> + +<p>SELECT statements may be optionally preceded by a single +<a href="lang_with.html">WITH clause</a> that defines one or more <a href="lang_with.html">common table expressions</a> +for use within the SELECT statement. + +<a name="tabfunc1"></a> + +</p><h1 id="table_valued_functions_in_the_from_clause"><span>8. </span>Table-valued Functions In The FROM Clause</h1> + +<p>A <a href="vtab.html">virtual table</a> that contains <a href="vtab.html#hiddencol">hidden columns</a> can be used like +a <a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">table-valued function</a> in the FROM clause. The arguments to the +table-valued function become constraints on the HIDDEN columns of +the virtual table. Additional information can be found in the +<a href="vtab.html#tabfunc2">virtual table documentation</a>. + +<a name="nonstd"></a> + + +</p><h1 id="deviations_from_standard_sql"><span>9. </span>Deviations From Standard SQL</h1> + +<p>The SELECT syntax of SQLite differs slightly from standard SQL. +These differences are due to several reasons: + +</p><ul> +<li><p> In the mid-2000s, there was a lot of emphasis on keeping the library + footprint as small as possible, so as not to use too much space + on memory-limited flip-phones and similar. + +</p></li><li><p> During the early years of SQLite, the lead developer sought to follow + <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robustness_principle">Postel's Law</a> and to + be forgiving and flexible in what input was accepted. + +</p></li><li><p> There were bugs in early SQLite parsers that accepts some strange inputs. + +</p></li><li><p> The lead developer's knowledge of SQL was imperfect. +</p></li></ul> + +<p>Whatever the origin of the input quirks, we generally avoid trying to "fix" them, +as any new restrictions on the input syntax would likely cause at least some of +the millions of applications that use SQLite to break. We do not want that. +The goal of the SQLite development team is to preserve backwards compability to +the fullest extent possible. Hence, if a syntax quirk is harmless, +we leave it alone and document it here, rather than try to fix it. + +</p><h2 id="strange_join_names"><span>9.1. </span>Strange JOIN names</h2> + +<p>SQLite accepts all of the usual syntax for JOIN operators: + +<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b> +<button id='x2129' onclick='hideorshow("x2129","x2130")'>hide</button></p> + <div id='x2130' class='imgcontainer'> + <div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312"> +<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text> +<polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="231,71 219,76 219,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,56 Q 204,71 215,71 L 225,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="259" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LEFT</text> +<polygon points="378,71 366,76 366,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M288,71L372,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M393,86L437,86A15 15 0 0 0 452 71A15 15 0 0 0 437 56L393,56A15 15 0 0 0 378 71A15 15 0 0 0 393 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="415" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OUTER</text> +<polygon points="475,71 463,76 463,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M452,71L469,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="516,41 505,45 505,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M475,71 L 482,71 Q 490,71 490,56 L 490,56 Q 490,41 500,41 L 511,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M532,56L554,56A15 15 0 0 0 569 41A15 15 0 0 0 554 26L532,26A15 15 0 0 0 516 41A15 15 0 0 0 532 56Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="543" y="41" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">JOIN</text> +<polygon points="610,17 599,21 599,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M569,41 L 576,41 Q 584,41 584,29 Q 584,17 594,17 L 605,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<circle cx="614" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M310,32A15 15 0 0 0 325 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 2A15 15 0 0 0 295 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="310" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text> +<polygon points="295,17 283,21 283,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17L289,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M325,17L599,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="99,41 88,45 88,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,29 Q 24,41 39,41 L 78,41 L 93,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M99,41L178,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M189,41L505,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="378,41 366,45 366,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M336,71 L 344,71 Q 351,71 351,56 L 351,56 Q 351,41 362,41 L 372,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="231,109 219,113 219,105" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,94 Q 204,109 215,109 L 225,109" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M246,124L284,124A15 15 0 0 0 299 109A15 15 0 0 0 284 94L246,94A15 15 0 0 0 231 109A15 15 0 0 0 246 124Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="265" y="109" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RIGHT</text> +<polygon points="341,71 329,76 329,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M299,109 L 307,109 Q 314,109 314,94 L 314,86 Q 314,71 324,71 L 335,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="231,147 219,151 219,142" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,132 Q 204,147 215,147 L 225,147" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M246,162L274,162A15 15 0 0 0 289 147A15 15 0 0 0 274 132L246,132A15 15 0 0 0 231 147A15 15 0 0 0 246 162Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="260" y="147" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FULL</text> +<path d="M289,147 L 302,147 Q 314,147 314,132 L 314,109 L 314,94" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="231,192 219,196 219,188" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,177 Q 204,192 215,192 L 225,192" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M246,207L287,207A15 15 0 0 0 302 192A15 15 0 0 0 287 177L246,177A15 15 0 0 0 231 192A15 15 0 0 0 246 207Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="267" y="192" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INNER</text> +<polygon points="475,192 463,196 463,188" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M302,192L469,192" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M475,192 L 482,192 Q 490,192 490,185 L 490,177" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<polygon points="231,238 219,242 219,233" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,223 Q 24,238 39,238 L 210,238 L 225,238" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M246,253L287,253A15 15 0 0 0 303 238A15 15 0 0 0 287 222L246,222A15 15 0 0 0 231 238A15 15 0 0 0 246 253Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<text x="267" y="238" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">CROSS</text> +<polygon points="475,238 463,242 463,233" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/> +<path d="M303,238L469,238" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +<path d="M475,238 L 482,238 Q 490,238 490,223 L 490,71 L 490,56" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" /> +</svg> +</div> +</div> + + +</p><p>But it does not stop there. SQLite is actually very flexible in how you +specify a join operator. The general syntax is: + +</p><blockquote> +<i>blah blah blah</i> <b>JOIN</b> +</blockquote> + +<p>Where there are between 1 and 3 instances of "<i>blah</i>", each of which can be +any of "CROSS", "FULL", "INNER", "LEFT", "NATURAL", "OUTER", or "RIGHT". The SQLite +parser treats each of these keywords as an attribute of the join, which can be combined +in any order. This creates the possibility of many new and creative join types beyond +what is specified by the syntax diagram. Some of these non-standard join types are +specifically disallowed. For example, you cannot say "INNER OUTER JOIN", because +that would be contradictory. But you can say things like "OUTER LEFT NATURAL JOIN" +which means the same as "NATURAL LEFT OUTER JOIN". Or you can say "LEFT RIGHT JOIN" +which is the same as "FULL JOIN". + +</p><p>Remember: you <i>can</i> use these non-standard join types but you <i>ought not</i>. +Stick to using standard JOIN syntax for portability with other SQL database engines. + +</p><h2 id="precedence_of_comma_joins_and_cross_join"><span>9.2. </span>Precedence of comma-joins and CROSS JOIN</h2> + +<p>In standard SQL, joins that use the JOIN keyword take higher precedence +than comma-joins. That is to say, JOIN operators happen before comma operators. +This is not the case in SQLite, where all joins have the same precedence. + +</p><p>Consider this example: + +</p><blockquote><pre> +... FROM t1, t2 NATURAL FULL JOIN t3 ... +</pre></blockquote> + +<p>In standard SQL, the FULL JOIN between t2 and t3 would occur first, and +then the result of the left join would be cross-joined against t1. But SQLite +always handles all joins from left to right. Thus, SQLite will do a cross +join on t1 and t2 first, then the result of that cross join will feed into the FULL JOIN +with t3. Inner joins are inherently associative, so the difference is only +evident if your FROM clause contains one or more outer joins. + +</p><p>You can work around this, and make your SQL statements portable across all +systems, by observing the following stylistic rules: + +</p><ul> +<li><p> Do not mix comma-joins with the JOIN keyword. It is fine to use comma-joins, +but if you do, the you should use only comma-joins for the entire FROM clause. + +</p></li><li><p> Prefer LEFT JOIN over other outer join operators. + +</p></li><li><p> When in doubt, use parentheses to specify the exact join order that you intend. +</p></li></ul> + +<p>Any one of these suggestions is sufficient to avoid problems, and most +programmers instinctively follow all of these suggestions without having to +be told, and so the lack of precedence difference between comma-joins and +the JOIN keyword in SQLite rarely comes up in practice. But you should be aware +of the problem, in case it ever does appear. +</p><p align="center"><small><i>This page last modified on <a href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/honeypot" id="mtimelink" data-href="https://sqlite.org/docsrc/finfo/pages/lang_select.in?m=b6b0b5302da4177eb">2022-10-26 20:02:18</a> UTC </small></i></p> + |