Adding upstream version 252.22.upstream/252.22

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

5 files changed, 4496 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/meson.build b/src/tmpfiles/meson.build
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cfa3d37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/meson.build
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+
+systemd_tmpfiles_sources = files(
+        'tmpfiles.c',
+        'offline-passwd.c',
+        'offline-passwd.h')
+
+tests += [
+        [files('test-offline-passwd.c',
+               'offline-passwd.c',
+               'offline-passwd.h')],
+]
diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.c b/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c847266
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.c
@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#include "chase-symlinks.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "offline-passwd.h"
+#include "path-util.h"
+#include "user-util.h"
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_HASH_OPS_WITH_KEY_DESTRUCTOR(uid_gid_hash_ops, char, string_hash_func, string_compare_func, free);
+
+static int open_passwd_file(const char *root, const char *fname, FILE **ret_file) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        fd = chase_symlinks_and_open(fname, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC, &p);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        FILE *f = fdopen(fd, "r");
+        if (!f)
+                return -errno;
+
+        TAKE_FD(fd);
+
+        log_debug("Reading %s entries from %s...", basename(fname), p);
+
+        *ret_file = f;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int populate_uid_cache(const char *root, Hashmap **ret) {
+        _cleanup_(hashmap_freep) Hashmap *cache = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        cache = hashmap_new(&uid_gid_hash_ops);
+        if (!cache)
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        /* The directory list is hardcoded here: /etc is the standard, and rpm-ostree uses /usr/lib. This
+         * could be made configurable, but I don't see the point right now. */
+
+        FOREACH_STRING(fname, "/etc/passwd", "/usr/lib/passwd") {
+                _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *f = NULL;
+
+                r = open_passwd_file(root, fname, &f);
+                if (r == -ENOENT)
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                struct passwd *pw;
+                while ((r = fgetpwent_sane(f, &pw)) > 0) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *n = NULL;
+
+                        n = strdup(pw->pw_name);
+                        if (!n)
+                                return -ENOMEM;
+
+                        r = hashmap_put(cache, n, UID_TO_PTR(pw->pw_uid));
+                        if (IN_SET(r, 0 -EEXIST))
+                                continue;
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        TAKE_PTR(n);
+                }
+        }
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(cache);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int populate_gid_cache(const char *root, Hashmap **ret) {
+        _cleanup_(hashmap_freep) Hashmap *cache = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        cache = hashmap_new(&uid_gid_hash_ops);
+        if (!cache)
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        FOREACH_STRING(fname, "/etc/group", "/usr/lib/group") {
+                _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *f = NULL;
+
+                r = open_passwd_file(root, fname, &f);
+                if (r == -ENOENT)
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                struct group *gr;
+                while ((r = fgetgrent_sane(f, &gr)) > 0) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *n = NULL;
+
+                        n = strdup(gr->gr_name);
+                        if (!n)
+                                return -ENOMEM;
+
+                        r = hashmap_put(cache, n, GID_TO_PTR(gr->gr_gid));
+                        if (IN_SET(r, 0, -EEXIST))
+                                continue;
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        TAKE_PTR(n);
+                }
+        }
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(cache);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int name_to_uid_offline(
+                const char *root,
+                const char *user,
+                uid_t *ret_uid,
+                Hashmap **cache) {
+
+        void *found;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(user);
+        assert(ret_uid);
+        assert(cache);
+
+        if (!*cache) {
+                r = populate_uid_cache(root, cache);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        found = hashmap_get(*cache, user);
+        if (!found)
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        *ret_uid = PTR_TO_UID(found);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int name_to_gid_offline(
+                const char *root,
+                const char *group,
+                gid_t *ret_gid,
+                Hashmap **cache) {
+
+        void *found;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(group);
+        assert(ret_gid);
+        assert(cache);
+
+        if (!*cache) {
+                r = populate_gid_cache(root, cache);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        found = hashmap_get(*cache, group);
+        if (!found)
+                return -ESRCH;
+
+        *ret_gid = PTR_TO_GID(found);
+        return 0;
+}
diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.h b/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..587af7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/offline-passwd.h
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+#pragma once
+
+#include <sys/types.h>
+
+#include "hashmap.h"
+
+int name_to_uid_offline(const char *root, const char *user, uid_t *ret_uid, Hashmap **cache);
+int name_to_gid_offline(const char *root, const char *group, gid_t *ret_gid, Hashmap **cache);
diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/test-offline-passwd.c b/src/tmpfiles/test-offline-passwd.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b70cef4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/test-offline-passwd.c
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#include <getopt.h>
+
+#include "offline-passwd.h"
+#include "user-util.h"
+#include "format-util.h"
+#include "tests.h"
+
+static char *arg_root = NULL;
+
+static void test_resolve_one(const char *name) {
+        bool relaxed = name || arg_root;
+
+        if (!name)
+                name = "root";
+
+        log_info("/* %s(\"%s\") */", __func__, name);
+
+        _cleanup_(hashmap_freep) Hashmap *uid_cache = NULL, *gid_cache = NULL;
+        uid_t uid = UID_INVALID;
+        gid_t gid = GID_INVALID;
+        int r;
+
+        r = name_to_uid_offline(arg_root, name, &uid, &uid_cache);
+        log_info_errno(r, "name_to_uid_offline: %s → "UID_FMT": %m", name, uid);
+        assert_se(relaxed || r == 0);
+
+        r = name_to_uid_offline(arg_root, name, &uid, &uid_cache);
+        log_info_errno(r, "name_to_uid_offline: %s → "UID_FMT": %m", name, uid);
+        assert_se(relaxed || r == 0);
+
+        r = name_to_gid_offline(arg_root, name, &gid, &gid_cache);
+        log_info_errno(r, "name_to_gid_offline: %s → "GID_FMT": %m", name, gid);
+        assert_se(relaxed || r == 0);
+
+        r = name_to_gid_offline(arg_root, name, &gid, &gid_cache);
+        log_info_errno(r, "name_to_gid_offline: %s → "GID_FMT": %m", name, gid);
+        assert_se(relaxed || r == 0);
+}
+
+static int parse_argv(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        static const struct option options[] = {
+                { "root",           required_argument,   NULL, 'r' },
+                {}
+        };
+
+        int c;
+
+        assert_se(argc >= 0);
+        assert_se(argv);
+
+        while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "r:", options, NULL)) >= 0)
+                switch (c) {
+                case 'r':
+                        arg_root = optarg;
+                        break;
+
+                case '?':
+                        return -EINVAL;
+
+                default:
+                        assert_not_reached();
+                }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+int main(int argc, char **argv) {
+        int r;
+
+        test_setup_logging(LOG_DEBUG);
+
+        r = parse_argv(argc, argv);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (optind >= argc)
+                test_resolve_one(NULL);
+        else
+                while (optind < argc)
+                        test_resolve_one(argv[optind++]);
+
+        return 0;
+}
diff --git a/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c b/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c3d994
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/tmpfiles/tmpfiles.c
@@ -0,0 +1,4228 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#include <errno.h>
+#include <fcntl.h>
+#include <fnmatch.h>
+#include <getopt.h>
+#include <limits.h>
+#include <linux/fs.h>
+#include <stdbool.h>
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <sys/file.h>
+#include <sys/xattr.h>
+#include <sysexits.h>
+#include <time.h>
+#include <unistd.h>
+
+#include "sd-path.h"
+
+#include "acl-util.h"
+#include "alloc-util.h"
+#include "btrfs-util.h"
+#include "capability-util.h"
+#include "chase-symlinks.h"
+#include "chattr-util.h"
+#include "conf-files.h"
+#include "copy.h"
+#include "creds-util.h"
+#include "def.h"
+#include "devnum-util.h"
+#include "dirent-util.h"
+#include "dissect-image.h"
+#include "env-util.h"
+#include "errno-util.h"
+#include "escape.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "fileio.h"
+#include "format-util.h"
+#include "fs-util.h"
+#include "glob-util.h"
+#include "hexdecoct.h"
+#include "io-util.h"
+#include "label.h"
+#include "log.h"
+#include "macro.h"
+#include "main-func.h"
+#include "missing_stat.h"
+#include "missing_syscall.h"
+#include "mkdir-label.h"
+#include "mount-util.h"
+#include "mountpoint-util.h"
+#include "offline-passwd.h"
+#include "pager.h"
+#include "parse-argument.h"
+#include "parse-util.h"
+#include "path-lookup.h"
+#include "path-util.h"
+#include "pretty-print.h"
+#include "rlimit-util.h"
+#include "rm-rf.h"
+#include "selinux-util.h"
+#include "set.h"
+#include "sort-util.h"
+#include "specifier.h"
+#include "stdio-util.h"
+#include "string-table.h"
+#include "string-util.h"
+#include "strv.h"
+#include "terminal-util.h"
+#include "umask-util.h"
+#include "user-util.h"
+#include "virt.h"
+
+/* This reads all files listed in /etc/tmpfiles.d/?*.conf and creates
+ * them in the file system. This is intended to be used to create
+ * properly owned directories beneath /tmp, /var/tmp, /run, which are
+ * volatile and hence need to be recreated on bootup. */
+
+typedef enum OperationMask {
+        OPERATION_CREATE = 1 << 0,
+        OPERATION_REMOVE = 1 << 1,
+        OPERATION_CLEAN  = 1 << 2,
+} OperationMask;
+
+typedef enum ItemType {
+        /* These ones take file names */
+        CREATE_FILE = 'f',
+        TRUNCATE_FILE = 'F', /* deprecated: use f+ */
+        CREATE_DIRECTORY = 'd',
+        TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY = 'D',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME = 'v',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA = 'q',
+        CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA = 'Q',
+        CREATE_FIFO = 'p',
+        CREATE_SYMLINK = 'L',
+        CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE = 'c',
+        CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE = 'b',
+        COPY_FILES = 'C',
+
+        /* These ones take globs */
+        WRITE_FILE = 'w',
+        EMPTY_DIRECTORY = 'e',
+        SET_XATTR = 't',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR = 'T',
+        SET_ACL = 'a',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_ACL = 'A',
+        SET_ATTRIBUTE = 'h',
+        RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE = 'H',
+        IGNORE_PATH = 'x',
+        IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH = 'X',
+        REMOVE_PATH = 'r',
+        RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH = 'R',
+        RELABEL_PATH = 'z',
+        RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH = 'Z',
+        ADJUST_MODE = 'm', /* legacy, 'z' is identical to this */
+} ItemType;
+
+typedef enum AgeBy {
+        AGE_BY_ATIME = 1 << 0,
+        AGE_BY_BTIME = 1 << 1,
+        AGE_BY_CTIME = 1 << 2,
+        AGE_BY_MTIME = 1 << 3,
+
+        /* All file timestamp types are checked by default. */
+        AGE_BY_DEFAULT_FILE = AGE_BY_ATIME | AGE_BY_BTIME | AGE_BY_CTIME | AGE_BY_MTIME,
+        AGE_BY_DEFAULT_DIR  = AGE_BY_ATIME | AGE_BY_BTIME | AGE_BY_MTIME
+} AgeBy;
+
+typedef struct Item {
+        ItemType type;
+
+        char *path;
+        char *argument;
+        void *binary_argument;        /* set if binary data, in which case it takes precedence over 'argument' */
+        size_t binary_argument_size;
+        char **xattrs;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        acl_t acl_access;
+        acl_t acl_default;
+#endif
+        uid_t uid;
+        gid_t gid;
+        mode_t mode;
+        usec_t age;
+        AgeBy age_by_file, age_by_dir;
+
+        dev_t major_minor;
+        unsigned attribute_value;
+        unsigned attribute_mask;
+
+        bool uid_set:1;
+        bool gid_set:1;
+        bool mode_set:1;
+        bool uid_only_create:1;
+        bool gid_only_create:1;
+        bool mode_only_create:1;
+        bool age_set:1;
+        bool mask_perms:1;
+        bool attribute_set:1;
+
+        bool keep_first_level:1;
+
+        bool append_or_force:1;
+
+        bool allow_failure:1;
+
+        bool try_replace:1;
+
+        OperationMask done;
+} Item;
+
+typedef struct ItemArray {
+        Item *items;
+        size_t n_items;
+
+        struct ItemArray *parent;
+        Set *children;
+} ItemArray;
+
+typedef enum DirectoryType {
+        DIRECTORY_RUNTIME,
+        DIRECTORY_STATE,
+        DIRECTORY_CACHE,
+        DIRECTORY_LOGS,
+        _DIRECTORY_TYPE_MAX,
+} DirectoryType;
+
+typedef enum {
+        CREATION_NORMAL,
+        CREATION_EXISTING,
+        CREATION_FORCE,
+        _CREATION_MODE_MAX,
+        _CREATION_MODE_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} CreationMode;
+
+static bool arg_cat_config = false;
+static bool arg_user = false;
+static OperationMask arg_operation = 0;
+static bool arg_boot = false;
+static PagerFlags arg_pager_flags = 0;
+
+static char **arg_include_prefixes = NULL;
+static char **arg_exclude_prefixes = NULL;
+static char *arg_root = NULL;
+static char *arg_image = NULL;
+static char *arg_replace = NULL;
+
+#define MAX_DEPTH 256
+
+static OrderedHashmap *items = NULL, *globs = NULL;
+static Set *unix_sockets = NULL;
+
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(items, ordered_hashmap_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(globs, ordered_hashmap_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(unix_sockets, set_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_include_prefixes, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_exclude_prefixes, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_root, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_image, freep);
+
+static const char *const creation_mode_verb_table[_CREATION_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [CREATION_NORMAL]   = "Created",
+        [CREATION_EXISTING] = "Found existing",
+        [CREATION_FORCE]    = "Created replacement",
+};
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP_TO_STRING(creation_mode_verb, CreationMode);
+
+/* Different kinds of errors that mean that information is not available in the environment. */
+static inline bool ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(int r) {
+        return IN_SET(abs(r),
+                      EUNATCH,    /* os-release or machine-id missing */
+                      ENOMEDIUM,  /* machine-id or another file empty */
+                      ENOPKG,     /* machine-id is uninitialized */
+                      ENXIO);     /* env var is unset */
+}
+
+static int specifier_directory(char specifier, const void *data, const char *root, const void *userdata, char **ret) {
+        struct table_entry {
+                uint64_t type;
+                const char *suffix;
+        };
+
+        static const struct table_entry paths_system[] = {
+                [DIRECTORY_RUNTIME] = { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_RUNTIME            },
+                [DIRECTORY_STATE] =   { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_PRIVATE      },
+                [DIRECTORY_CACHE] =   { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_CACHE        },
+                [DIRECTORY_LOGS] =    { SD_PATH_SYSTEM_STATE_LOGS         },
+        };
+
+        static const struct table_entry paths_user[] = {
+                [DIRECTORY_RUNTIME] = { SD_PATH_USER_RUNTIME              },
+                [DIRECTORY_STATE] =   { SD_PATH_USER_CONFIGURATION        },
+                [DIRECTORY_CACHE] =   { SD_PATH_USER_STATE_CACHE          },
+                [DIRECTORY_LOGS] =    { SD_PATH_USER_CONFIGURATION, "log" },
+        };
+
+        const struct table_entry *paths;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+        unsigned i;
+        int r;
+
+        assert_cc(ELEMENTSOF(paths_system) == ELEMENTSOF(paths_user));
+        paths = arg_user ? paths_user : paths_system;
+
+        i = PTR_TO_UINT(data);
+        assert(i < ELEMENTSOF(paths_system));
+
+        r = sd_path_lookup(paths[i].type, paths[i].suffix, &p);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (arg_root) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *j = NULL;
+
+                j = path_join(arg_root, p);
+                if (!j)
+                        return -ENOMEM;
+
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(j);
+        } else
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(p);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int log_unresolvable_specifier(const char *filename, unsigned line) {
+        static bool notified = false;
+
+        /* In system mode, this is called when /etc is not fully initialized and some specifiers are
+         * unresolvable. In user mode, this is called when some variables are not defined. These cases are
+         * not considered a fatal error, so log at LOG_NOTICE only for the first time and then downgrade this
+         * to LOG_DEBUG for the rest.
+         *
+         * If we're running in a chroot (--root was used or sd_booted() reports that systemd is not running),
+         * always use LOG_DEBUG. We may be called to initialize a chroot before booting and there is no
+         * expectation that machine-id and other files will be populated.
+         */
+
+        int log_level = notified || arg_root || running_in_chroot() > 0 ?
+                LOG_DEBUG : LOG_NOTICE;
+
+        log_syntax(NULL,
+                   log_level,
+                   filename, line, 0,
+                   "Failed to resolve specifier: %s, skipping.",
+                   arg_user ? "Required $XDG_... variable not defined" : "uninitialized /etc/ detected");
+
+        if (!notified)
+                log_full(log_level,
+                         "All rules containing unresolvable specifiers will be skipped.");
+
+        notified = true;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int user_config_paths(char*** ret) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **config_dirs = NULL, **data_dirs = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *persistent_config = NULL, *runtime_config = NULL, *data_home = NULL;
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **res = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_dirs(&config_dirs, &data_dirs);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_config_dir(&persistent_config, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && !ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(r))
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_runtime_dir(&runtime_config, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && !ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(r))
+                return r;
+
+        r = xdg_user_data_dir(&data_home, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0 && !ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(r))
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend_strv_concat(&res, config_dirs, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, persistent_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, runtime_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend(&res, data_home);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = strv_extend_strv_concat(&res, data_dirs, "/user-tmpfiles.d");
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = path_strv_make_absolute_cwd(res);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(res);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static bool needs_glob(ItemType t) {
+        return IN_SET(t,
+                      WRITE_FILE,
+                      IGNORE_PATH,
+                      IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH,
+                      REMOVE_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH,
+                      EMPTY_DIRECTORY,
+                      ADJUST_MODE,
+                      RELABEL_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH,
+                      SET_XATTR,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR,
+                      SET_ACL,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_ACL,
+                      SET_ATTRIBUTE,
+                      RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE);
+}
+
+static bool takes_ownership(ItemType t) {
+        return IN_SET(t,
+                      CREATE_FILE,
+                      TRUNCATE_FILE,
+                      CREATE_DIRECTORY,
+                      EMPTY_DIRECTORY,
+                      TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA,
+                      CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA,
+                      CREATE_FIFO,
+                      CREATE_SYMLINK,
+                      CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE,
+                      CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE,
+                      COPY_FILES,
+                      WRITE_FILE,
+                      IGNORE_PATH,
+                      IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH,
+                      REMOVE_PATH,
+                      RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH);
+}
+
+static struct Item* find_glob(OrderedHashmap *h, const char *match) {
+        ItemArray *j;
+
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(j, h) {
+                size_t n;
+
+                for (n = 0; n < j->n_items; n++) {
+                        Item *item = j->items + n;
+
+                        if (fnmatch(item->path, match, FNM_PATHNAME|FNM_PERIOD) == 0)
+                                return item;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return NULL;
+}
+
+static int load_unix_sockets(void) {
+        _cleanup_set_free_ Set *sockets = NULL;
+        _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *f = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (unix_sockets)
+                return 0;
+
+        /* We maintain a cache of the sockets we found in /proc/net/unix to speed things up a little. */
+
+        f = fopen("/proc/net/unix", "re");
+        if (!f)
+                return log_full_errno(errno == ENOENT ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_WARNING, errno,
+                                      "Failed to open /proc/net/unix, ignoring: %m");
+
+        /* Skip header */
+        r = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to skip /proc/net/unix header line: %m");
+        if (r == 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Premature end of file reading /proc/net/unix.");
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL;
+                char *p;
+
+                r = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, &line);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to read /proc/net/unix line, ignoring: %m");
+                if (r == 0) /* EOF */
+                        break;
+
+                p = strchr(line, ':');
+                if (!p)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (strlen(p) < 37)
+                        continue;
+
+                p += 37;
+                p += strspn(p, WHITESPACE);
+                p += strcspn(p, WHITESPACE); /* skip one more word */
+                p += strspn(p, WHITESPACE);
+
+                if (!path_is_absolute(p))
+                        continue;
+
+                r = set_put_strdup_full(&sockets, &path_hash_ops_free, p);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to add AF_UNIX socket to set, ignoring: %m");
+        }
+
+        unix_sockets = TAKE_PTR(sockets);
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static bool unix_socket_alive(const char *fn) {
+        assert(fn);
+
+        if (load_unix_sockets() < 0)
+                return true;     /* We don't know, so assume yes */
+
+        return set_contains(unix_sockets, fn);
+}
+
+/* Accessors for the argument in binary format */
+static const void* item_binary_argument(const Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+        return i->binary_argument ?: i->argument;
+}
+
+static size_t item_binary_argument_size(const Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+        return i->binary_argument ? i->binary_argument_size : strlen_ptr(i->argument);
+}
+
+static DIR* xopendirat_nomod(int dirfd, const char *path) {
+        DIR *dir;
+
+        dir = xopendirat(dirfd, path, O_NOFOLLOW|O_NOATIME);
+        if (dir)
+                return dir;
+
+        log_debug_errno(errno, "Cannot open %sdirectory \"%s\": %m", dirfd == AT_FDCWD ? "" : "sub", path);
+        if (errno != EPERM)
+                return NULL;
+
+        dir = xopendirat(dirfd, path, O_NOFOLLOW);
+        if (!dir)
+                log_debug_errno(errno, "Cannot open %sdirectory \"%s\": %m", dirfd == AT_FDCWD ? "" : "sub", path);
+
+        return dir;
+}
+
+static DIR* opendir_nomod(const char *path) {
+        return xopendirat_nomod(AT_FDCWD, path);
+}
+
+static inline nsec_t load_statx_timestamp_nsec(const struct statx_timestamp *ts) {
+        assert(ts);
+
+        if (ts->tv_sec < 0)
+                return NSEC_INFINITY;
+
+        if ((nsec_t) ts->tv_sec >= (UINT64_MAX - ts->tv_nsec) / NSEC_PER_SEC)
+                return NSEC_INFINITY;
+
+        return ts->tv_sec * NSEC_PER_SEC + ts->tv_nsec;
+}
+
+static bool needs_cleanup(
+                nsec_t atime,
+                nsec_t btime,
+                nsec_t ctime,
+                nsec_t mtime,
+                nsec_t cutoff,
+                const char *sub_path,
+                AgeBy age_by,
+                bool is_dir) {
+
+        if (FLAGS_SET(age_by, AGE_BY_MTIME) && mtime != NSEC_INFINITY && mtime >= cutoff) {
+                /* Follows spelling in stat(1). */
+                log_debug("%s \"%s\": modify time %s is too new.",
+                          is_dir ? "Directory" : "File",
+                          sub_path,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(mtime / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US));
+
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        if (FLAGS_SET(age_by, AGE_BY_ATIME) && atime != NSEC_INFINITY && atime >= cutoff) {
+                log_debug("%s \"%s\": access time %s is too new.",
+                          is_dir ? "Directory" : "File",
+                          sub_path,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(atime / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US));
+
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        /*
+         * Note: Unless explicitly specified by the user, "ctime" is ignored
+         * by default for directories, because we change it when deleting.
+         */
+        if (FLAGS_SET(age_by, AGE_BY_CTIME) && ctime != NSEC_INFINITY && ctime >= cutoff) {
+                log_debug("%s \"%s\": change time %s is too new.",
+                          is_dir ? "Directory" : "File",
+                          sub_path,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(ctime / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US));
+
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        if (FLAGS_SET(age_by, AGE_BY_BTIME) && btime != NSEC_INFINITY && btime >= cutoff) {
+                log_debug("%s \"%s\": birth time %s is too new.",
+                          is_dir ? "Directory" : "File",
+                          sub_path,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(btime / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US));
+
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static int dir_cleanup(
+                Item *i,
+                const char *p,
+                DIR *d,
+                nsec_t self_atime_nsec,
+                nsec_t self_mtime_nsec,
+                nsec_t cutoff_nsec,
+                dev_t rootdev_major,
+                dev_t rootdev_minor,
+                bool mountpoint,
+                int maxdepth,
+                bool keep_this_level,
+                AgeBy age_by_file,
+                AgeBy age_by_dir) {
+
+        bool deleted = false;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        FOREACH_DIRENT_ALL(de, d, break) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *sub_path = NULL;
+                nsec_t atime_nsec, mtime_nsec, ctime_nsec, btime_nsec;
+
+                if (dot_or_dot_dot(de->d_name))
+                        continue;
+
+                /* If statx() is supported, use it. It's preferable over fstatat() since it tells us
+                 * explicitly where we are looking at a mount point, for free as side information. Determining
+                 * the same information without statx() is hard, see the complexity of path_is_mount_point(),
+                 * and also much slower as it requires a number of syscalls instead of just one. Hence, when
+                 * we have modern statx() we use it instead of fstat() and do proper mount point checks,
+                 * while on older kernels's well do traditional st_dev based detection of mount points.
+                 *
+                 * Using statx() for detecting mount points also has the benfit that we handle weird file
+                 * systems such as overlayfs better where each file is originating from a different
+                 * st_dev. */
+
+                STRUCT_STATX_DEFINE(sx);
+
+                r = statx_fallback(
+                                dirfd(d), de->d_name,
+                                AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW|AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT,
+                                STATX_TYPE|STATX_MODE|STATX_UID|STATX_ATIME|STATX_MTIME|STATX_CTIME|STATX_BTIME,
+                                &sx);
+                if (r == -ENOENT)
+                        continue;
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        /* FUSE, NFS mounts, SELinux might return EACCES */
+                        r = log_full_errno(r == -EACCES ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_ERR, r,
+                                           "statx(%s/%s) failed: %m", p, de->d_name);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_attributes_mask, STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT)) {
+                        /* Yay, we have the mount point API, use it */
+                        if (FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_attributes, STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT)) {
+                                log_debug("Ignoring \"%s/%s\": different mount points.", p, de->d_name);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+                } else {
+                        /* So we might have statx() but the STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT flag is not supported, fall
+                         * back to traditional stx_dev checking. */
+                        if (sx.stx_dev_major != rootdev_major ||
+                            sx.stx_dev_minor != rootdev_minor) {
+                                log_debug("Ignoring \"%s/%s\": different filesystem.", p, de->d_name);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Try to detect bind mounts of the same filesystem instance; they do not differ in device
+                         * major/minors. This type of query is not supported on all kernels or filesystem types
+                         * though. */
+                        if (S_ISDIR(sx.stx_mode)) {
+                                int q;
+
+                                q = fd_is_mount_point(dirfd(d), de->d_name, 0);
+                                if (q < 0)
+                                        log_debug_errno(q, "Failed to determine whether \"%s/%s\" is a mount point, ignoring: %m", p, de->d_name);
+                                else if (q > 0) {
+                                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s/%s\": different mount of the same filesystem.", p, de->d_name);
+                                        continue;
+                                }
+                        }
+                }
+
+                atime_nsec = FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_mask, STATX_ATIME) ? load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_atime) : 0;
+                mtime_nsec = FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_mask, STATX_MTIME) ? load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_mtime) : 0;
+                ctime_nsec = FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_mask, STATX_CTIME) ? load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_ctime) : 0;
+                btime_nsec = FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_mask, STATX_BTIME) ? load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_btime) : 0;
+
+                sub_path = path_join(p, de->d_name);
+                if (!sub_path) {
+                        r = log_oom();
+                        goto finish;
+                }
+
+                /* Is there an item configured for this path? */
+                if (ordered_hashmap_get(items, sub_path)) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s\": a separate entry exists.", sub_path);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (find_glob(globs, sub_path)) {
+                        log_debug("Ignoring \"%s\": a separate glob exists.", sub_path);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (S_ISDIR(sx.stx_mode)) {
+                        _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *sub_dir = NULL;
+
+                        if (mountpoint &&
+                            streq(de->d_name, "lost+found") &&
+                            sx.stx_uid == 0) {
+                                log_debug("Ignoring directory \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (maxdepth <= 0)
+                                log_warning("Reached max depth on \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                        else {
+                                int q;
+
+                                sub_dir = xopendirat_nomod(dirfd(d), de->d_name);
+                                if (!sub_dir) {
+                                        if (errno != ENOENT)
+                                                r = log_warning_errno(errno, "Opening directory \"%s\" failed, ignoring: %m", sub_path);
+
+                                        continue;
+                                }
+
+                                if (flock(dirfd(sub_dir), LOCK_EX|LOCK_NB) < 0) {
+                                        log_debug_errno(errno, "Couldn't acquire shared BSD lock on directory \"%s\", skipping: %m", p);
+                                        continue;
+                                }
+
+                                q = dir_cleanup(i,
+                                                sub_path, sub_dir,
+                                                atime_nsec, mtime_nsec, cutoff_nsec,
+                                                rootdev_major, rootdev_minor,
+                                                false, maxdepth-1, false,
+                                                age_by_file, age_by_dir);
+                                if (q < 0)
+                                        r = q;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Note: if you are wondering why we don't support the sticky bit for excluding
+                         * directories from cleaning like we do it for other file system objects: well, the
+                         * sticky bit already has a meaning for directories, so we don't want to overload
+                         * that. */
+
+                        if (keep_this_level) {
+                                log_debug("Keeping directory \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /*
+                         * Check the file timestamps of an entry against the
+                         * given cutoff time; delete if it is older.
+                         */
+                        if (!needs_cleanup(atime_nsec, btime_nsec, ctime_nsec, mtime_nsec,
+                                           cutoff_nsec, sub_path, age_by_dir, true))
+                                continue;
+
+                        log_debug("Removing directory \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                        if (unlinkat(dirfd(d), de->d_name, AT_REMOVEDIR) < 0)
+                                if (!IN_SET(errno, ENOENT, ENOTEMPTY))
+                                        r = log_warning_errno(errno, "Failed to remove directory \"%s\", ignoring: %m", sub_path);
+
+                } else {
+                        /* Skip files for which the sticky bit is set. These are semantics we define, and are
+                         * unknown elsewhere. See XDG_RUNTIME_DIR specification for details. */
+                        if (sx.stx_mode & S_ISVTX) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": sticky bit set.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (mountpoint &&
+                            S_ISREG(sx.stx_mode) &&
+                            sx.stx_uid == 0 &&
+                            STR_IN_SET(de->d_name,
+                                       ".journal",
+                                       "aquota.user",
+                                       "aquota.group")) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Ignore sockets that are listed in /proc/net/unix */
+                        if (S_ISSOCK(sx.stx_mode) && unix_socket_alive(sub_path)) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": live socket.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Ignore device nodes */
+                        if (S_ISCHR(sx.stx_mode) || S_ISBLK(sx.stx_mode)) {
+                                log_debug("Skipping \"%s\": a device.", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        /* Keep files on this level around if this is requested */
+                        if (keep_this_level) {
+                                log_debug("Keeping \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        if (!needs_cleanup(atime_nsec, btime_nsec, ctime_nsec, mtime_nsec,
+                                           cutoff_nsec, sub_path, age_by_file, false))
+                                continue;
+
+                        log_debug("Removing \"%s\".", sub_path);
+                        if (unlinkat(dirfd(d), de->d_name, 0) < 0)
+                                if (errno != ENOENT)
+                                        r = log_warning_errno(errno, "Failed to remove \"%s\", ignoring: %m", sub_path);
+
+                        deleted = true;
+                }
+        }
+
+finish:
+        if (deleted) {
+                struct timespec ts[2];
+
+                log_debug("Restoring access and modification time on \"%s\": %s, %s",
+                          p,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(self_atime_nsec / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US),
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(self_mtime_nsec / NSEC_PER_USEC, TIMESTAMP_US));
+
+                timespec_store_nsec(ts + 0, self_atime_nsec);
+                timespec_store_nsec(ts + 1, self_mtime_nsec);
+
+                /* Restore original directory timestamps */
+                if (futimens(dirfd(d), ts) < 0)
+                        log_warning_errno(errno, "Failed to revert timestamps of '%s', ignoring: %m", p);
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static bool dangerous_hardlinks(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *value = NULL;
+        static int cached = -1;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Check whether the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is on. If we can't determine it we assume its off, as that's
+         * what the upstream default is. */
+
+        if (cached >= 0)
+                return cached;
+
+        r = read_one_line_file("/proc/sys/fs/protected_hardlinks", &value);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to read fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl: %m");
+                return true;
+        }
+
+        r = parse_boolean(value);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to parse fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl: %m");
+                return true;
+        }
+
+        cached = r == 0;
+        return cached;
+}
+
+static bool hardlink_vulnerable(const struct stat *st) {
+        assert(st);
+
+        return !S_ISDIR(st->st_mode) && st->st_nlink > 1 && dangerous_hardlinks();
+}
+
+static mode_t process_mask_perms(mode_t mode, mode_t current) {
+
+        if ((current & 0111) == 0)
+                mode &= ~0111;
+        if ((current & 0222) == 0)
+                mode &= ~0222;
+        if ((current & 0444) == 0)
+                mode &= ~0444;
+        if (!S_ISDIR(current))
+                mode &= ~07000; /* remove sticky/sgid/suid bit, unless directory */
+
+        return mode;
+}
+
+static int fd_set_perms(
+                Item *i,
+                int fd,
+                const char *path,
+                const struct stat *st,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        bool do_chown, do_chmod;
+        struct stat stbuf;
+        mode_t new_mode;
+        uid_t new_uid;
+        gid_t new_gid;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!i->mode_set && !i->uid_set && !i->gid_set)
+                goto shortcut;
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        if (hardlink_vulnerable(st))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                       "Refusing to set permissions on hardlinked file %s while the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is turned off.",
+                                       path);
+        new_uid = i->uid_set && (creation != CREATION_EXISTING || !i->uid_only_create) ? i->uid : st->st_uid;
+        new_gid = i->gid_set && (creation != CREATION_EXISTING || !i->gid_only_create) ? i->gid : st->st_gid;
+
+        /* Do we need a chown()? */
+        do_chown = (new_uid != st->st_uid) || (new_gid != st->st_gid);
+
+        /* Calculate the mode to apply */
+        new_mode = i->mode_set && (creation != CREATION_EXISTING || !i->mode_only_create) ?
+                (i->mask_perms ? process_mask_perms(i->mode, st->st_mode) : i->mode) :
+                (st->st_mode & 07777);
+
+        do_chmod = ((new_mode ^ st->st_mode) & 07777) != 0;
+
+        if (do_chmod && do_chown) {
+                /* Before we issue the chmod() let's reduce the access mode to the common bits of the old and
+                 * the new mode. That way there's no time window where the file exists under the old owner
+                 * with more than the old access modes — and not under the new owner with more than the new
+                 * access modes either. */
+
+                if (S_ISLNK(st->st_mode))
+                        log_debug("Skipping temporary mode fix for symlink %s.", path);
+                else {
+                        mode_t m = new_mode & st->st_mode; /* Mask new mode by old mode */
+
+                        if (((m ^ st->st_mode) & 07777) == 0)
+                                log_debug("\"%s\" matches temporary mode %o already.", path, m);
+                        else {
+                                log_debug("Temporarily changing \"%s\" to mode %o.", path, m);
+                                r = fchmod_opath(fd, m);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "fchmod() of %s failed: %m", path);
+                        }
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (do_chown) {
+                log_debug("Changing \"%s\" to owner "UID_FMT":"GID_FMT, path, new_uid, new_gid);
+
+                if (fchownat(fd, "",
+                             new_uid != st->st_uid ? new_uid : UID_INVALID,
+                             new_gid != st->st_gid ? new_gid : GID_INVALID,
+                             AT_EMPTY_PATH) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fchownat() of %s failed: %m", path);
+        }
+
+        /* Now, apply the final mode. We do this in two cases: when the user set a mode explicitly, or after a
+         * chown(), since chown()'s mangle the access mode in regards to sgid/suid in some conditions. */
+        if (do_chmod || do_chown) {
+                if (S_ISLNK(st->st_mode))
+                        log_debug("Skipping mode fix for symlink %s.", path);
+                else {
+                        log_debug("Changing \"%s\" to mode %o.", path, new_mode);
+                        r = fchmod_opath(fd, new_mode);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "fchmod() of %s failed: %m", path);
+                }
+        }
+
+shortcut:
+        return label_fix_full(fd, /* inode_path= */ NULL, /* label_path= */ path, 0);
+}
+
+static int path_open_parent_safe(const char *path, bool allow_failure) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *dn = NULL;
+        int r, fd;
+
+        if (!path_is_normalized(path))
+                return log_full_errno(allow_failure ? LOG_INFO : LOG_ERR,
+                                      SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                      "Failed to open parent of '%s': path not normalized%s.",
+                                      path,
+                                      allow_failure ? ", ignoring" : "");
+
+        r = path_extract_directory(path, &dn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_full_errno(allow_failure ? LOG_INFO : LOG_ERR,
+                                      r,
+                                      "Unable to determine parent directory of '%s'%s: %m",
+                                      path,
+                                      allow_failure ? ", ignoring" : "");
+
+        r = chase_symlinks(dn, arg_root, allow_failure ? CHASE_SAFE : CHASE_SAFE|CHASE_WARN, NULL, &fd);
+        if (r == -ENOLINK) /* Unsafe symlink: already covered by CHASE_WARN */
+                return r;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_full_errno(allow_failure ? LOG_INFO : LOG_ERR,
+                                      r,
+                                      "Failed to open path '%s'%s: %m",
+                                      dn,
+                                      allow_failure ? ", ignoring" : "");
+
+        return fd;
+}
+
+static int path_open_safe(const char *path) {
+        int r, fd;
+
+        /* path_open_safe() returns a file descriptor opened with O_PATH after
+         * verifying that the path doesn't contain unsafe transitions, except
+         * for its final component as the function does not follow symlink. */
+
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!path_is_normalized(path))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Failed to open invalid path '%s'.", path);
+
+        r = chase_symlinks(path, arg_root, CHASE_SAFE|CHASE_WARN|CHASE_NOFOLLOW, NULL, &fd);
+        if (r == -ENOLINK)
+                return r; /* Unsafe symlink: already covered by CHASE_WARN */
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open path %s: %m", path);
+
+        return fd;
+}
+
+static int path_set_perms(
+                Item *i,
+                const char *path,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, /* st= */ NULL, creation);
+}
+
+static int parse_xattrs_from_arg(Item *i) {
+        const char *p;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        assert_se(p = i->argument);
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *name = NULL, *value = NULL, *xattr = NULL;
+
+                r = extract_first_word(&p, &xattr, NULL, EXTRACT_UNQUOTE|EXTRACT_CUNESCAPE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse extended attribute '%s', ignoring: %m", p);
+                if (r <= 0)
+                        break;
+
+                r = split_pair(xattr, "=", &name, &value);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse extended attribute, ignoring: %s", xattr);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (isempty(name) || isempty(value)) {
+                        log_warning("Malformed extended attribute found, ignoring: %s", xattr);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (strv_push_pair(&i->xattrs, name, value) < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                name = value = NULL;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fd_set_xattrs(
+                Item *i,
+                int fd,
+                const char *path,
+                const struct stat *st,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(path);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH_PAIR(name, value, i->xattrs) {
+                log_debug("Setting extended attribute '%s=%s' on %s.", *name, *value, path);
+                if (setxattr(FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd), *name, *value, strlen(*value), 0) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Setting extended attribute %s=%s on %s failed: %m",
+                                               *name, *value, path);
+        }
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int path_set_xattrs(
+                Item *i,
+                const char *path,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_xattrs(i, fd, path, /* st = */ NULL, creation);
+}
+
+static int parse_acls_from_arg(Item *item) {
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        int r;
+
+        assert(item);
+
+        /* If append_or_force (= modify) is set, we will not modify the acl
+         * afterwards, so the mask can be added now if necessary. */
+
+        r = parse_acl(item->argument, &item->acl_access, &item->acl_default, !item->append_or_force);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to parse ACL \"%s\": %m. Ignoring", item->argument);
+#else
+        log_warning("ACLs are not supported. Ignoring.");
+#endif
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+#if HAVE_ACL
+static int path_set_acl(
+                const char *path,
+                const char *pretty,
+                acl_type_t type,
+                acl_t acl,
+                bool modify) {
+
+        _cleanup_(acl_free_charpp) char *t = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(acl_freep) acl_t dup = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Returns 0 for success, positive error if already warned,
+         * negative error otherwise. */
+
+        if (modify) {
+                r = acls_for_file(path, type, acl, &dup);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = calc_acl_mask_if_needed(&dup);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        } else {
+                dup = acl_dup(acl);
+                if (!dup)
+                        return -errno;
+
+                /* the mask was already added earlier if needed */
+        }
+
+        r = add_base_acls_if_needed(&dup, path);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        t = acl_to_any_text(dup, NULL, ',', TEXT_ABBREVIATE);
+        log_debug("Setting %s ACL %s on %s.",
+                  type == ACL_TYPE_ACCESS ? "access" : "default",
+                  strna(t), pretty);
+
+        r = acl_set_file(path, type, dup);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(errno))
+                        /* No error if filesystem doesn't support ACLs. Return negative. */
+                        return -errno;
+                else
+                        /* Return positive to indicate we already warned */
+                        return -log_error_errno(errno,
+                                                "Setting %s ACL \"%s\" on %s failed: %m",
+                                                type == ACL_TYPE_ACCESS ? "access" : "default",
+                                                strna(t), pretty);
+        }
+        return 0;
+}
+#endif
+
+static int fd_set_acls(
+                Item *item,
+                int fd,
+                const char *path,
+                const struct stat *st,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        int r = 0;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        struct stat stbuf;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        if (hardlink_vulnerable(st))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                       "Refusing to set ACLs on hardlinked file %s while the fs.protected_hardlinks sysctl is turned off.",
+                                       path);
+
+        if (S_ISLNK(st->st_mode)) {
+                log_debug("Skipping ACL fix for symlink %s.", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (item->acl_access)
+                r = path_set_acl(FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd), path, ACL_TYPE_ACCESS, item->acl_access, item->append_or_force);
+
+        /* set only default acls to folders */
+        if (r == 0 && item->acl_default && S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                r = path_set_acl(FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd), path, ACL_TYPE_DEFAULT, item->acl_default, item->append_or_force);
+
+        if (ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(r)) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "ACLs not supported by file system at %s", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (r > 0)
+                return -r; /* already warned */
+
+        /* The above procfs paths don't work if /proc is not mounted. */
+        if (r == -ENOENT && proc_mounted() == 0)
+                r = -ENOSYS;
+
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "ACL operation on \"%s\" failed: %m", path);
+#endif
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int path_set_acls(Item *item, const char *path, CreationMode creation) {
+        int r = 0;
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(path);
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        r = fd_set_acls(item, fd, path, /* st= */ NULL, creation);
+#endif
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int parse_attribute_from_arg(Item *item) {
+
+        static const struct {
+                char character;
+                unsigned value;
+        } attributes[] = {
+                { 'A', FS_NOATIME_FL },      /* do not update atime */
+                { 'S', FS_SYNC_FL },         /* Synchronous updates */
+                { 'D', FS_DIRSYNC_FL },      /* dirsync behaviour (directories only) */
+                { 'a', FS_APPEND_FL },       /* writes to file may only append */
+                { 'c', FS_COMPR_FL },        /* Compress file */
+                { 'd', FS_NODUMP_FL },       /* do not dump file */
+                { 'e', FS_EXTENT_FL },       /* Extents */
+                { 'i', FS_IMMUTABLE_FL },    /* Immutable file */
+                { 'j', FS_JOURNAL_DATA_FL }, /* Reserved for ext3 */
+                { 's', FS_SECRM_FL },        /* Secure deletion */
+                { 'u', FS_UNRM_FL },         /* Undelete */
+                { 't', FS_NOTAIL_FL },       /* file tail should not be merged */
+                { 'T', FS_TOPDIR_FL },       /* Top of directory hierarchies */
+                { 'C', FS_NOCOW_FL },        /* Do not cow file */
+                { 'P', FS_PROJINHERIT_FL },  /* Inherit the quota project ID */
+        };
+
+        enum {
+                MODE_ADD,
+                MODE_DEL,
+                MODE_SET
+        } mode = MODE_ADD;
+
+        unsigned value = 0, mask = 0;
+        const char *p;
+
+        assert(item);
+
+        p = item->argument;
+        if (p) {
+                if (*p == '+') {
+                        mode = MODE_ADD;
+                        p++;
+                } else if (*p == '-') {
+                        mode = MODE_DEL;
+                        p++;
+                } else  if (*p == '=') {
+                        mode = MODE_SET;
+                        p++;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (isempty(p) && mode != MODE_SET)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Setting file attribute on '%s' needs an attribute specification.",
+                                       item->path);
+
+        for (; p && *p ; p++) {
+                unsigned i, v;
+
+                for (i = 0; i < ELEMENTSOF(attributes); i++)
+                        if (*p == attributes[i].character)
+                                break;
+
+                if (i >= ELEMENTSOF(attributes))
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                               "Unknown file attribute '%c' on '%s'.",
+                                               *p, item->path);
+
+                v = attributes[i].value;
+
+                SET_FLAG(value, v, IN_SET(mode, MODE_ADD, MODE_SET));
+
+                mask |= v;
+        }
+
+        if (mode == MODE_SET)
+                mask |= CHATTR_ALL_FL;
+
+        assert(mask != 0);
+
+        item->attribute_mask = mask;
+        item->attribute_value = value;
+        item->attribute_set = true;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fd_set_attribute(
+                Item *item,
+                int fd,
+                const char *path,
+                const struct stat *st,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        _cleanup_close_ int procfs_fd = -1;
+        struct stat stbuf;
+        unsigned f;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(item);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (!item->attribute_set || item->attribute_mask == 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!st) {
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "fstat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+                st = &stbuf;
+        }
+
+        /* Issuing the file attribute ioctls on device nodes is not safe, as that will be delivered to the
+         * drivers, not the file system containing the device node. */
+        if (!S_ISREG(st->st_mode) && !S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Setting file flags is only supported on regular files and directories, cannot set on '%s'.",
+                                       path);
+
+        f = item->attribute_value & item->attribute_mask;
+
+        /* Mask away directory-specific flags */
+        if (!S_ISDIR(st->st_mode))
+                f &= ~FS_DIRSYNC_FL;
+
+        procfs_fd = fd_reopen(fd, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOATIME);
+        if (procfs_fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(procfs_fd, "Failed to re-open '%s': %m", path);
+
+        unsigned previous, current;
+        r = chattr_full(NULL, procfs_fd, f, item->attribute_mask, &previous, &current, CHATTR_FALLBACK_BITWISE);
+        if (r == -ENOANO)
+                log_warning("Cannot set file attributes for '%s', maybe due to incompatibility in specified attributes, "
+                            "previous=0x%08x, current=0x%08x, expected=0x%08x, ignoring.",
+                            path, previous, current, (previous & ~item->attribute_mask) | (f & item->attribute_mask));
+        else if (r < 0)
+                log_full_errno(ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(r) ? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_WARNING, r,
+                               "Cannot set file attributes for '%s', value=0x%08x, mask=0x%08x, ignoring: %m",
+                               path, item->attribute_value, item->attribute_mask);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int path_set_attribute(Item *item, const char *path, CreationMode creation) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+        if (!item->attribute_set || item->attribute_mask == 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        fd = path_open_safe(path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_attribute(item, fd, path, /* st= */ NULL, creation);
+}
+
+static int write_argument_data(Item *i, int fd, const char *path) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(path);
+
+        if (item_binary_argument_size(i) == 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert(item_binary_argument(i));
+
+        log_debug("Writing to \"%s\".", path);
+
+        r = loop_write(fd, item_binary_argument(i), item_binary_argument_size(i), /* do_poll= */ false);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write file \"%s\": %m", path);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int write_one_file(Item *i, const char *path, CreationMode creation) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->type == WRITE_FILE);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for writing, is a directory.", path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the file so we're sure that it
+         * can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        /* Follows symlinks */
+        fd = openat(dir_fd, bn,
+                    O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY|(i->append_or_force ? O_APPEND : 0),
+                    i->mode);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (errno == ENOENT) {
+                        log_debug_errno(errno, "Not writing missing file \"%s\": %m", path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                if (i->allow_failure)
+                        return log_debug_errno(errno, "Failed to open file \"%s\", ignoring: %m", path);
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open file \"%s\": %m", path);
+        }
+
+        /* 'w' is allowed to write into any kind of files. */
+
+        r = write_argument_data(i, fd, path);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, NULL, creation);
+}
+
+static int create_file(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        struct stat stbuf, *st = NULL;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->type == CREATE_FILE);
+
+        /* 'f' operates on regular files exclusively. */
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for writing, is a directory.", path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the file so we're sure that it
+         * can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFREG);
+                fd = RET_NERRNO(openat(dir_fd, bn, O_CREAT|O_EXCL|O_NOFOLLOW|O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode));
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                /* Even on a read-only filesystem, open(2) returns EEXIST if the file already exists. It
+                 * returns EROFS only if it needs to create the file. */
+                if (fd != -EEXIST)
+                        return log_error_errno(fd, "Failed to create file %s: %m", path);
+
+                /* Re-open the file. At that point it must exist since open(2) failed with EEXIST. We still
+                 * need to check if the perms/mode need to be changed. For read-only filesystems, we let
+                 * fd_set_perms() report the error if the perms need to be modified. */
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH, i->mode);
+                if (fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to re-open file %s: %m", path);
+
+                if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+
+                if (!S_ISREG(stbuf.st_mode))
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EEXIST),
+                                               "%s exists and is not a regular file.",
+                                               path);
+
+                st = &stbuf;
+                creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        } else {
+                r = write_argument_data(i, fd, path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                creation = CREATION_NORMAL;
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, st, creation);
+}
+
+static int truncate_file(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1, dir_fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        struct stat stbuf, *st = NULL;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        bool erofs = false;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(i->type == TRUNCATE_FILE || (i->type == CREATE_FILE && i->append_or_force));
+
+        /* We want to operate on regular file exclusively especially since O_TRUNC is unspecified if the file
+         * is neither a regular file nor a fifo nor a terminal device. Therefore we first open the file and
+         * make sure it's a regular one before truncating it. */
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for truncation, is a directory.", path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and keep the fd on the directory for opening the file so we're sure that it
+         * can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dir_fd = path_open_parent_safe(path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (dir_fd < 0)
+                return dir_fd;
+
+        creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        fd = RET_NERRNO(openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode));
+        if (fd == -ENOENT) {
+                creation = CREATION_NORMAL; /* Didn't work without O_CREATE, try again with */
+
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(path, S_IFREG);
+                        fd = RET_NERRNO(openat(dir_fd, bn, O_CREAT|O_NOFOLLOW|O_NONBLOCK|O_CLOEXEC|O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY, i->mode));
+                        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (fd != -EROFS)
+                        return log_error_errno(fd, "Failed to open/create file %s: %m", path);
+
+                /* On a read-only filesystem, we don't want to fail if the target is already empty and the
+                 * perms are set. So we still proceed with the sanity checks and let the remaining operations
+                 * fail with EROFS if they try to modify the target file. */
+
+                fd = openat(dir_fd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH, i->mode);
+                if (fd < 0) {
+                        if (errno == ENOENT)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EROFS),
+                                                       "Cannot create file %s on a read-only file system.",
+                                                       path);
+
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to re-open file %s: %m", path);
+                }
+
+                erofs = true;
+                creation = CREATION_EXISTING;
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &stbuf) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s) failed: %m", path);
+
+        if (!S_ISREG(stbuf.st_mode))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EEXIST),
+                                       "%s exists and is not a regular file.",
+                                       path);
+
+        if (stbuf.st_size > 0) {
+                if (ftruncate(fd, 0) < 0) {
+                        r = erofs ? -EROFS : -errno;
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to truncate file %s: %m", path);
+                }
+        } else
+                st = &stbuf;
+
+        log_debug("\"%s\" has been created.", path);
+
+        if (item_binary_argument(i)) {
+                r = write_argument_data(i, fd, path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, st, creation);
+}
+
+static int copy_files(Item *i) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int dfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        struct stat st, a;
+        int r;
+
+        log_debug("Copying tree \"%s\" to \"%s\".", i->argument, i->path);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(i->path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", i->path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and use the returned directory fd for copying the target so we're sure that the
+         * path can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (dfd < 0)
+                return dfd;
+
+        r = copy_tree_at(AT_FDCWD, i->argument,
+                         dfd, bn,
+                         i->uid_set ? i->uid : UID_INVALID,
+                         i->gid_set ? i->gid : GID_INVALID,
+                         COPY_REFLINK | COPY_MERGE_EMPTY | COPY_MAC_CREATE | COPY_HARDLINKS);
+
+        fd = openat(dfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (r < 0) /* Look at original error first */
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy files to %s: %m", i->path);
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to openat(%s): %m", i->path);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        if (stat(i->argument, &a) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat(%s): %m", i->argument);
+
+        if (((st.st_mode ^ a.st_mode) & S_IFMT) != 0) {
+                log_debug("Can't copy to %s, file exists already and is of different type", i->path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, &st, _CREATION_MODE_INVALID);
+}
+
+static int create_directory_or_subvolume(
+                const char *path,
+                mode_t mode,
+                bool subvol,
+                bool allow_failure,
+                struct stat *ret_st,
+                CreationMode *ret_creation) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int pfd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r, fd;
+
+        assert(path);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", path);
+
+        pfd = path_open_parent_safe(path, allow_failure);
+        if (pfd < 0)
+                return pfd;
+
+        if (subvol) {
+                r = getenv_bool("SYSTEMD_TMPFILES_FORCE_SUBVOL");
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (r != -ENXIO) /* env var is unset */
+                                log_warning_errno(r, "Cannot parse value of $SYSTEMD_TMPFILES_FORCE_SUBVOL, ignoring.");
+                        r = btrfs_is_subvol(empty_to_root(arg_root)) > 0;
+                }
+                if (r == 0)
+                        /* Don't create a subvolume unless the root directory is one, too. We do this under
+                         * the assumption that if the root directory is just a plain directory (i.e. very
+                         * light-weight), we shouldn't try to split it up into subvolumes (i.e. more
+                         * heavy-weight). Thus, chroot() environments and suchlike will get a full brtfs
+                         * subvolume set up below their tree only if they specifically set up a btrfs
+                         * subvolume for the root dir too. */
+
+                        subvol = false;
+                else {
+                        RUN_WITH_UMASK((~mode) & 0777)
+                                r = btrfs_subvol_make_fd(pfd, bn);
+                }
+        } else
+                r = 0;
+
+        if (!subvol || ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(r))
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        r = mkdirat_label(pfd, bn, mode);
+
+        creation = r >= 0 ? CREATION_NORMAL : CREATION_EXISTING;
+
+        fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_DIRECTORY|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                /* We couldn't open it because it is not actually a directory? */
+                if (errno == ENOTDIR)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EEXIST), "\"%s\" already exists and is not a directory.", path);
+
+                /* Then look at the original error */
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_full_errno(allow_failure ? LOG_INFO : LOG_ERR,
+                                              r,
+                                              "Failed to create directory or subvolume \"%s\"%s: %m",
+                                              path,
+                                              allow_failure ? ", ignoring" : "");
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open directory/subvolume we just created '%s': %m", path);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", path);
+
+        assert(S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)); /* we used O_DIRECTORY above */
+
+        log_debug("%s directory \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation), path);
+
+        if (ret_st)
+                *ret_st = st;
+        if (ret_creation)
+                *ret_creation = creation;
+
+        return fd;
+}
+
+static int create_directory(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_DIRECTORY, TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY));
+
+        fd = create_directory_or_subvolume(path, i->mode, /* subvol= */ false, i->allow_failure, &st, &creation);
+        if (fd == -EEXIST)
+                return 0;
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, &st, creation);
+}
+
+static int create_subvolume(Item *i, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r, q = 0;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_SUBVOLUME, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA));
+
+        fd = create_directory_or_subvolume(path, i->mode, /* subvol = */ true, i->allow_failure, &st, &creation);
+        if (fd == -EEXIST)
+                return 0;
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        if (creation == CREATION_NORMAL &&
+            IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA)) {
+                r = btrfs_subvol_auto_qgroup_fd(fd, 0, i->type == CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA);
+                if (r == -ENOTTY)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (unsupported fs or dir not a subvolume): %m", i->path);
+                else if (r == -EROFS)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (fs is read-only).", i->path);
+                else if (r == -ENOTCONN)
+                        log_debug_errno(r, "Couldn't adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\" (quota support is disabled).", i->path);
+                else if (r < 0)
+                        q = log_error_errno(r, "Failed to adjust quota for subvolume \"%s\": %m", i->path);
+                else if (r > 0)
+                        log_debug("Adjusted quota for subvolume \"%s\".", i->path);
+                else if (r == 0)
+                        log_debug("Quota for subvolume \"%s\" already in place, no change made.", i->path);
+        }
+
+        r = fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, &st, creation);
+        if (q < 0) /* prefer the quota change error from above */
+                return q;
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int empty_directory(Item *i, const char *path, CreationMode creation) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(i->type == EMPTY_DIRECTORY);
+
+        r = chase_symlinks(path, arg_root, CHASE_SAFE|CHASE_WARN, NULL, &fd);
+        if (r == -ENOLINK) /* Unsafe symlink: already covered by CHASE_WARN */
+                return r;
+        if (r == -ENOENT) {
+                /* Option "e" operates only on existing objects. Do not print errors about non-existent files
+                 * or directories */
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Skipping missing directory: %s", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open directory '%s': %m", path);
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", path);
+        if (!S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)) {
+                log_warning("'%s' already exists and is not a directory.", path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, path, &st, creation);
+}
+
+static int create_device(Item *i, mode_t file_type) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int dfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(IN_SET(i->type, CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE, CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE));
+        assert(IN_SET(file_type, S_IFBLK, S_IFCHR));
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(i->path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", i->path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for creating device node, is a directory.", i->path);
+
+        /* Validate the path and use the returned directory fd for copying the target so we're sure that the
+         * path can't be changed behind our back. */
+        dfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (dfd < 0)
+                return dfd;
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, file_type);
+                r = RET_NERRNO(mknodat(dfd, bn, i->mode | file_type, i->major_minor));
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+        creation = r >= 0 ? CREATION_NORMAL : CREATION_EXISTING;
+
+        /* Try to open the inode via O_PATH, regardless if we could create it or not. Maybe everything is in
+         * order anyway and we hence can ignore the error to create the device node */
+        fd = openat(dfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                /* OK, so opening the inode failed, let's look at the original error then. */
+
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r))
+                                goto handle_privilege;
+
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create device node '%s': %m", i->path);
+                }
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open device node '%s' we just created: %m", i->path);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        if (((st.st_mode ^ file_type) & S_IFMT) != 0) {
+
+                if (i->append_or_force) {
+                        fd = safe_close(fd);
+
+                        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, file_type);
+                                r = mknodat_atomic(dfd, bn, i->mode | file_type, i->major_minor);
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                        }
+                        if (ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r))
+                                goto handle_privilege;
+                        if (IN_SET(r, -EISDIR, -EEXIST, -ENOTEMPTY)) {
+                                r = rm_rf_child(dfd, bn, REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm -rf %s failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, file_type);
+                                r = RET_NERRNO(mknodat(dfd, bn, i->mode | file_type, i->major_minor));
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                        }
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create device node '%s': %m", i->path);
+
+                        fd = openat(dfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+                        if (fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open device node we just created '%s': %m", i->path);
+
+                        /* Validate type before change ownership below */
+                        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+                        if (((st.st_mode ^ file_type) & S_IFMT) != 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADF), "Device node we just created is not a device node, refusing.");
+
+                        creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+                } else {
+                        log_warning("\"%s\" already exists and is not a device node.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+        }
+
+        log_debug("%s %s device node \"%s\" %u:%u.",
+                  creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation),
+                  i->type == CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE ? "block" : "char",
+                  i->path, major(i->mode), minor(i->mode));
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, &st, creation);
+
+handle_privilege:
+        log_debug_errno(r,
+                        "We lack permissions, possibly because of cgroup configuration; "
+                        "skipping creation of device node '%s'.", i->path);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int create_fifo(Item *i) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int pfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(i->type == CREATE_FIFO);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(i->path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", i->path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for creating FIFO, is a directory.", i->path);
+
+        pfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (pfd < 0)
+                return pfd;
+
+        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFIFO);
+                r = RET_NERRNO(mkfifoat(pfd, bn, i->mode));
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+        }
+
+        creation = r >= 0 ? CREATION_NORMAL : CREATION_EXISTING;
+
+        /* Open the inode via O_PATH, regardless if we managed to create it or not. Maybe it is is already the FIFO we want */
+        fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create FIFO %s: %m", i->path); /* original error! */
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open FIFO we just created %s: %m", i->path);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        if (!S_ISFIFO(st.st_mode)) {
+
+                if (i->append_or_force) {
+                        fd = safe_close(fd);
+
+                        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000) {
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFIFO);
+                                r = mkfifoat_atomic(pfd, bn, i->mode);
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                        }
+                        if (IN_SET(r, -EISDIR, -EEXIST, -ENOTEMPTY)) {
+                                r = rm_rf_child(pfd, bn, REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm -rf %s failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFIFO);
+                                r = RET_NERRNO(mkfifoat(pfd, bn, i->mode));
+                                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                        }
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create FIFO %s: %m", i->path);
+
+                        fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+                        if (fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open FIFO we just created '%s': %m", i->path);
+
+                        /* Validate type before change ownership below */
+                        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+                        if (!S_ISFIFO(st.st_mode))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADF), "FIFO inode we just created is not a FIFO, refusing.");
+
+                        creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+                } else {
+                        log_warning("\"%s\" already exists and is not a FIFO.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+        }
+
+        log_debug("%s fifo \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation), i->path);
+
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, &st, creation);
+}
+
+static int create_symlink(Item *i) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int pfd = -1, fd = -1;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *bn = NULL;
+        CreationMode creation;
+        struct stat st;
+        bool good = false;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(i->path, &bn);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", i->path);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR), "Cannot open path '%s' for creating FIFO, is a directory.", i->path);
+
+        pfd = path_open_parent_safe(i->path, i->allow_failure);
+        if (pfd < 0)
+                return pfd;
+
+        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+        r = RET_NERRNO(symlinkat(i->argument, pfd, bn));
+        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+
+        creation = r >= 0 ? CREATION_NORMAL : CREATION_EXISTING;
+
+        fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+        if (fd < 0) {
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create symlink '%s': %m", i->path); /* original error! */
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open symlink we just created '%s': %m", i->path);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+        if (S_ISLNK(st.st_mode)) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *x = NULL;
+
+                r = readlinkat_malloc(fd, "", &x);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "readlinkat(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                good = streq(x, i->argument);
+        } else
+                good = false;
+
+        if (!good) {
+                if (!i->append_or_force) {
+                        log_debug("\"%s\" is not a symlink or does not point to the correct path.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                fd = safe_close(fd);
+
+                mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+                r = symlinkat_atomic_full(i->argument, pfd, bn, /* make_relative= */ false);
+                mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EISDIR, -EEXIST, -ENOTEMPTY)) {
+                        r = rm_rf_child(pfd, bn, REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "rm -rf %s failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                        mac_selinux_create_file_prepare(i->path, S_IFLNK);
+                        r = RET_NERRNO(symlinkat(i->argument, pfd, i->path));
+                        mac_selinux_create_file_clear();
+                }
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "symlink(%s, %s) failed: %m", i->argument, i->path);
+
+                fd = openat(pfd, bn, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+                if (fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open symlink we just created '%s': %m", i->path);
+
+                /* Validate type before change ownership below */
+                if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to fstat(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+                if (!S_ISLNK(st.st_mode))
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADF), "Symlink we just created is not a symlink, refusing.");
+
+                creation = CREATION_FORCE;
+        }
+
+        log_debug("%s symlink \"%s\".", creation_mode_verb_to_string(creation), i->path);
+        return fd_set_perms(i, fd, i->path, &st, creation);
+}
+
+typedef int (*action_t)(Item *i, const char *path, CreationMode creation);
+typedef int (*fdaction_t)(Item *i, int fd, const char *path, const struct stat *st, CreationMode creation);
+
+static int item_do(
+                Item *i,
+                int fd,
+                const char *path,
+                CreationMode creation,
+                fdaction_t action) {
+
+        struct stat st;
+        int r = 0, q;
+
+        assert(i);
+        assert(path);
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0) {
+                r = log_error_errno(errno, "fstat() on file failed: %m");
+                goto finish;
+        }
+
+        /* This returns the first error we run into, but nevertheless tries to go on */
+        r = action(i, fd, path, &st, creation);
+
+        if (S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)) {
+                _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+
+                /* The passed 'fd' was opened with O_PATH. We need to convert it into a 'regular' fd before
+                 * reading the directory content. */
+                d = opendir(FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd));
+                if (!d) {
+                        log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to opendir() '%s': %m", FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd));
+                        if (r == 0)
+                                r = -errno;
+                        goto finish;
+                }
+
+                FOREACH_DIRENT_ALL(de, d, q = -errno; goto finish) {
+                        int de_fd;
+
+                        if (dot_or_dot_dot(de->d_name))
+                                continue;
+
+                        de_fd = openat(fd, de->d_name, O_NOFOLLOW|O_CLOEXEC|O_PATH);
+                        if (de_fd < 0)
+                                q = log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open() file '%s': %m", de->d_name);
+                        else {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *de_path = NULL;
+
+                                de_path = path_join(path, de->d_name);
+                                if (!de_path)
+                                        q = log_oom();
+                                else
+                                        /* Pass ownership of dirent fd over */
+                                        q = item_do(i, de_fd, de_path, CREATION_EXISTING, action);
+                        }
+
+                        if (q < 0 && r == 0)
+                                r = q;
+                }
+        }
+finish:
+        safe_close(fd);
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int glob_item(Item *i, action_t action) {
+        _cleanup_globfree_ glob_t g = {
+                .gl_opendir = (void *(*)(const char *)) opendir_nomod,
+        };
+        int r = 0, k;
+
+        k = safe_glob(i->path, GLOB_NOSORT|GLOB_BRACE, &g);
+        if (k < 0 && k != -ENOENT)
+                return log_error_errno(k, "glob(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(fn, g.gl_pathv) {
+                /* We pass CREATION_EXISTING here, since if we are globbing for it, it always has to exist */
+                k = action(i, *fn, CREATION_EXISTING);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int glob_item_recursively(Item *i, fdaction_t action) {
+        _cleanup_globfree_ glob_t g = {
+                .gl_opendir = (void *(*)(const char *)) opendir_nomod,
+        };
+        int r = 0, k;
+
+        k = safe_glob(i->path, GLOB_NOSORT|GLOB_BRACE, &g);
+        if (k < 0 && k != -ENOENT)
+                return log_error_errno(k, "glob(%s) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(fn, g.gl_pathv) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int fd = -1;
+
+                /* Make sure we won't trigger/follow file object (such as
+                 * device nodes, automounts, ...) pointed out by 'fn' with
+                 * O_PATH. Note, when O_PATH is used, flags other than
+                 * O_CLOEXEC, O_DIRECTORY, and O_NOFOLLOW are ignored. */
+
+                fd = open(*fn, O_CLOEXEC|O_NOFOLLOW|O_PATH);
+                if (fd < 0) {
+                        log_error_errno(errno, "Opening '%s' failed: %m", *fn);
+                        if (r == 0)
+                                r = -errno;
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                k = item_do(i, fd, *fn, CREATION_EXISTING, action);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+
+                /* we passed fd ownership to the previous call */
+                fd = -1;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int rm_if_wrong_type_safe(
+                mode_t mode,
+                int parent_fd,
+                const struct stat *parent_st, /* Only used if follow_links below is true. */
+                const char *name,
+                int flags) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *parent_name = NULL;
+        bool follow_links = !FLAGS_SET(flags, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW);
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(name);
+        assert((mode & ~S_IFMT) == 0);
+        assert(!follow_links || parent_st);
+        assert((flags & ~AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) == 0);
+
+        if (!filename_is_valid(name))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "\"%s\" is not a valid filename.", name);
+
+        r = fstatat_harder(parent_fd, name, &st, flags, REMOVE_CHMOD | REMOVE_CHMOD_RESTORE);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+                return log_full_errno(r == -ENOENT? LOG_DEBUG : LOG_ERR, r,
+                              "Failed to stat \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", name, strna(parent_name));
+        }
+
+        /* Fail before removing anything if this is an unsafe transition. */
+        if (follow_links && unsafe_transition(parent_st, &st)) {
+                (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOLINK),
+                                "Unsafe transition from \"%s\" to \"%s\".", parent_name, name);
+        }
+
+        if ((st.st_mode & S_IFMT) == mode)
+                return 0;
+
+        (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+        log_notice("Wrong file type 0o%o; rm -rf \"%s/%s\"", st.st_mode & S_IFMT, strna(parent_name), name);
+
+        /* If the target of the symlink was the wrong type, the link needs to be removed instead of the
+         * target, so make sure it is identified as a link and not a directory. */
+        if (follow_links) {
+                r = fstatat_harder(parent_fd, name, &st, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW, REMOVE_CHMOD | REMOVE_CHMOD_RESTORE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to stat \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", name, strna(parent_name));
+        }
+
+        /* Do not remove mount points. */
+        r = fd_is_mount_point(parent_fd, name, follow_links ? AT_SYMLINK_FOLLOW : 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                (void) log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to check if  \"%s/%s\" is a mount point: %m; Continuing",
+                                strna(parent_name), name);
+        else if (r > 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBUSY),
+                                "Not removing  \"%s/%s\" because it is a mount point.", strna(parent_name), name);
+
+        if ((st.st_mode & S_IFMT) == S_IFDIR) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int child_fd = -1;
+
+                child_fd = openat(parent_fd, name, O_NOCTTY | O_CLOEXEC | O_DIRECTORY);
+                if (child_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", name, strna(parent_name));
+
+                r = rm_rf_children(TAKE_FD(child_fd), REMOVE_ROOT|REMOVE_SUBVOLUME|REMOVE_PHYSICAL, &st);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to remove contents of \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", name, strna(parent_name));
+
+                r = unlinkat_harder(parent_fd, name, AT_REMOVEDIR, REMOVE_CHMOD | REMOVE_CHMOD_RESTORE);
+        } else
+                r = unlinkat_harder(parent_fd, name, 0, REMOVE_CHMOD | REMOVE_CHMOD_RESTORE);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to remove \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", name, strna(parent_name));
+
+        /* This is covered by the log_notice "Wrong file type..." It is logged earlier because it gives
+         * context to other error messages that might follow. */
+        return -ENOENT;
+}
+
+/* If child_mode is non-zero, rm_if_wrong_type_safe will be executed for the last path component. */
+static int mkdir_parents_rm_if_wrong_type(mode_t child_mode, const char *path) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int parent_fd = -1;
+        struct stat parent_st;
+        size_t path_len;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(path);
+        assert((child_mode & ~S_IFMT) == 0);
+
+        path_len = strlen(path);
+
+        if (!is_path(path))
+                /* rm_if_wrong_type_safe already logs errors. */
+                return child_mode != 0 ? rm_if_wrong_type_safe(child_mode, AT_FDCWD, NULL, path, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) : 0;
+
+        if (child_mode != 0 && endswith(path, "/"))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                "Trailing path separators are only allowed if child_mode is not set; got \"%s\"", path);
+
+        /* Get the parent_fd and stat. */
+        parent_fd = openat(AT_FDCWD, path_is_absolute(path) ? "/" : ".", O_NOCTTY | O_CLOEXEC | O_DIRECTORY);
+        if (parent_fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open root: %m");
+
+        if (fstat(parent_fd, &parent_st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat root: %m");
+
+        /* Check every parent directory in the path, except the last component */
+        for (const char *e = path;;) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int next_fd = -1;
+                char t[path_len + 1];
+                const char *s;
+
+                /* Find the start of the next path component. */
+                s = e + strspn(e, "/");
+                /* Find the end of the next path component. */
+                e = s + strcspn(s, "/");
+
+                /* Copy the path component to t so it can be a null terminated string. */
+                *((char*) mempcpy(t, s, e - s)) = 0;
+
+                /* Is this the last component? If so, then check the type */
+                if (*e == 0)
+                        return child_mode != 0 ? rm_if_wrong_type_safe(child_mode, parent_fd, &parent_st, t, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) : 0;
+
+                r = rm_if_wrong_type_safe(S_IFDIR, parent_fd, &parent_st, t, 0);
+                /* Remove dangling symlinks. */
+                if (r == -ENOENT)
+                        r = rm_if_wrong_type_safe(S_IFDIR, parent_fd, &parent_st, t, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW);
+                if (r == -ENOENT) {
+                        RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                                r = mkdirat_label(parent_fd, t, 0755);
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *parent_name = NULL;
+
+                                (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to mkdir \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", t, strnull(parent_name));
+                        }
+                } else if (r < 0)
+                        /* rm_if_wrong_type_safe already logs errors. */
+                        return r;
+
+                next_fd = RET_NERRNO(openat(parent_fd, t, O_NOCTTY | O_CLOEXEC | O_DIRECTORY));
+                if (next_fd < 0) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *parent_name = NULL;
+
+                        (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+                        return log_error_errno(next_fd, "Failed to open \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", t, strnull(parent_name));
+                }
+                r = RET_NERRNO(fstat(next_fd, &parent_st));
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *parent_name = NULL;
+
+                        (void) fd_get_path(parent_fd, &parent_name);
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to stat \"%s\" at \"%s\": %m", t, strnull(parent_name));
+                }
+
+                close_and_replace(parent_fd, next_fd);
+        }
+}
+
+static int mkdir_parents_item(Item *i, mode_t child_mode) {
+        int r;
+        if (i->try_replace) {
+                r = mkdir_parents_rm_if_wrong_type(child_mode, i->path);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return r;
+        } else
+                RUN_WITH_UMASK(0000)
+                        (void) mkdir_parents_label(i->path, 0755);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int create_item(Item *i) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running create action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                return 0;
+
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, S_IFREG);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if ((i->type == CREATE_FILE && i->append_or_force) || i->type == TRUNCATE_FILE)
+                        r = truncate_file(i, i->path);
+                else
+                        r = create_file(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, 0);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = copy_files(i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case WRITE_FILE:
+                r = glob_item(i, write_one_file);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, S_IFDIR);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = create_directory(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, S_IFDIR);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = create_subvolume(i, i->path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+                r = glob_item(i, empty_directory);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_FIFO:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, S_IFIFO);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = create_fifo(i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, S_IFLNK);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = create_symlink(i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE:
+        case CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE:
+                if (have_effective_cap(CAP_MKNOD) == 0) {
+                        /* In a container we lack CAP_MKNOD. We shouldn't attempt to create the device node in that
+                         * case to avoid noise, and we don't support virtualized devices in containers anyway. */
+
+                        log_debug("We lack CAP_MKNOD, skipping creation of device node %s.", i->path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                r = mkdir_parents_item(i, i->type == CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE ? S_IFBLK : S_IFCHR);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = create_device(i, i->type == CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE ? S_IFBLK : S_IFCHR);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                break;
+
+        case ADJUST_MODE:
+        case RELABEL_PATH:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_perms);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_perms);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_XATTR:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_xattrs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_xattrs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ACL:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_acls);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ACL:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_acls);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                r = glob_item(i, path_set_attribute);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                r = glob_item_recursively(i, fd_set_attribute);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int remove_item_instance(Item *i, const char *instance, CreationMode creation) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+                if (remove(instance) < 0 && errno != ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "rm(%s): %m", instance);
+
+                break;
+
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                /* FIXME: we probably should use dir_cleanup() here instead of rm_rf() so that 'x' is honoured. */
+                log_debug("rm -rf \"%s\"", instance);
+                r = rm_rf(instance, REMOVE_ROOT|REMOVE_SUBVOLUME|REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm_rf(%s): %m", instance);
+
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                assert_not_reached();
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int remove_item(Item *i) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running remove action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+                /* FIXME: we probably should use dir_cleanup() here instead of rm_rf() so that 'x' is honoured. */
+                log_debug("rm -rf \"%s\"", i->path);
+                r = rm_rf(i->path, REMOVE_PHYSICAL);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "rm_rf(%s): %m", i->path);
+
+                return 0;
+
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+                return glob_item(i, remove_item_instance);
+
+        default:
+                return 0;
+        }
+}
+
+static char *age_by_to_string(AgeBy ab, bool is_dir) {
+        static const char ab_map[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c', 'm' };
+        size_t j = 0;
+        char *ret;
+
+        ret = new(char, ELEMENTSOF(ab_map) + 1);
+        if (!ret)
+                return NULL;
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < ELEMENTSOF(ab_map); i++)
+                if (FLAGS_SET(ab, 1U << i))
+                        ret[j++] = is_dir ? ascii_toupper(ab_map[i]) : ab_map[i];
+
+        ret[j] = 0;
+        return ret;
+}
+
+static int clean_item_instance(
+                Item *i,
+                const char* instance,
+                CreationMode creation) {
+
+        _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+        STRUCT_STATX_DEFINE(sx);
+        int mountpoint, r;
+        usec_t cutoff, n;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        if (!i->age_set)
+                return 0;
+
+        n = now(CLOCK_REALTIME);
+        if (n < i->age)
+                return 0;
+
+        cutoff = n - i->age;
+
+        d = opendir_nomod(instance);
+        if (!d) {
+                if (IN_SET(errno, ENOENT, ENOTDIR)) {
+                        log_debug_errno(errno, "Directory \"%s\": %m", instance);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open directory %s: %m", instance);
+        }
+
+        r = statx_fallback(dirfd(d), "", AT_EMPTY_PATH, STATX_MODE|STATX_INO|STATX_ATIME|STATX_MTIME, &sx);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "statx(%s) failed: %m", instance);
+
+        if (FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_attributes_mask, STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT))
+                mountpoint = FLAGS_SET(sx.stx_attributes, STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT);
+        else {
+                struct stat ps;
+
+                if (fstatat(dirfd(d), "..", &ps, AT_SYMLINK_NOFOLLOW) != 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "stat(%s/..) failed: %m", i->path);
+
+                mountpoint =
+                        sx.stx_dev_major != major(ps.st_dev) ||
+                        sx.stx_dev_minor != minor(ps.st_dev) ||
+                        sx.stx_ino != ps.st_ino;
+        }
+
+        if (DEBUG_LOGGING) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *ab_f = NULL, *ab_d = NULL;
+
+                ab_f = age_by_to_string(i->age_by_file, false);
+                if (!ab_f)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                ab_d = age_by_to_string(i->age_by_dir, true);
+                if (!ab_d)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                log_debug("Cleanup threshold for %s \"%s\" is %s; age-by: %s%s",
+                          mountpoint ? "mount point" : "directory",
+                          instance,
+                          FORMAT_TIMESTAMP_STYLE(cutoff, TIMESTAMP_US),
+                          ab_f, ab_d);
+        }
+
+        return dir_cleanup(i, instance, d,
+                           load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_atime),
+                           load_statx_timestamp_nsec(&sx.stx_mtime),
+                           cutoff * NSEC_PER_USEC,
+                           sx.stx_dev_major, sx.stx_dev_minor, mountpoint,
+                           MAX_DEPTH, i->keep_first_level,
+                           i->age_by_file, i->age_by_dir);
+}
+
+static int clean_item(Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+
+        log_debug("Running clean action for entry %c %s", (char) i->type, i->path);
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                clean_item_instance(i, i->path, CREATION_EXISTING);
+                return 0;
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+                return glob_item(i, clean_item_instance);
+        default:
+                return 0;
+        }
+}
+
+static int process_item(Item *i, OperationMask operation) {
+        OperationMask todo;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *_path = NULL;
+        const char *path;
+        int r, q, p;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        todo = operation & ~i->done;
+        if (todo == 0) /* Everything already done? */
+                return 0;
+
+        i->done |= operation;
+
+        path = i->path;
+        if (string_is_glob(path)) {
+                /* We can't easily check whether a glob matches any autofs path, so let's do the check only
+                 * for the non-glob part. */
+
+                r = glob_non_glob_prefix(path, &_path);
+                if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                        return log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to deglob path: %m");
+                if (r >= 0)
+                        path = _path;
+        }
+
+        r = chase_symlinks(path, arg_root, CHASE_NO_AUTOFS|CHASE_NONEXISTENT|CHASE_WARN, NULL, NULL);
+        if (r == -EREMOTE) {
+                log_notice_errno(r, "Skipping %s", i->path); /* We log the configured path, to not confuse the user. */
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to determine whether '%s' is below autofs, ignoring: %m", i->path);
+
+        r = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CREATE) ? create_item(i) : 0;
+        /* Failure can only be tolerated for create */
+        if (i->allow_failure)
+                r = 0;
+
+        q = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_REMOVE) ? remove_item(i) : 0;
+        p = FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CLEAN) ? clean_item(i) : 0;
+
+        return r < 0 ? r :
+                q < 0 ? q :
+                p;
+}
+
+static int process_item_array(ItemArray *array, OperationMask operation) {
+        int r = 0;
+        size_t n;
+
+        assert(array);
+
+        /* Create any parent first. */
+        if (FLAGS_SET(operation, OPERATION_CREATE) && array->parent)
+                r = process_item_array(array->parent, operation & OPERATION_CREATE);
+
+        /* Clean up all children first */
+        if ((operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN)) && !set_isempty(array->children)) {
+                ItemArray *c;
+
+                SET_FOREACH(c, array->children) {
+                        int k;
+
+                        k = process_item_array(c, operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN));
+                        if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        for (n = 0; n < array->n_items; n++) {
+                int k;
+
+                k = process_item(array->items + n, operation);
+                if (k < 0 && r == 0)
+                        r = k;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static void item_free_contents(Item *i) {
+        assert(i);
+        free(i->path);
+        free(i->argument);
+        free(i->binary_argument);
+        strv_free(i->xattrs);
+
+#if HAVE_ACL
+        if (i->acl_access)
+                acl_free(i->acl_access);
+
+        if (i->acl_default)
+                acl_free(i->acl_default);
+#endif
+}
+
+static ItemArray* item_array_free(ItemArray *a) {
+        size_t n;
+
+        if (!a)
+                return NULL;
+
+        for (n = 0; n < a->n_items; n++)
+                item_free_contents(a->items + n);
+
+        set_free(a->children);
+        free(a->items);
+        return mfree(a);
+}
+
+static int item_compare(const Item *a, const Item *b) {
+        /* Make sure that the ownership taking item is put first, so
+         * that we first create the node, and then can adjust it */
+
+        if (takes_ownership(a->type) && !takes_ownership(b->type))
+                return -1;
+        if (!takes_ownership(a->type) && takes_ownership(b->type))
+                return 1;
+
+        return CMP(a->type, b->type);
+}
+
+static bool item_compatible(const Item *a, const Item *b) {
+        assert(a);
+        assert(b);
+        assert(streq(a->path, b->path));
+
+        if (takes_ownership(a->type) && takes_ownership(b->type))
+                /* check if the items are the same */
+                return memcmp_nn(item_binary_argument(a), item_binary_argument_size(a),
+                                 item_binary_argument(b), item_binary_argument_size(b)) == 0 &&
+
+                        a->uid_set == b->uid_set &&
+                        a->uid == b->uid &&
+                        a->uid_only_create == b->uid_only_create &&
+
+                        a->gid_set == b->gid_set &&
+                        a->gid == b->gid &&
+                        a->gid_only_create == b->gid_only_create &&
+
+                        a->mode_set == b->mode_set &&
+                        a->mode == b->mode &&
+                        a->mode_only_create == b->mode_only_create &&
+
+                        a->age_set == b->age_set &&
+                        a->age == b->age &&
+
+                        a->age_by_file == b->age_by_file &&
+                        a->age_by_dir == b->age_by_dir &&
+
+                        a->mask_perms == b->mask_perms &&
+
+                        a->keep_first_level == b->keep_first_level &&
+
+                        a->major_minor == b->major_minor;
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static bool should_include_path(const char *path) {
+        STRV_FOREACH(prefix, arg_exclude_prefixes)
+                if (path_startswith(path, *prefix)) {
+                        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" matches exclude prefix \"%s\", skipping.",
+                                  path, *prefix);
+                        return false;
+                }
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(prefix, arg_include_prefixes)
+                if (path_startswith(path, *prefix)) {
+                        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" matches include prefix \"%s\".", path, *prefix);
+                        return true;
+                }
+
+        /* no matches, so we should include this path only if we have no allow list at all */
+        if (strv_isempty(arg_include_prefixes))
+                return true;
+
+        log_debug("Entry \"%s\" does not match any include prefix, skipping.", path);
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int specifier_expansion_from_arg(const Specifier *specifier_table, Item *i) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(i);
+
+        if (!i->argument)
+                return 0;
+
+        switch (i->type) {
+        case COPY_FILES:
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+        case WRITE_FILE: {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *unescaped = NULL, *resolved = NULL;
+                ssize_t l;
+
+                l = cunescape(i->argument, 0, &unescaped);
+                if (l < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(l, "Failed to unescape parameter to write: %s", i->argument);
+
+                r = specifier_printf(unescaped, PATH_MAX-1, specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                return free_and_replace(i->argument, resolved);
+        }
+        case SET_XATTR:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                STRV_FOREACH(xattr, i->xattrs) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *resolved = NULL;
+
+                        r = specifier_printf(*xattr, SIZE_MAX, specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        free_and_replace(*xattr, resolved);
+                }
+                return 0;
+
+        default:
+                return 0;
+        }
+}
+
+static int patch_var_run(const char *fname, unsigned line, char **path) {
+        const char *k;
+        char *n;
+
+        assert(path);
+        assert(*path);
+
+        /* Optionally rewrites lines referencing /var/run/, to use /run/ instead. Why bother? tmpfiles merges lines in
+         * some cases and detects conflicts in others. If files/directories are specified through two equivalent lines
+         * this is problematic as neither case will be detected. Ideally we'd detect these cases by resolving symlinks
+         * early, but that's precisely not what we can do here as this code very likely is running very early on, at a
+         * time where the paths in question are not available yet, or even more importantly, our own tmpfiles rules
+         * might create the paths that are intermediary to the listed paths. We can't really cover the generic case,
+         * but the least we can do is cover the specific case of /var/run vs. /run, as /var/run is a legacy name for
+         * /run only, and we explicitly document that and require that on systemd systems the former is a symlink to
+         * the latter. Moreover files below this path are by far the primary usecase for tmpfiles.d/. */
+
+        k = path_startswith(*path, "/var/run/");
+        if (isempty(k)) /* Don't complain about other paths than /var/run, and not about /var/run itself either. */
+                return 0;
+
+        n = path_join("/run", k);
+        if (!n)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        /* Also log about this briefly. We do so at LOG_NOTICE level, as we fixed up the situation automatically, hence
+         * there's no immediate need for action by the user. However, in the interest of making things less confusing
+         * to the user, let's still inform the user that these snippets should really be updated. */
+        log_syntax(NULL, LOG_NOTICE, fname, line, 0,
+                   "Line references path below legacy directory /var/run/, updating %s → %s; please update the tmpfiles.d/ drop-in file accordingly.",
+                   *path, n);
+
+        free_and_replace(*path, n);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int find_uid(const char *user, uid_t *ret_uid, Hashmap **cache) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(user);
+        assert(ret_uid);
+
+        /* First: parse as numeric UID string */
+        r = parse_uid(user, ret_uid);
+        if (r >= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Second: pass to NSS if we are running "online" */
+        if (!arg_root)
+                return get_user_creds(&user, ret_uid, NULL, NULL, NULL, 0);
+
+        /* Third, synthesize "root" unconditionally */
+        if (streq(user, "root")) {
+                *ret_uid = 0;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        /* Fourth: use fgetpwent() to read /etc/passwd directly, if we are "offline" */
+        return name_to_uid_offline(arg_root, user, ret_uid, cache);
+}
+
+static int find_gid(const char *group, gid_t *ret_gid, Hashmap **cache) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(group);
+        assert(ret_gid);
+
+        /* First: parse as numeric GID string */
+        r = parse_gid(group, ret_gid);
+        if (r >= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Second: pass to NSS if we are running "online" */
+        if (!arg_root)
+                return get_group_creds(&group, ret_gid, 0);
+
+        /* Third, synthesize "root" unconditionally */
+        if (streq(group, "root")) {
+                *ret_gid = 0;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        /* Fourth: use fgetgrent() to read /etc/group directly, if we are "offline" */
+        return name_to_gid_offline(arg_root, group, ret_gid, cache);
+}
+
+static int parse_age_by_from_arg(const char *age_by_str, Item *item) {
+        AgeBy ab_f = 0, ab_d = 0;
+
+        static const struct {
+                char age_by_chr;
+                AgeBy age_by_flag;
+        } age_by_types[] = {
+                { 'a', AGE_BY_ATIME },
+                { 'b', AGE_BY_BTIME },
+                { 'c', AGE_BY_CTIME },
+                { 'm', AGE_BY_MTIME },
+        };
+
+        assert(age_by_str);
+        assert(item);
+
+        if (isempty(age_by_str))
+                return -EINVAL;
+
+        for (const char *s = age_by_str; *s != 0; s++) {
+                size_t i;
+
+                /* Ignore whitespace. */
+                if (strchr(WHITESPACE, *s))
+                        continue;
+
+                for (i = 0; i < ELEMENTSOF(age_by_types); i++) {
+                        /* Check lower-case for files, upper-case for directories. */
+                        if (*s == age_by_types[i].age_by_chr) {
+                                ab_f |= age_by_types[i].age_by_flag;
+                                break;
+                        } else if (*s == ascii_toupper(age_by_types[i].age_by_chr)) {
+                                ab_d |= age_by_types[i].age_by_flag;
+                                break;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                /* Invalid character. */
+                if (i >= ELEMENTSOF(age_by_types))
+                        return -EINVAL;
+        }
+
+        /* No match. */
+        if (ab_f == 0 && ab_d == 0)
+                return -EINVAL;
+
+        item->age_by_file = ab_f > 0 ? ab_f : AGE_BY_DEFAULT_FILE;
+        item->age_by_dir = ab_d > 0 ? ab_d : AGE_BY_DEFAULT_DIR;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static bool is_duplicated_item(ItemArray *existing, const Item *i) {
+
+        assert(existing);
+        assert(i);
+
+        for (size_t n = 0; n < existing->n_items; n++) {
+                const Item *e = existing->items + n;
+
+                if (item_compatible(e, i))
+                        continue;
+
+                /* Only multiple 'w+' lines for the same path are allowed. */
+                if (e->type != WRITE_FILE || !e->append_or_force ||
+                    i->type != WRITE_FILE || !i->append_or_force)
+                        return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int parse_line(
+                const char *fname,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *buffer,
+                bool *invalid_config,
+                Hashmap **uid_cache,
+                Hashmap **gid_cache) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *action = NULL, *mode = NULL, *user = NULL, *group = NULL, *age = NULL, *path = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(item_free_contents) Item i = {
+                /* The "age-by" argument considers all file timestamp types by default. */
+                .age_by_file = AGE_BY_DEFAULT_FILE,
+                .age_by_dir = AGE_BY_DEFAULT_DIR,
+        };
+        ItemArray *existing;
+        OrderedHashmap *h;
+        int r, pos;
+        bool append_or_force = false, boot = false, allow_failure = false, try_replace = false, unbase64 = false, from_cred = false;
+
+        assert(fname);
+        assert(line >= 1);
+        assert(buffer);
+
+        const Specifier specifier_table[] = {
+                { 'a', specifier_architecture,    NULL },
+                { 'b', specifier_boot_id,         NULL },
+                { 'B', specifier_os_build_id,     NULL },
+                { 'H', specifier_hostname,        NULL },
+                { 'l', specifier_short_hostname,  NULL },
+                { 'm', specifier_machine_id,      NULL },
+                { 'o', specifier_os_id,           NULL },
+                { 'v', specifier_kernel_release,  NULL },
+                { 'w', specifier_os_version_id,   NULL },
+                { 'W', specifier_os_variant_id,   NULL },
+
+                { 'h', specifier_user_home,       NULL },
+
+                { 'C', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_CACHE)   },
+                { 'L', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_LOGS)    },
+                { 'S', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_STATE)   },
+                { 't', specifier_directory,       UINT_TO_PTR(DIRECTORY_RUNTIME) },
+
+                COMMON_CREDS_SPECIFIERS(arg_user ? LOOKUP_SCOPE_USER : LOOKUP_SCOPE_SYSTEM),
+                COMMON_TMP_SPECIFIERS,
+                {}
+        };
+
+        r = extract_many_words(
+                        &buffer,
+                        NULL,
+                        EXTRACT_UNQUOTE,
+                        &action,
+                        &path,
+                        &mode,
+                        &user,
+                        &group,
+                        &age,
+                        NULL);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        /* invalid quoting and such or an unknown specifier */
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to parse line: %m");
+        } else if (r < 2) {
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Syntax error.");
+        }
+
+        if (!empty_or_dash(buffer)) {
+                i.argument = strdup(buffer);
+                if (!i.argument)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (isempty(action)) {
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Command too short '%s'.", action);
+        }
+
+        for (pos = 1; action[pos]; pos++) {
+                if (action[pos] == '!' && !boot)
+                        boot = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '+' && !append_or_force)
+                        append_or_force = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '-' && !allow_failure)
+                        allow_failure = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '=' && !try_replace)
+                        try_replace = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '~' && !unbase64)
+                        unbase64 = true;
+                else if (action[pos] == '^' && !from_cred)
+                        from_cred = true;
+                else {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Unknown modifiers in command '%s'", action);
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (boot && !arg_boot) {
+                log_syntax(NULL, LOG_DEBUG, fname, line, 0, "Ignoring entry %s \"%s\" because --boot is not specified.", action, path);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        i.type = action[0];
+        i.append_or_force = append_or_force;
+        i.allow_failure = allow_failure;
+        i.try_replace = try_replace;
+
+        r = specifier_printf(path, PATH_MAX-1, specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &i.path);
+        if (ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(r))
+                return log_unresolvable_specifier(fname, line);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to replace specifiers in '%s': %m", path);
+        }
+
+        r = patch_var_run(fname, line, &i.path);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (!path_is_absolute(i.path)) {
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG),
+                                  "Path '%s' not absolute.", i.path);
+        }
+
+        path_simplify(i.path);
+
+        switch (i.type) {
+
+        case CREATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA:
+        case CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA:
+        case EMPTY_DIRECTORY:
+        case TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY:
+        case CREATE_FIFO:
+        case IGNORE_PATH:
+        case IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH:
+        case REMOVE_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_REMOVE_PATH:
+        case ADJUST_MODE:
+        case RELABEL_PATH:
+        case RECURSIVE_RELABEL_PATH:
+                if (i.argument)
+                        log_syntax(NULL,
+                                   LOG_WARNING,
+                                   fname,
+                                   line,
+                                   0,
+                                   "%c lines don't take argument fields, ignoring.",
+                                   (char) i.type);
+
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_FILE:
+        case TRUNCATE_FILE:
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for symlink targets.");
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case WRITE_FILE:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Write file requires argument.");
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for copy sources.");
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case CREATE_CHAR_DEVICE:
+        case CREATE_BLOCK_DEVICE:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for device node creation.");
+                }
+
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Device file requires argument.");
+                }
+
+                r = parse_devnum(i.argument, &i.major_minor);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Can't parse device file major/minor '%s'.", i.argument);
+                }
+
+                break;
+
+        case SET_XATTR:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_XATTR:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for extended attributes.");
+                }
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG),
+                                          "Set extended attribute requires argument.");
+                }
+                r = parse_xattrs_from_arg(&i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ACL:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ACL:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for ACLs.");
+                }
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG),
+                                          "Set ACLs requires argument.");
+                }
+                r = parse_acls_from_arg(&i);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        case SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+        case RECURSIVE_SET_ATTRIBUTE:
+                if (unbase64) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "base64 decoding not supported for file attributes.");
+                }
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG),
+                                          "Set file attribute requires argument.");
+                }
+                r = parse_attribute_from_arg(&i);
+                if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                *invalid_config = true;
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG),
+                                  "Unknown command type '%c'.", (char) i.type);
+        }
+
+        if (!should_include_path(i.path))
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!unbase64) {
+                /* Do specifier expansion except if base64 mode is enabled */
+                r = specifier_expansion_from_arg(specifier_table, &i);
+                if (ERRNO_IS_NOINFO(r))
+                        return log_unresolvable_specifier(fname, line);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (IN_SET(r, -EINVAL, -EBADSLT))
+                                *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to substitute specifiers in argument: %m");
+                }
+        }
+
+        switch (i.type) {
+        case CREATE_SYMLINK:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        i.argument = path_join("/usr/share/factory", i.path);
+                        if (!i.argument)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+                break;
+
+        case COPY_FILES:
+                if (!i.argument) {
+                        i.argument = path_join("/usr/share/factory", i.path);
+                        if (!i.argument)
+                                return log_oom();
+                } else if (!path_is_absolute(i.argument)) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Source path '%s' is not absolute.", i.argument);
+
+                }
+
+                if (!empty_or_root(arg_root)) {
+                        char *p;
+
+                        p = path_join(arg_root, i.argument);
+                        if (!p)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        free_and_replace(i.argument, p);
+                }
+
+                path_simplify(i.argument);
+
+                if (laccess(i.argument, F_OK) == -ENOENT) {
+                        /* Silently skip over lines where the source file is missing. */
+                        log_syntax(NULL, LOG_DEBUG, fname, line, 0, "Copy source path '%s' does not exist, skipping line.", i.argument);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                break;
+        }
+
+        if (from_cred) {
+                if (!i.argument)
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Reading from credential requested, but no credential name specified.");
+                if (!credential_name_valid(i.argument))
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Credential name not valid: %s", i.argument);
+
+                r = read_credential(i.argument, &i.binary_argument, &i.binary_argument_size);
+                if (IN_SET(r, -ENXIO, -ENOENT)) {
+                        /* Silently skip over lines that have no credentials passed */
+                        log_syntax(NULL, LOG_DEBUG, fname, line, 0,
+                                   "Credential '%s' not specified, skipping line.", i.argument);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read credential '%s': %m", i.argument);
+        }
+
+        /* If base64 decoding is requested, do so now */
+        if (unbase64 && item_binary_argument(&i)) {
+                _cleanup_free_ void *data = NULL;
+                size_t data_size = 0;
+
+                r = unbase64mem(item_binary_argument(&i), item_binary_argument_size(&i), &data, &data_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to base64 decode specified argument '%s': %m", i.argument);
+
+                free_and_replace(i.binary_argument, data);
+                i.binary_argument_size = data_size;
+        }
+
+        if (!empty_or_root(arg_root)) {
+                char *p;
+
+                p = path_join(arg_root, i.path);
+                if (!p)
+                        return log_oom();
+                free_and_replace(i.path, p);
+        }
+
+        if (!empty_or_dash(user)) {
+                const char *u;
+
+                u = startswith(user, ":");
+                if (u)
+                        i.uid_only_create = true;
+                else
+                        u = user;
+
+                r = find_uid(u, &i.uid, uid_cache);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to resolve user '%s': %m", u);
+                }
+
+                i.uid_set = true;
+        }
+
+        if (!empty_or_dash(group)) {
+                const char *g;
+
+                g = startswith(group, ":");
+                if (g)
+                        i.gid_only_create = true;
+                else
+                        g = group;
+
+                r = find_gid(g, &i.gid, gid_cache);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Failed to resolve group '%s'.", g);
+                }
+
+                i.gid_set = true;
+        }
+
+        if (!empty_or_dash(mode)) {
+                const char *mm;
+                unsigned m;
+
+                for (mm = mode;; mm++) {
+                        if (*mm == '~')
+                                i.mask_perms = true;
+                        else if (*mm == ':')
+                                i.mode_only_create = true;
+                        else
+                                break;
+                }
+
+                r = parse_mode(mm, &m);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Invalid mode '%s'.", mode);
+                }
+
+                i.mode = m;
+                i.mode_set = true;
+        } else
+                i.mode = IN_SET(i.type, CREATE_DIRECTORY, TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY, CREATE_SUBVOLUME, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA, CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA) ? 0755 : 0644;
+
+        if (!empty_or_dash(age)) {
+                const char *a = age;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *seconds = NULL, *age_by = NULL;
+
+                if (*a == '~') {
+                        i.keep_first_level = true;
+                        a++;
+                }
+
+                /* Format: "age-by:age"; where age-by is "[abcmABCM]+". */
+                r = split_pair(a, ":", &age_by, &seconds);
+                if (r == -ENOMEM)
+                        return log_oom();
+                if (r < 0 && r != -EINVAL)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse age-by for '%s': %m", age);
+                if (r >= 0) {
+                        /* We found a ":", parse the "age-by" part. */
+                        r = parse_age_by_from_arg(age_by, &i);
+                        if (r == -ENOMEM)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                *invalid_config = true;
+                                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Invalid age-by '%s'.", age_by);
+                        }
+
+                        /* For parsing the "age" part, after the ":". */
+                        a = seconds;
+                }
+
+                r = parse_sec(a, &i.age);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        *invalid_config = true;
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, fname, line, r, "Invalid age '%s'.", a);
+                }
+
+                i.age_set = true;
+        }
+
+        h = needs_glob(i.type) ? globs : items;
+
+        existing = ordered_hashmap_get(h, i.path);
+        if (existing) {
+                if (is_duplicated_item(existing, &i)) {
+                        log_syntax(NULL, LOG_NOTICE, fname, line, 0,
+                                   "Duplicate line for path \"%s\", ignoring.", i.path);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+        } else {
+                existing = new0(ItemArray, 1);
+                if (!existing)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = ordered_hashmap_put(h, i.path, existing);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        free(existing);
+                        return log_oom();
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (!GREEDY_REALLOC(existing->items, existing->n_items + 1))
+                return log_oom();
+
+        existing->items[existing->n_items++] = i;
+        i = (struct Item) {};
+
+        /* Sort item array, to enforce stable ordering of application */
+        typesafe_qsort(existing->items, existing->n_items, item_compare);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int cat_config(char **config_dirs, char **args) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **files = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = conf_files_list_with_replacement(arg_root, config_dirs, arg_replace, &files, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return cat_files(NULL, files, 0);
+}
+
+static int exclude_default_prefixes(void) {
+        int r;
+
+        /* Provide an easy way to exclude virtual/memory file systems from what we do here. Useful in
+         * combination with --root= where we probably don't want to apply stuff to these dirs as they are
+         * likely over-mounted if the root directory is actually used, and it wouldbe less than ideal to have
+         * all kinds of files created/adjusted underneath these mount points. */
+
+        r = strv_extend_strv(
+                        &arg_exclude_prefixes,
+                        STRV_MAKE("/dev",
+                                  "/proc",
+                                  "/run",
+                                  "/sys"),
+                                 true);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int help(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *link = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = terminal_urlify_man("systemd-tmpfiles", "8", &link);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        printf("%s [OPTIONS...] [CONFIGURATION FILE...]\n"
+               "\n%sCreates, deletes and cleans up volatile and temporary files and directories.%s\n\n"
+               "  -h --help                 Show this help\n"
+               "     --user                 Execute user configuration\n"
+               "     --version              Show package version\n"
+               "     --cat-config           Show configuration files\n"
+               "     --create               Create marked files/directories\n"
+               "     --clean                Clean up marked directories\n"
+               "     --remove               Remove marked files/directories\n"
+               "     --boot                 Execute actions only safe at boot\n"
+               "     --prefix=PATH          Only apply rules with the specified prefix\n"
+               "     --exclude-prefix=PATH  Ignore rules with the specified prefix\n"
+               "  -E                        Ignore rules prefixed with /dev, /proc, /run, /sys\n"
+               "     --root=PATH            Operate on an alternate filesystem root\n"
+               "     --image=PATH           Operate on disk image as filesystem root\n"
+               "     --replace=PATH         Treat arguments as replacement for PATH\n"
+               "     --no-pager             Do not pipe output into a pager\n"
+               "\nSee the %s for details.\n",
+               program_invocation_short_name,
+               ansi_highlight(),
+               ansi_normal(),
+               link);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_argv(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+
+        enum {
+                ARG_VERSION = 0x100,
+                ARG_CAT_CONFIG,
+                ARG_USER,
+                ARG_CREATE,
+                ARG_CLEAN,
+                ARG_REMOVE,
+                ARG_BOOT,
+                ARG_PREFIX,
+                ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX,
+                ARG_ROOT,
+                ARG_IMAGE,
+                ARG_REPLACE,
+                ARG_NO_PAGER,
+        };
+
+        static const struct option options[] = {
+                { "help",           no_argument,         NULL, 'h'                },
+                { "user",           no_argument,         NULL, ARG_USER           },
+                { "version",        no_argument,         NULL, ARG_VERSION        },
+                { "cat-config",     no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CAT_CONFIG     },
+                { "create",         no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CREATE         },
+                { "clean",          no_argument,         NULL, ARG_CLEAN          },
+                { "remove",         no_argument,         NULL, ARG_REMOVE         },
+                { "boot",           no_argument,         NULL, ARG_BOOT           },
+                { "prefix",         required_argument,   NULL, ARG_PREFIX         },
+                { "exclude-prefix", required_argument,   NULL, ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX },
+                { "root",           required_argument,   NULL, ARG_ROOT           },
+                { "image",          required_argument,   NULL, ARG_IMAGE          },
+                { "replace",        required_argument,   NULL, ARG_REPLACE        },
+                { "no-pager",       no_argument,         NULL, ARG_NO_PAGER       },
+                {}
+        };
+
+        int c, r;
+
+        assert(argc >= 0);
+        assert(argv);
+
+        while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "hE", options, NULL)) >= 0)
+
+                switch (c) {
+
+                case 'h':
+                        return help();
+
+                case ARG_VERSION:
+                        return version();
+
+                case ARG_CAT_CONFIG:
+                        arg_cat_config = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_USER:
+                        arg_user = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_CREATE:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_CREATE;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_CLEAN:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_CLEAN;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_REMOVE:
+                        arg_operation |= OPERATION_REMOVE;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_BOOT:
+                        arg_boot = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_PREFIX:
+                        if (strv_push(&arg_include_prefixes, optarg) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_EXCLUDE_PREFIX:
+                        if (strv_push(&arg_exclude_prefixes, optarg) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_ROOT:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_root);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_IMAGE:
+#ifdef STANDALONE
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP),
+                                               "This systemd-tmpfiles version is compiled without support for --image=.");
+#else
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_image);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+#endif
+                        /* Imply -E here since it makes little sense to create files persistently in the /run mountpoint of a disk image */
+                        _fallthrough_;
+
+                case 'E':
+                        r = exclude_default_prefixes();
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_REPLACE:
+                        if (!path_is_absolute(optarg) ||
+                            !endswith(optarg, ".conf"))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                       "The argument to --replace= must an absolute path to a config file");
+
+                        arg_replace = optarg;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_NO_PAGER:
+                        arg_pager_flags |= PAGER_DISABLE;
+                        break;
+
+                case '?':
+                        return -EINVAL;
+
+                default:
+                        assert_not_reached();
+                }
+
+        if (arg_operation == 0 && !arg_cat_config)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "You need to specify at least one of --clean, --create or --remove.");
+
+        if (arg_replace && arg_cat_config)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Option --replace= is not supported with --cat-config");
+
+        if (arg_replace && optind >= argc)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "When --replace= is given, some configuration items must be specified");
+
+        if (arg_root && arg_user)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Combination of --user and --root= is not supported.");
+
+        if (arg_image && arg_root)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Please specify either --root= or --image=, the combination of both is not supported.");
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int read_config_file(
+                char **config_dirs,
+                const char *fn,
+                bool ignore_enoent,
+                bool *invalid_config) {
+
+        _cleanup_(hashmap_freep) Hashmap *uid_cache = NULL, *gid_cache = NULL;
+        _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *_f = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *pp = NULL;
+        unsigned v = 0;
+        FILE *f;
+        ItemArray *ia;
+        int r = 0;
+
+        assert(fn);
+
+        if (streq(fn, "-")) {
+                log_debug("Reading config from stdin%s", special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ELLIPSIS));
+                fn = "<stdin>";
+                f = stdin;
+        } else {
+                r = search_and_fopen(fn, "re", arg_root, (const char**) config_dirs, &_f, &pp);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (ignore_enoent && r == -ENOENT) {
+                                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to open \"%s\", ignoring: %m", fn);
+                                return 0;
+                        }
+
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open '%s': %m", fn);
+                }
+
+                log_debug("Reading config file \"%s\"%s", pp, special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ELLIPSIS));
+                fn = pp;
+                f = _f;
+        }
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *line = NULL;
+                bool invalid_line = false;
+                char *l;
+                int k;
+
+                k = read_line(f, LONG_LINE_MAX, &line);
+                if (k < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(k, "Failed to read '%s': %m", fn);
+                if (k == 0)
+                        break;
+
+                v++;
+
+                l = strstrip(line);
+                if (IN_SET(*l, 0, '#'))
+                        continue;
+
+                k = parse_line(fn, v, l, &invalid_line, &uid_cache, &gid_cache);
+                if (k < 0) {
+                        if (invalid_line)
+                                /* Allow reporting with a special code if the caller requested this */
+                                *invalid_config = true;
+                        else if (r == 0)
+                                /* The first error becomes our return value */
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        /* we have to determine age parameter for each entry of type X */
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(ia, globs)
+                for (size_t ni = 0; ni < ia->n_items; ni++) {
+                        ItemArray *ja;
+                        Item *i = ia->items + ni, *candidate_item = NULL;
+
+                        if (i->type != IGNORE_DIRECTORY_PATH)
+                                continue;
+
+                        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(ja, items)
+                                for (size_t nj = 0; nj < ja->n_items; nj++) {
+                                        Item *j = ja->items + nj;
+
+                                        if (!IN_SET(j->type, CREATE_DIRECTORY,
+                                                             TRUNCATE_DIRECTORY,
+                                                             CREATE_SUBVOLUME,
+                                                             CREATE_SUBVOLUME_INHERIT_QUOTA,
+                                                             CREATE_SUBVOLUME_NEW_QUOTA))
+                                                continue;
+
+                                        if (path_equal(j->path, i->path)) {
+                                                candidate_item = j;
+                                                break;
+                                        }
+
+                                        if (candidate_item
+                                            ? (path_startswith(j->path, candidate_item->path) && fnmatch(i->path, j->path, FNM_PATHNAME | FNM_PERIOD) == 0)
+                                            : path_startswith(i->path, j->path) != NULL)
+                                                candidate_item = j;
+                                }
+
+                        if (candidate_item && candidate_item->age_set) {
+                                i->age = candidate_item->age;
+                                i->age_set = true;
+                        }
+                }
+
+        if (ferror(f)) {
+                log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to read from file %s: %m", fn);
+                if (r == 0)
+                        r = -EIO;
+        }
+
+        return r;
+}
+
+static int parse_arguments(char **config_dirs, char **args, bool *invalid_config) {
+        int r;
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(arg, args) {
+                r = read_config_file(config_dirs, *arg, false, invalid_config);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int read_config_files(char **config_dirs, char **args, bool *invalid_config) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **files = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = conf_files_list_with_replacement(arg_root, config_dirs, arg_replace, &files, &p);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(f, files)
+                if (p && path_equal(*f, p)) {
+                        log_debug("Parsing arguments at position \"%s\"%s", *f, special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ELLIPSIS));
+
+                        r = parse_arguments(config_dirs, args, invalid_config);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                } else
+                        /* Just warn, ignore result otherwise.
+                         * read_config_file() has some debug output, so no need to print anything. */
+                        (void) read_config_file(config_dirs, *f, true, invalid_config);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int read_credential_lines(bool *invalid_config) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *j = NULL;
+        const char *d;
+        int r;
+
+        r = get_credentials_dir(&d);
+        if (r == -ENXIO)
+                return 0;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get credentials directory: %m");
+
+        j = path_join(d, "tmpfiles.extra");
+        if (!j)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        (void) read_config_file(/* config_dirs= */ NULL, j, /* ignore_enoent= */ true, invalid_config);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int link_parent(ItemArray *a) {
+        const char *path;
+        char *prefix;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(a);
+
+        /* Finds the closest "parent" item array for the specified item array. Then registers the specified item array
+         * as child of it, and fills the parent in, linking them both ways. This allows us to later create parents
+         * before their children, and clean up/remove children before their parents. */
+
+        if (a->n_items <= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        path = a->items[0].path;
+        prefix = newa(char, strlen(path) + 1);
+        PATH_FOREACH_PREFIX(prefix, path) {
+                ItemArray *j;
+
+                j = ordered_hashmap_get(items, prefix);
+                if (!j)
+                        j = ordered_hashmap_get(globs, prefix);
+                if (j) {
+                        r = set_ensure_put(&j->children, NULL, a);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        a->parent = j;
+                        return 1;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_HASH_OPS_WITH_VALUE_DESTRUCTOR(item_array_hash_ops, char, string_hash_func, string_compare_func,
+                                              ItemArray, item_array_free);
+
+static int run(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+#ifndef STANDALONE
+        _cleanup_(loop_device_unrefp) LoopDevice *loop_device = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(umount_and_rmdir_and_freep) char *unlink_dir = NULL;
+#endif
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **config_dirs = NULL;
+        bool invalid_config = false;
+        ItemArray *a;
+        enum {
+                PHASE_REMOVE_AND_CLEAN,
+                PHASE_CREATE,
+                _PHASE_MAX
+        } phase;
+        int r, k;
+
+        r = parse_argv(argc, argv);
+        if (r <= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        log_setup();
+
+        /* We require /proc/ for a lot of our operations, i.e. for adjusting access modes, for anything
+         * SELinux related, for recursive operation, for xattr, acl and chattr handling, for btrfs stuff and
+         * a lot more. It's probably the majority of invocations where /proc/ is required. Since people
+         * apparently invoke it without anyway and are surprised about the failures, let's catch this early
+         * and output a nice and friendly warning. */
+        if (proc_mounted() == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOSYS),
+                                       "/proc/ is not mounted, but required for successful operation of systemd-tmpfiles. "
+                                       "Please mount /proc/. Alternatively, consider using the --root= or --image= switches.");
+
+        /* Descending down file system trees might take a lot of fds */
+        (void) rlimit_nofile_bump(HIGH_RLIMIT_NOFILE);
+
+        if (arg_user) {
+                r = user_config_paths(&config_dirs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to initialize configuration directory list: %m");
+        } else {
+                config_dirs = strv_split_nulstr(CONF_PATHS_NULSTR("tmpfiles.d"));
+                if (!config_dirs)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (DEBUG_LOGGING) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *t = NULL;
+
+                STRV_FOREACH(i, config_dirs) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *j = NULL;
+
+                        j = path_join(arg_root, *i);
+                        if (!j)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        if (!strextend(&t, "\n\t", j))
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+
+                log_debug("Looking for configuration files in (higher priority first):%s", t);
+        }
+
+        if (arg_cat_config) {
+                pager_open(arg_pager_flags);
+
+                return cat_config(config_dirs, argv + optind);
+        }
+
+        umask(0022);
+
+        r = mac_selinux_init();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+#ifndef STANDALONE
+        if (arg_image) {
+                assert(!arg_root);
+
+                r = mount_image_privately_interactively(
+                                arg_image,
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_GENERIC_ROOT |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_REQUIRE_ROOT |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_VALIDATE_OS |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_RELAX_VAR_CHECK |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_FSCK |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_GROWFS,
+                                &unlink_dir,
+                                &loop_device);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                arg_root = strdup(unlink_dir);
+                if (!arg_root)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+#else
+        assert(!arg_image);
+#endif
+
+        items = ordered_hashmap_new(&item_array_hash_ops);
+        globs = ordered_hashmap_new(&item_array_hash_ops);
+        if (!items || !globs)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        /* If command line arguments are specified along with --replace, read all
+         * configuration files and insert the positional arguments at the specified
+         * place. Otherwise, if command line arguments are specified, execute just
+         * them, and finally, without --replace= or any positional arguments, just
+         * read configuration and execute it.
+         */
+        if (arg_replace || optind >= argc)
+                r = read_config_files(config_dirs, argv + optind, &invalid_config);
+        else
+                r = parse_arguments(config_dirs, argv + optind, &invalid_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = read_credential_lines(&invalid_config);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Let's now link up all child/parent relationships */
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, items) {
+                r = link_parent(a);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+        ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, globs) {
+                r = link_parent(a);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* If multiple operations are requested, let's first run the remove/clean operations, and only then the create
+         * operations. i.e. that we first clean out the platform we then build on. */
+        for (phase = 0; phase < _PHASE_MAX; phase++) {
+                OperationMask op;
+
+                if (phase == PHASE_REMOVE_AND_CLEAN)
+                        op = arg_operation & (OPERATION_REMOVE|OPERATION_CLEAN);
+                else if (phase == PHASE_CREATE)
+                        op = arg_operation & OPERATION_CREATE;
+                else
+                        assert_not_reached();
+
+                if (op == 0) /* Nothing requested in this phase */
+                        continue;
+
+                /* The non-globbing ones usually create things, hence we apply them first */
+                ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, items) {
+                        k = process_item_array(a, op);
+                        if (k < 0 && r >= 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+
+                /* The globbing ones usually alter things, hence we apply them second. */
+                ORDERED_HASHMAP_FOREACH(a, globs) {
+                        k = process_item_array(a, op);
+                        if (k < 0 && r >= 0)
+                                r = k;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (ERRNO_IS_RESOURCE(r))
+                return r;
+        if (invalid_config)
+                return EX_DATAERR;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return EX_CANTCREAT;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_MAIN_FUNCTION_WITH_POSITIVE_FAILURE(run);