Adding upstream version 247.3.upstream/247.3upstream

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

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+---
+title: Journal File Format
+category: Interfaces
+layout: default
+---
+
+# Journal File Format
+
+_Note that this document describes the binary on-disk format of journals
+only. For interfacing with web technologies there's the [Journal JSON
+Format](http://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/json). For transfer
+of journal data across the network there's the [Journal Export
+Format](http://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/export)._
+
+The systemd journal stores log data in a binary format with several features:
+
+* Fully indexed by all fields
+* Can store binary data, up to 2^64-1 in size
+* Seekable
+* Primarily append-based, hence robust to corruption
+* Support for in-line compression
+* Support for in-line Forward Secure Sealing
+
+This document explains the basic structure of the file format on disk. We are
+making this available primarily to allow review and provide documentation. Note
+that the actual implementation in the [systemd
+codebase](https://github.com/systemd/systemd/blob/master/src/journal/) is the
+only ultimately authoritative description of the format, so if this document
+and the code disagree, the code is right. That said we'll of course try hard to
+keep this document up-to-date and accurate.
+
+Instead of implementing your own reader or writer for journal files we ask you
+to use the [Journal's native C
+API](http://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/sd-journal.html) to access
+these files. It provides you with full access to the files, and will not
+withhold any data. If you find a limitation, please ping us and we might add
+some additional interfaces for you.
+
+If you need access to the raw journal data in serialized stream form without C
+API our recommendation is to make use of the [Journal Export
+Format](http://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/export), which you can
+get via "journalctl -o export" or via systemd-journal-gatewayd. The export
+format is much simpler to parse, but complete and accurate. Due to its
+stream-based nature it is not indexed.
+
+_Or, to put this in other words: this low-level document is probably not what
+you want to use as base of your project. You want our [C
+API](http://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/sd-journal.html) instead!
+And if you really don't want the C API, then you want the [Journal Export
+Format](http://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/systemd/export) instead! This
+document is primarily for your entertainment and education. Thank you!_
+
+This document assumes you have a basic understanding of the journal concepts,
+the properties of a journal entry and so on. If not, please go and read up,
+then come back! This is a good opportunity to read about the [basic properties
+of journal
+entries](http://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd.journal-fields.html),
+in particular realize that they may include binary non-text data (though
+usually don't), and the same field might have multiple values assigned within
+the same entry.
+
+This document describes the current format of systemd 246. The documented
+format is compatible with the format used in the first versions of the journal,
+but received various compatible and incompatible additions since.
+
+If you are wondering why the journal file format has been created in the first
+place instead of adopting an existing database implementation, please have a
+look [at this
+thread](https://lists.freedesktop.org/archives/systemd-devel/2012-October/007054.html).
+
+
+## Basics
+
+* All offsets, sizes, time values, hashes (and most other numeric values) are 64bit unsigned integers in LE format.
+* Offsets are always relative to the beginning of the file.
+* The 64bit hash function siphash24 is used for newer journal files. For older files [Jenkins lookup3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenkins_hash_function) is used, more specifically `jenkins_hashlittle2()` with the first 32bit integer it returns as higher 32bit part of the 64bit value, and the second one uses as lower 32bit part.
+* All structures are aligned to 64bit boundaries and padded to multiples of 64bit
+* The format is designed to be read and written via memory mapping using multiple mapped windows.
+* All time values are stored in usec since the respective epoch.
+* Wall clock time values are relative to the Unix time epoch, i.e. January 1st, 1970. (`CLOCK_REALTIME`)
+* Monotonic time values are always stored jointly with the kernel boot ID value (i.e. `/proc/sys/kernel/random/boot_id`) they belong to. They tend to be relative to the start of the boot, but aren't for containers. (`CLOCK_MONOTONIC`)
+* Randomized, unique 128bit IDs are used in various locations. These are generally UUID v4 compatible, but this is not a requirement.
+
+## General Rules
+
+If any kind of corruption is noticed by a writer it should immediately rotate
+the file and start a new one. No further writes should be attempted to the
+original file, but it should be left around so that as little data as possible
+is lost.
+
+If any kind of corruption is noticed by a reader it should try hard to handle
+this gracefully, such as skipping over the corrupted data, but allowing access
+to as much data around it as possible.
+
+A reader should verify all offsets and other data as it reads it. This includes
+checking for alignment and range of offsets in the file, especially before
+trying to read it via a memory map.
+
+A reader must interleave rotated and corrupted files as good as possible and
+present them as single stream to the user.
+
+All fields marked as "reserved" must be initialized with 0 when writing and be
+ignored on reading. They are currently not used but might be used later on.
+
+
+## Structure
+
+The file format's data structures are declared in
+[journal-def.h](https://github.com/systemd/systemd/blob/master/src/journal/journal-def.h).
+
+The file format begins with a header structure. After the header structure
+object structures follow. Objects are appended to the end as time
+progresses. Most data stored in these objects is not altered anymore after
+having been written once, with the exception of records necessary for
+indexing. When new data is appended to a file the writer first writes all new
+objects to the end of the file, and then links them up at front after that's
+done. Currently, seven different object types are known:
+
+```c
+enum {
+        OBJECT_UNUSED,
+        OBJECT_DATA,
+        OBJECT_FIELD,
+        OBJECT_ENTRY,
+        OBJECT_DATA_HASH_TABLE,
+        OBJECT_FIELD_HASH_TABLE,
+        OBJECT_ENTRY_ARRAY,
+        OBJECT_TAG,
+        _OBJECT_TYPE_MAX
+};
+```
+
+* A **DATA** object, which encapsulates the contents of one field of an entry, i.e. a string such as `_SYSTEMD_UNIT=avahi-daemon.service`, or `MESSAGE=Foobar made a booboo.` but possibly including large or binary data, and always prefixed by the field name and "=".
+* A **FIELD** object, which encapsulates a field name, i.e. a string such as `_SYSTEMD_UNIT` or `MESSAGE`, without any `=` or even value.
+* An **ENTRY** object, which binds several **DATA** objects together into a log entry.
+* A **DATA_HASH_TABLE** object, which encapsulates a hash table for finding existing **DATA** objects.
+* A **FIELD_HASH_TABLE** object, which encapsulates a hash table for finding existing **FIELD** objects.
+* An **ENTRY_ARRAY** object, which encapsulates a sorted array of offsets to entries, used for seeking by binary search.
+* A **TAG** object, consisting of an FSS sealing tag for all data from the beginning of the file or the last tag written (whichever is later).
+
+## Header
+
+The Header struct defines, well, you guessed it, the file header:
+
+```c
+_packed_ struct Header {
+        uint8_t signature[8]; /* "LPKSHHRH" */
+        le32_t compatible_flags;
+        le32_t incompatible_flags;
+        uint8_t state;
+        uint8_t reserved[7];
+        sd_id128_t file_id;
+        sd_id128_t machine_id;
+        sd_id128_t boot_id;    /* last writer */
+        sd_id128_t seqnum_id;
+        le64_t header_size;
+        le64_t arena_size;
+        le64_t data_hash_table_offset;
+        le64_t data_hash_table_size;
+        le64_t field_hash_table_offset;
+        le64_t field_hash_table_size;
+        le64_t tail_object_offset;
+        le64_t n_objects;
+        le64_t n_entries;
+        le64_t tail_entry_seqnum;
+        le64_t head_entry_seqnum;
+        le64_t entry_array_offset;
+        le64_t head_entry_realtime;
+        le64_t tail_entry_realtime;
+        le64_t tail_entry_monotonic;
+        /* Added in 187 */
+        le64_t n_data;
+        le64_t n_fields;
+        /* Added in 189 */
+        le64_t n_tags;
+        le64_t n_entry_arrays;
+        /* Added in 246 */
+        le64_t data_hash_chain_depth;
+        le64_t field_hash_chain_depth;
+};
+```
+
+The first 8 bytes of Journal files must contain the ASCII characters `LPKSHHRH`.
+
+If a writer finds that the **machine_id** of a file to write to does not match
+the machine it is running on it should immediately rotate the file and start a
+new one.
+
+When journal file is first created the **file_id** is randomly and uniquely
+initialized.
+
+When a writer opens a file it shall initialize the **boot_id** to the current
+boot id of the system.
+
+The currently used part of the file is the **header_size** plus the
+**arena_size** field of the header. If a writer needs to write to a file where
+the actual file size on disk is smaller than the reported value it shall
+immediately rotate the file and start a new one. If a writer is asked to write
+to a file with a header that is shorter than its own definition of the struct
+Header, it shall immediately rotate the file and start a new one.
+
+The **n_objects** field contains a counter for objects currently available in
+this file. As objects are appended to the end of the file this counter is
+increased.
+
+The first object in the file starts immediately after the header. The last
+object in the file is at the offset **tail_object_offset**, which may be 0 if
+no object is in the file yet.
+
+The **n_entries**, **n_data**, **n_fields**, **n_tags**, **n_entry_arrays** are
+counters of the objects of the specific types.
+
+**tail_entry_seqnum** and **head_entry_seqnum** contain the sequential number
+(see below) of the last or first entry in the file, respectively, or 0 if no
+entry has been written yet.
+
+**tail_entry_realtime** and **head_entry_realtime** contain the wallclock
+timestamp of the last or first entry in the file, respectively, or 0 if no
+entry has been written yet.
+
+**tail_entry_monotonic** is the monotonic timestamp of the last entry in the
+file, referring to monotonic time of the boot identified by **boot_id**.
+
+**data_hash_chain_depth** is a counter of the deepest chain in the data hash
+table, minus one. This is updated whenever a chain is found that is longer than
+the previous deepest chain found. Note that the counter is updated during hash
+table lookups, as the chains are traversed. This counter is used to determine
+when it is a good time to rotate the journal file, because hash collisions
+became too frequent.
+
+Similar, **field_hash_chain_depth** is a counter of the deepest chain in the
+field hash table, minus one.
+
+
+## Extensibility
+
+The format is supposed to be extensible in order to enable future additions of
+features. Readers should simply skip objects of unknown types as they read
+them. If a compatible feature extension is made a new bit is registered in the
+header's **compatible_flags** field. If a feature extension is used that makes
+the format incompatible a new bit is registered in the header's
+**incompatible_flags** field. Readers should check these two bit fields, if
+they find a flag they don't understand in compatible_flags they should continue
+to read the file, but if they find one in **incompatible_flags** they should
+fail, asking for an update of the software. Writers should refuse writing if
+there's an unknown bit flag in either of these fields.
+
+The file header may be extended as new features are added. The size of the file
+header is stored in the header. All header fields up to **n_data** are known to
+unconditionally exist in all revisions of the file format, all fields starting
+with **n_data** needs to be explicitly checked for via a size check, since they
+were additions after the initial release.
+
+Currently only five extensions flagged in the flags fields are known:
+
+```c
+enum {
+        HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_XZ   = 1 << 0,
+        HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_LZ4  = 1 << 1,
+        HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_KEYED_HASH      = 1 << 2,
+        HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_ZSTD = 1 << 3,
+};
+
+enum {
+        HEADER_COMPATIBLE_SEALED = 1 << 0,
+};
+```
+
+HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_XZ indicates that the file includes DATA objects
+that are compressed using XZ. Similarly, HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_LZ4
+indicates that the file includes DATA objects that are compressed with the LZ4
+algorithm. And HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_ZSTD indicates that there are
+objects compressed with ZSTD.
+
+HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_KEYED_HASH indicates that instead of the unkeyed Jenkins
+hash function the keyed siphash24 hash function is used for the two hash
+tables, see below.
+
+HEADER_COMPATIBLE_SEALED indicates that the file includes TAG objects required
+for Forward Secure Sealing.
+
+
+## Dirty Detection
+
+```c
+enum {
+        STATE_OFFLINE = 0,
+        STATE_ONLINE = 1,
+        STATE_ARCHIVED = 2,
+        _STATE_MAX
+};
+```
+
+If a file is opened for writing the **state** field should be set to
+STATE_ONLINE. If a file is closed after writing the **state** field should be
+set to STATE_OFFLINE. After a file has been rotated it should be set to
+STATE_ARCHIVED. If a writer is asked to write to a file that is not in
+STATE_OFFLINE it should immediately rotate the file and start a new one,
+without changing the file.
+
+After and before the state field is changed `fdatasync()` should be executed on
+the file to ensure the dirty state hits disk.
+
+
+## Sequence Numbers
+
+All entries carry sequence numbers that are monotonically counted up for each
+entry (starting at 1) and are unique among all files which carry the same
+**seqnum_id** field. This field is randomly generated when the journal daemon
+creates its first file. All files generated by the same journal daemon instance
+should hence carry the same seqnum_id. This should guarantee a monotonic stream
+of sequential numbers for easy interleaving even if entries are distributed
+among several files, such as the system journal and many per-user journals.
+
+
+## Concurrency
+
+The file format is designed to be usable in a simultaneous
+single-writer/multiple-reader scenario. The synchronization model is very weak
+in order to facilitate storage on the most basic of file systems (well, the
+most basic ones that provide us with `mmap()` that is), and allow good
+performance. No file locking is used. The only time where disk synchronization
+via `fdatasync()` should be enforced is after and before changing the **state**
+field in the file header (see below). It is recommended to execute a memory
+barrier after appending and initializing new objects at the end of the file,
+and before linking them up in the earlier objects.
+
+This weak synchronization model means that it is crucial that readers verify
+the structural integrity of the file as they read it and handle invalid
+structure gracefully. (Checking what you read is a pretty good idea out of
+security considerations anyway.) This specifically includes checking offset
+values, and that they point to valid objects, with valid sizes and of the type
+and hash value expected. All code must be written with the fact in mind that a
+file with inconsistent structure might just be inconsistent temporarily, and
+might become consistent later on. Payload OTOH requires less scrutiny, as it
+should only be linked up (and hence visible to readers) after it was
+successfully written to memory (though not necessarily to disk). On non-local
+file systems it is a good idea to verify the payload hashes when reading, in
+order to avoid annoyances with `mmap()` inconsistencies.
+
+Clients intending to show a live view of the journal should use `inotify()` for
+this to watch for files changes. Since file writes done via `mmap()` do not
+result in `inotify()` writers shall truncate the file to its current size after
+writing one or more entries, which results in inotify events being
+generated. Note that this is not used as a transaction scheme (it doesn't
+protect anything), but merely for triggering wakeups.
+
+Note that inotify will not work on network file systems if reader and writer
+reside on different hosts. Readers which detect they are run on journal files
+on a non-local file system should hence not rely on inotify for live views but
+fall back to simple time based polling of the files (maybe recheck every 2s).
+
+
+## Objects
+
+All objects carry a common header:
+
+```c
+enum {
+        OBJECT_COMPRESSED_XZ   = 1 << 0,
+        OBJECT_COMPRESSED_LZ4  = 1 << 1,
+        OBJECT_COMPRESSED_ZSTD = 1 << 2,
+};
+
+_packed_ struct ObjectHeader {
+        uint8_t type;
+        uint8_t flags;
+        uint8_t reserved[6];
+        le64_t size;
+        uint8_t payload[];
+};
+```
+
+The **type** field is one of the object types listed above. The **flags** field
+currently knows three flags: OBJECT_COMPRESSED_XZ, OBJECT_COMPRESSED_LZ4 and
+OBJECT_COMPRESSED_ZSTD. It is only valid for DATA objects and indicates that
+the data payload is compressed with XZ/LZ4/ZSTD. If one of the
+OBJECT_COMPRESSED_* flags is set for an object then the matching
+HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_XZ/HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_LZ4/HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_COMPRESSED_ZSTD
+flag must be set for the file as well. At most one of these three bits may be
+set. The **size** field encodes the size of the object including all its
+headers and payload.
+
+
+## Data Objects
+
+```c
+_packed_ struct DataObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        le64_t hash;
+        le64_t next_hash_offset;
+        le64_t next_field_offset;
+        le64_t entry_offset; /* the first array entry we store inline */
+        le64_t entry_array_offset;
+        le64_t n_entries;
+        uint8_t payload[];
+};
+```
+
+Data objects carry actual field data in the **payload[]** array, including a
+field name, a `=` and the field data. Example:
+`_SYSTEMD_UNIT=foobar.service`. The **hash** field is a hash value of the
+payload. If the `HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_KEYED_HASH` flag is set in the file header
+this is the siphash24 hash value of the payload, keyed by the file ID as stored
+in the **file_id** field of the file header. If the flag is not set it is the
+non-keyed Jenkins hash of the payload instead. The keyed hash is preferred as
+it makes the format more robust against attackers that want to trigger hash
+collisions in the hash table.
+
+**next_hash_offset** is used to link up DATA objects in the DATA_HASH_TABLE if
+a hash collision happens (in a singly linked list, with an offset of 0
+indicating the end). **next_field_offset** is used to link up data objects with
+the same field name from the FIELD object of the field used.
+
+**entry_offset** is an offset to the first ENTRY object referring to this DATA
+object. **entry_array_offset** is an offset to an ENTRY_ARRAY object with
+offsets to other entries referencing this DATA object. Storing the offset to
+the first ENTRY object in-line is an optimization given that many DATA objects
+will be referenced from a single entry only (for example, `MESSAGE=` frequently
+includes a practically unique string). **n_entries** is a counter of the total
+number of ENTRY objects that reference this object, i.e. the sum of all
+ENTRY_ARRAYS chained up from this object, plus 1.
+
+The **payload[]** field contains the field name and date unencoded, unless
+OBJECT_COMPRESSED_XZ/OBJECT_COMPRESSED_LZ4/OBJECT_COMPRESSED_ZSTD is set in the
+`ObjectHeader`, in which case the payload is compressed with the indicated
+compression algorithm.
+
+
+## Field Objects
+
+```c
+_packed_ struct FieldObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        le64_t hash;
+        le64_t next_hash_offset;
+        le64_t head_data_offset;
+        uint8_t payload[];
+};
+```
+
+Field objects are used to enumerate all possible values a certain field name
+can take in the entire journal file.
+
+The **payload[]** array contains the actual field name, without '=' or any
+field value. Example: `_SYSTEMD_UNIT`. The **hash** field is a hash value of
+the payload. As for the DATA objects, this too is either the `.file_id` keyed
+siphash24 hash of the payload, or the non-keyed Jenkins hash.
+
+**next_hash_offset** is used to link up FIELD objects in the FIELD_HASH_TABLE
+if a hash collision happens (in singly linked list, offset 0 indicating the
+end). **head_data_offset** points to the first DATA object that shares this
+field name. It is the head of a singly linked list using DATA's
+**next_field_offset** offset.
+
+
+## Entry Objects
+
+```
+_packed_ struct EntryItem {
+        le64_t object_offset;
+        le64_t hash;
+};
+
+_packed_ struct EntryObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        le64_t seqnum;
+        le64_t realtime;
+        le64_t monotonic;
+        sd_id128_t boot_id;
+        le64_t xor_hash;
+        EntryItem items[];
+};
+```
+
+An ENTRY object binds several DATA objects together into one log entry, and
+includes other metadata such as various timestamps.
+
+The **seqnum** field contains the sequence number of the entry, **realtime**
+the realtime timestamp, and **monotonic** the monotonic timestamp for the boot
+identified by **boot_id**.
+
+The **xor_hash** field contains a binary XOR of the hashes of the payload of
+all DATA objects referenced by this ENTRY. This value is usable to check the
+contents of the entry, being independent of the order of the DATA objects in
+the array. Note that even for files that have the
+`HEADER_INCOMPATIBLE_KEYED_HASH` flag set (and thus siphash24 the otherwise
+used hash function) the hash function used for this field, as singular
+exception, is the Jenkins lookup3 hash function. The XOR hash value is used to
+quickly compare the contents of two entries, and to define a well-defined order
+between two entries that otherwise have the same sequence numbers and
+timestamps.
+
+The **items[]** array contains references to all DATA objects of this entry,
+plus their respective hashes (which are calculated the same way as in the DATA
+objects, i.e. keyed by the file ID).
+
+In the file ENTRY objects are written ordered monotonically by sequence
+number. For continuous parts of the file written during the same boot
+(i.e. with the same boot_id) the monotonic timestamp is monotonic too. Modulo
+wallclock time jumps (due to incorrect clocks being corrected) the realtime
+timestamps are monotonic too.
+
+
+## Hash Table Objects
+
+```c
+_packed_ struct HashItem {
+        le64_t head_hash_offset;
+        le64_t tail_hash_offset;
+};
+
+_packed_ struct HashTableObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        HashItem items[];
+};
+```
+
+The structure of both DATA_HASH_TABLE and FIELD_HASH_TABLE objects are
+identical. They implement a simple hash table, with each cell containing
+offsets to the head and tail of the singly linked list of the DATA and FIELD
+objects, respectively. DATA's and FIELD's next_hash_offset field are used to
+chain up the objects. Empty cells have both offsets set to 0.
+
+Each file contains exactly one DATA_HASH_TABLE and one FIELD_HASH_TABLE
+objects. Their payload is directly referred to by the file header in the
+**data_hash_table_offset**, **data_hash_table_size**,
+**field_hash_table_offset**, **field_hash_table_size** fields. These offsets do
+_not_ point to the object headers but directly to the payloads. When a new
+journal file is created the two hash table objects need to be created right
+away as first two objects in the stream.
+
+If the hash table fill level is increasing over a certain fill level (Learning
+from Java's Hashtable for example: > 75%), the writer should rotate the file
+and create a new one.
+
+The DATA_HASH_TABLE should be sized taking into account to the maximum size the
+file is expected to grow, as configured by the administrator or disk space
+considerations. The FIELD_HASH_TABLE should be sized to a fixed size; the
+number of fields should be pretty static as it depends only on developers'
+creativity rather than runtime parameters.
+
+
+## Entry Array Objects
+
+
+```c
+_packed_ struct EntryArrayObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        le64_t next_entry_array_offset;
+        le64_t items[];
+};
+```
+
+Entry Arrays are used to store a sorted array of offsets to entries. Entry
+arrays are strictly sorted by offsets on disk, and hence by their timestamps
+and sequence numbers (with some restrictions, see above).
+
+Entry Arrays are chained up. If one entry array is full another one is
+allocated and the **next_entry_array_offset** field of the old one pointed to
+it. An Entry Array with **next_entry_array_offset** set to 0 is the last in the
+list. To optimize allocation and seeking, as entry arrays are appended to a
+chain of entry arrays they should increase in size (double).
+
+Due to being monotonically ordered entry arrays may be searched with a binary
+search (bisection).
+
+One chain of entry arrays links up all entries written to the journal. The
+first entry array is referenced in the **entry_array_offset** field of the
+header.
+
+Each DATA object also references an entry array chain listing all entries
+referencing a specific DATA object. Since many DATA objects are only referenced
+by a single ENTRY the first offset of the list is stored inside the DATA object
+itself, an ENTRY_ARRAY object is only needed if it is referenced by more than
+one ENTRY.
+
+
+## Tag Object
+
+```c
+#define TAG_LENGTH (256/8)
+
+_packed_ struct TagObject {
+        ObjectHeader object;
+        le64_t seqnum;
+        le64_t epoch;
+        uint8_t tag[TAG_LENGTH]; /* SHA-256 HMAC */
+};
+```
+
+Tag objects are used to seal off the journal for alteration. In regular
+intervals a tag object is appended to the file. The tag object consists of a
+SHA-256 HMAC tag that is calculated from the objects stored in the file since
+the last tag was written, or from the beginning if no tag was written yet. The
+key for the HMAC is calculated via the externally maintained FSPRG logic for
+the epoch that is written into **epoch**. The sequence number **seqnum** is
+increased with each tag. When calculating the HMAC of objects header fields
+that are volatile are excluded (skipped). More specifically all fields that
+might validly be altered to maintain a consistent file structure (such as
+offsets to objects added later for the purpose of linked lists and suchlike)
+after an object has been written are not protected by the tag. This means a
+verifier has to independently check these fields for consistency of
+structure. For the fields excluded from the HMAC please consult the source code
+directly. A verifier should read the file from the beginning to the end, always
+calculating the HMAC for the objects it reads. Each time a tag object is
+encountered the HMAC should be verified and restarted. The tag object sequence
+numbers need to increase strictly monotonically. Tag objects themselves are
+partially protected by the HMAC (i.e. seqnum and epoch is included, the tag
+itself not).
+
+
+## Algorithms
+
+### Reading
+
+Given an offset to an entry all data fields are easily found by following the
+offsets in the data item array of the entry.
+
+Listing entries without filter is done by traversing the list of entry arrays
+starting with the headers' **entry_array_offset** field.
+
+Seeking to an entry by timestamp or sequence number (without any matches) is
+done via binary search in the entry arrays starting with the header's
+**entry_array_offset** field. Since these arrays double in size as more are
+added the time cost of seeking is O(log(n)*log(n)) if n is the number of
+entries in the file.
+
+When seeking or listing with one field match applied the DATA object of the
+match is first identified, and then its data entry array chain traversed. The
+time cost is the same as for seeks/listings with no match.
+
+If multiple matches are applied, multiple chains of entry arrays should be
+traversed in parallel. Since they all are strictly monotonically ordered by
+offset of the entries, advancing in one can be directly applied to the others,
+until an entry matching all matches is found. In the worst case seeking like
+this is O(n) where n is the number of matching entries of the "loosest" match,
+but in the common case should be much more efficient at least for the
+well-known fields, where the set of possible field values tend to be closely
+related. Checking whether an entry matches a number of matches is efficient
+since the item array of the entry contains hashes of all data fields
+referenced, and the number of data fields of an entry is generally small (<
+30).
+
+When interleaving multiple journal files seeking tends to be a frequently used
+operation, but in this case can be effectively suppressed by caching results
+from previous entries.
+
+When listing all possible values a certain field can take it is sufficient to
+look up the FIELD object and follow the chain of links to all DATA it includes.
+
+### Writing
+
+When an entry is appended to the journal, for each of its data fields the data
+hash table should be checked. If the data field does not yet exist in the file,
+it should be appended and added to the data hash table. When a data field's data
+object is added, the field hash table should be checked for the field name of
+the data field, and a field object be added if necessary. After all data fields
+(and recursively all field names) of the new entry are appended and linked up
+in the hashtables, the entry object should be appended and linked up too.
+
+At regular intervals a tag object should be written if sealing is enabled (see
+above). Before the file is closed a tag should be written too, to seal it off.
+
+Before writing an object, time and disk space limits should be checked and
+rotation triggered if necessary.
+
+
+## Optimizing Disk IO
+
+_A few general ideas to keep in mind:_
+
+The hash tables for looking up fields and data should be quickly in the memory
+cache and not hurt performance. All entries and entry arrays are ordered
+strictly by time on disk, and hence should expose an OK access pattern on
+rotating media, when read sequentially (which should be the most common case,
+given the nature of log data).
+
+The disk access patterns of the binary search for entries needed for seeking
+are problematic on rotating disks. This should not be a major issue though,
+since seeking should not be a frequent operation.
+
+When reading, collecting data fields for presenting entries to the user is
+problematic on rotating disks. In order to optimize these patterns the item
+array of entry objects should be sorted by disk offset before
+writing. Effectively, frequently used data objects should be in the memory
+cache quickly. Non-frequently used data objects are likely to be located
+between the previous and current entry when reading and hence should expose an
+OK access pattern. Problematic are data objects that are neither frequently nor
+infrequently referenced, which will cost seek time.
+
+And that's all there is to it.
+
+Thanks for your interest!