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diff --git a/doc/src/sgml/html/sql-expressions.html b/doc/src/sgml/html/sql-expressions.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17853cf --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/src/sgml/html/sql-expressions.html @@ -0,0 +1,995 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"><html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>4.2. Value Expressions</title><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="stylesheet.css" /><link rev="made" href="pgsql-docs@lists.postgresql.org" /><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets Vsnapshot" /><link rel="prev" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html" title="4.1. Lexical Structure" /><link rel="next" href="sql-syntax-calling-funcs.html" title="4.3. Calling Functions" /></head><body id="docContent" class="container-fluid col-10"><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="5" align="center">4.2. Value Expressions</th></tr><tr><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html" title="4.1. Lexical Structure">Prev</a> </td><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="u" href="sql-syntax.html" title="Chapter 4. SQL Syntax">Up</a></td><th width="60%" align="center">Chapter 4. SQL Syntax</th><td width="10%" align="right"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html" title="PostgreSQL 16.2 Documentation">Home</a></td><td width="10%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="sql-syntax-calling-funcs.html" title="4.3. Calling Functions">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="sect1" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">4.2. Value Expressions <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS" class="id_link">#</a></h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-COLUMN-REFS">4.2.1. Column References</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-PARAMETERS-POSITIONAL">4.2.2. Positional Parameters</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-SUBSCRIPTS">4.2.3. Subscripts</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#FIELD-SELECTION">4.2.4. Field Selection</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-OPERATOR-CALLS">4.2.5. Operator Invocations</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-FUNCTION-CALLS">4.2.6. Function Calls</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SYNTAX-AGGREGATES">4.2.7. Aggregate Expressions</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SYNTAX-WINDOW-FUNCTIONS">4.2.8. Window Function Calls</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-TYPE-CASTS">4.2.9. Type Casts</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-COLLATE-EXPRS">4.2.10. Collation Expressions</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-SCALAR-SUBQUERIES">4.2.11. Scalar Subqueries</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-ARRAY-CONSTRUCTORS">4.2.12. Array Constructors</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-ROW-CONSTRUCTORS">4.2.13. Row Constructors</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="sql-expressions.html#SYNTAX-EXPRESS-EVAL">4.2.14. Expression Evaluation Rules</a></span></dt></dl></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.3" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.4" class="indexterm"></a><p> + Value expressions are used in a variety of contexts, such + as in the target list of the <code class="command">SELECT</code> command, as + new column values in <code class="command">INSERT</code> or + <code class="command">UPDATE</code>, or in search conditions in a number of + commands. The result of a value expression is sometimes called a + <em class="firstterm">scalar</em>, to distinguish it from the result of + a table expression (which is a table). Value expressions are + therefore also called <em class="firstterm">scalar expressions</em> (or + even simply <em class="firstterm">expressions</em>). The expression + syntax allows the calculation of values from primitive parts using + arithmetic, logical, set, and other operations. + </p><p> + A value expression is one of the following: + + </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p> + A constant or literal value + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A column reference + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A positional parameter reference, in the body of a function definition + or prepared statement + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A subscripted expression + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A field selection expression + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + An operator invocation + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A function call + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + An aggregate expression + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A window function call + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A type cast + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A collation expression + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A scalar subquery + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + An array constructor + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + A row constructor + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + Another value expression in parentheses (used to group + subexpressions and override + precedence<a id="id-1.5.3.6.6.1.15.1.1" class="indexterm"></a>) + </p></li></ul></div><p> + </p><p> + In addition to this list, there are a number of constructs that can + be classified as an expression but do not follow any general syntax + rules. These generally have the semantics of a function or + operator and are explained in the appropriate location in <a class="xref" href="functions.html" title="Chapter 9. Functions and Operators">Chapter 9</a>. An example is the <code class="literal">IS NULL</code> + clause. + </p><p> + We have already discussed constants in <a class="xref" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-CONSTANTS" title="4.1.2. Constants">Section 4.1.2</a>. The following sections discuss + the remaining options. + </p><div class="sect2" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS-COLUMN-REFS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.1. Column References <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-COLUMN-REFS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.9.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A column can be referenced in the form: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>correlation</code></em>.<em class="replaceable"><code>columnname</code></em> +</pre><p> + </p><p> + <em class="replaceable"><code>correlation</code></em> is the name of a + table (possibly qualified with a schema name), or an alias for a table + defined by means of a <code class="literal">FROM</code> clause. + The correlation name and separating dot can be omitted if the column name + is unique across all the tables being used in the current query. (See also <a class="xref" href="queries.html" title="Chapter 7. Queries">Chapter 7</a>.) + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS-PARAMETERS-POSITIONAL"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.2. Positional Parameters <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-PARAMETERS-POSITIONAL" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.10.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.10.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A positional parameter reference is used to indicate a value + that is supplied externally to an SQL statement. Parameters are + used in SQL function definitions and in prepared queries. Some + client libraries also support specifying data values separately + from the SQL command string, in which case parameters are used to + refer to the out-of-line data values. + The form of a parameter reference is: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +$<em class="replaceable"><code>number</code></em> +</pre><p> + </p><p> + For example, consider the definition of a function, + <code class="function">dept</code>, as: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE FUNCTION dept(text) RETURNS dept + AS $$ SELECT * FROM dept WHERE name = $1 $$ + LANGUAGE SQL; +</pre><p> + + Here the <code class="literal">$1</code> references the value of the first + function argument whenever the function is invoked. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS-SUBSCRIPTS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.3. Subscripts <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-SUBSCRIPTS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.11.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + If an expression yields a value of an array type, then a specific + element of the array value can be extracted by writing +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em>[<em class="replaceable"><code>subscript</code></em>] +</pre><p> + or multiple adjacent elements (an <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">array slice</span>”</span>) can be extracted + by writing +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em>[<em class="replaceable"><code>lower_subscript</code></em>:<em class="replaceable"><code>upper_subscript</code></em>] +</pre><p> + (Here, the brackets <code class="literal">[ ]</code> are meant to appear literally.) + Each <em class="replaceable"><code>subscript</code></em> is itself an expression, + which will be rounded to the nearest integer value. + </p><p> + In general the array <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> must be + parenthesized, but the parentheses can be omitted when the expression + to be subscripted is just a column reference or positional parameter. + Also, multiple subscripts can be concatenated when the original array + is multidimensional. + For example: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +mytable.arraycolumn[4] +mytable.two_d_column[17][34] +$1[10:42] +(arrayfunction(a,b))[42] +</pre><p> + + The parentheses in the last example are required. + See <a class="xref" href="arrays.html" title="8.15. Arrays">Section 8.15</a> for more about arrays. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="FIELD-SELECTION"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.4. Field Selection <a href="#FIELD-SELECTION" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.12.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + If an expression yields a value of a composite type (row type), then a + specific field of the row can be extracted by writing +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em>.<em class="replaceable"><code>fieldname</code></em> +</pre><p> + </p><p> + In general the row <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> must be + parenthesized, but the parentheses can be omitted when the expression + to be selected from is just a table reference or positional parameter. + For example: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +mytable.mycolumn +$1.somecolumn +(rowfunction(a,b)).col3 +</pre><p> + + (Thus, a qualified column reference is actually just a special case + of the field selection syntax.) An important special case is + extracting a field from a table column that is of a composite type: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +(compositecol).somefield +(mytable.compositecol).somefield +</pre><p> + + The parentheses are required here to show that + <code class="structfield">compositecol</code> is a column name not a table name, + or that <code class="structname">mytable</code> is a table name not a schema name + in the second case. + </p><p> + You can ask for all fields of a composite value by + writing <code class="literal">.*</code>: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +(compositecol).* +</pre><p> + This notation behaves differently depending on context; + see <a class="xref" href="rowtypes.html#ROWTYPES-USAGE" title="8.16.5. Using Composite Types in Queries">Section 8.16.5</a> for details. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS-OPERATOR-CALLS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.5. Operator Invocations <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-OPERATOR-CALLS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.13.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + There are two possible syntaxes for an operator invocation: + </p><table border="0" summary="Simple list" class="simplelist"><tr><td><em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> <em class="replaceable"><code>operator</code></em> <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> (binary infix operator)</td></tr><tr><td><em class="replaceable"><code>operator</code></em> <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> (unary prefix operator)</td></tr></table><p> + where the <em class="replaceable"><code>operator</code></em> token follows the syntax + rules of <a class="xref" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-OPERATORS" title="4.1.3. Operators">Section 4.1.3</a>, or is one of the + key words <code class="token">AND</code>, <code class="token">OR</code>, and + <code class="token">NOT</code>, or is a qualified operator name in the form: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<code class="literal">OPERATOR(</code><em class="replaceable"><code>schema</code></em><code class="literal">.</code><em class="replaceable"><code>operatorname</code></em><code class="literal">)</code> +</pre><p> + Which particular operators exist and whether + they are unary or binary depends on what operators have been + defined by the system or the user. <a class="xref" href="functions.html" title="Chapter 9. Functions and Operators">Chapter 9</a> + describes the built-in operators. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-EXPRESSIONS-FUNCTION-CALLS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.6. Function Calls <a href="#SQL-EXPRESSIONS-FUNCTION-CALLS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.14.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + The syntax for a function call is the name of a function + (possibly qualified with a schema name), followed by its argument list + enclosed in parentheses: + +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>function_name</code></em> ([<span class="optional"><em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [<span class="optional">, <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> ... </span>]</span>] ) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + For example, the following computes the square root of 2: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +sqrt(2) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + The list of built-in functions is in <a class="xref" href="functions.html" title="Chapter 9. Functions and Operators">Chapter 9</a>. + Other functions can be added by the user. + </p><p> + When issuing queries in a database where some users mistrust other users, + observe security precautions from <a class="xref" href="typeconv-func.html" title="10.3. Functions">Section 10.3</a> when + writing function calls. + </p><p> + The arguments can optionally have names attached. + See <a class="xref" href="sql-syntax-calling-funcs.html" title="4.3. Calling Functions">Section 4.3</a> for details. + </p><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + A function that takes a single argument of composite type can + optionally be called using field-selection syntax, and conversely + field selection can be written in functional style. That is, the + notations <code class="literal">col(table)</code> and <code class="literal">table.col</code> are + interchangeable. This behavior is not SQL-standard but is provided + in <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> because it allows use of functions to + emulate <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">computed fields</span>”</span>. For more information see + <a class="xref" href="rowtypes.html#ROWTYPES-USAGE" title="8.16.5. Using Composite Types in Queries">Section 8.16.5</a>. + </p></div></div><div class="sect2" id="SYNTAX-AGGREGATES"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.7. Aggregate Expressions <a href="#SYNTAX-AGGREGATES" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.15.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.15.3" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.15.4" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.15.5" class="indexterm"></a><p> + An <em class="firstterm">aggregate expression</em> represents the + application of an aggregate function across the rows selected by a + query. An aggregate function reduces multiple inputs to a single + output value, such as the sum or average of the inputs. The + syntax of an aggregate expression is one of the following: + +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> (<em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [ , ... ] [ <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> ] ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] +<em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> (ALL <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [ , ... ] [ <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> ] ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] +<em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> (DISTINCT <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [ , ... ] [ <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> ] ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] +<em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> ( * ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] +<em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> ( [ <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [ , ... ] ] ) WITHIN GROUP ( <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] +</pre><p> + + where <em class="replaceable"><code>aggregate_name</code></em> is a previously + defined aggregate (possibly qualified with a schema name) and + <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> is + any value expression that does not itself contain an aggregate + expression or a window function call. The optional + <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> and + <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> are described below. + </p><p> + The first form of aggregate expression invokes the aggregate + once for each input row. + The second form is the same as the first, since + <code class="literal">ALL</code> is the default. + The third form invokes the aggregate once for each distinct value + of the expression (or distinct set of values, for multiple expressions) + found in the input rows. + The fourth form invokes the aggregate once for each input row; since no + particular input value is specified, it is generally only useful + for the <code class="function">count(*)</code> aggregate function. + The last form is used with <em class="firstterm">ordered-set</em> aggregate + functions, which are described below. + </p><p> + Most aggregate functions ignore null inputs, so that rows in which + one or more of the expression(s) yield null are discarded. This + can be assumed to be true, unless otherwise specified, for all + built-in aggregates. + </p><p> + For example, <code class="literal">count(*)</code> yields the total number + of input rows; <code class="literal">count(f1)</code> yields the number of + input rows in which <code class="literal">f1</code> is non-null, since + <code class="function">count</code> ignores nulls; and + <code class="literal">count(distinct f1)</code> yields the number of + distinct non-null values of <code class="literal">f1</code>. + </p><p> + Ordinarily, the input rows are fed to the aggregate function in an + unspecified order. In many cases this does not matter; for example, + <code class="function">min</code> produces the same result no matter what order it + receives the inputs in. However, some aggregate functions + (such as <code class="function">array_agg</code> and <code class="function">string_agg</code>) produce + results that depend on the ordering of the input rows. When using + such an aggregate, the optional <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> can be + used to specify the desired ordering. The <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> + has the same syntax as for a query-level <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause, as + described in <a class="xref" href="queries-order.html" title="7.5. Sorting Rows (ORDER BY)">Section 7.5</a>, except that its expressions + are always just expressions and cannot be output-column names or numbers. + For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT array_agg(a ORDER BY b DESC) FROM table; +</pre><p> + </p><p> + When dealing with multiple-argument aggregate functions, note that the + <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause goes after all the aggregate arguments. + For example, write this: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT string_agg(a, ',' ORDER BY a) FROM table; +</pre><p> + not this: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT string_agg(a ORDER BY a, ',') FROM table; -- incorrect +</pre><p> + The latter is syntactically valid, but it represents a call of a + single-argument aggregate function with two <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> keys + (the second one being rather useless since it's a constant). + </p><p> + If <code class="literal">DISTINCT</code> is specified in addition to an + <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em>, then all the <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> + expressions must match regular arguments of the aggregate; that is, + you cannot sort on an expression that is not included in the + <code class="literal">DISTINCT</code> list. + </p><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + The ability to specify both <code class="literal">DISTINCT</code> and <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> + in an aggregate function is a <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> extension. + </p></div><p> + Placing <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> within the aggregate's regular argument + list, as described so far, is used when ordering the input rows for + general-purpose and statistical aggregates, for which ordering is + optional. There is a + subclass of aggregate functions called <em class="firstterm">ordered-set + aggregates</em> for which an <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> + is <span class="emphasis"><em>required</em></span>, usually because the aggregate's computation is + only sensible in terms of a specific ordering of its input rows. + Typical examples of ordered-set aggregates include rank and percentile + calculations. For an ordered-set aggregate, + the <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> is written + inside <code class="literal">WITHIN GROUP (...)</code>, as shown in the final syntax + alternative above. The expressions in + the <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em> are evaluated once per + input row just like regular aggregate arguments, sorted as per + the <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em>'s requirements, and fed + to the aggregate function as input arguments. (This is unlike the case + for a non-<code class="literal">WITHIN GROUP</code> <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em>, + which is not treated as argument(s) to the aggregate function.) The + argument expressions preceding <code class="literal">WITHIN GROUP</code>, if any, are + called <em class="firstterm">direct arguments</em> to distinguish them from + the <em class="firstterm">aggregated arguments</em> listed in + the <em class="replaceable"><code>order_by_clause</code></em>. Unlike regular aggregate + arguments, direct arguments are evaluated only once per aggregate call, + not once per input row. This means that they can contain variables only + if those variables are grouped by <code class="literal">GROUP BY</code>; this restriction + is the same as if the direct arguments were not inside an aggregate + expression at all. Direct arguments are typically used for things like + percentile fractions, which only make sense as a single value per + aggregation calculation. The direct argument list can be empty; in this + case, write just <code class="literal">()</code> not <code class="literal">(*)</code>. + (<span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> will actually accept either spelling, but + only the first way conforms to the SQL standard.) + </p><p> + <a id="id-1.5.3.6.15.15.1" class="indexterm"></a> + An example of an ordered-set aggregate call is: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT percentile_cont(0.5) WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY income) FROM households; + percentile_cont +----------------- + 50489 +</pre><p> + + which obtains the 50th percentile, or median, value of + the <code class="structfield">income</code> column from table <code class="structname">households</code>. + Here, <code class="literal">0.5</code> is a direct argument; it would make no sense + for the percentile fraction to be a value varying across rows. + </p><p> + If <code class="literal">FILTER</code> is specified, then only the input + rows for which the <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> + evaluates to true are fed to the aggregate function; other rows + are discarded. For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT + count(*) AS unfiltered, + count(*) FILTER (WHERE i < 5) AS filtered +FROM generate_series(1,10) AS s(i); + unfiltered | filtered +------------+---------- + 10 | 4 +(1 row) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + The predefined aggregate functions are described in <a class="xref" href="functions-aggregate.html" title="9.21. Aggregate Functions">Section 9.21</a>. Other aggregate functions can be added + by the user. + </p><p> + An aggregate expression can only appear in the result list or + <code class="literal">HAVING</code> clause of a <code class="command">SELECT</code> command. + It is forbidden in other clauses, such as <code class="literal">WHERE</code>, + because those clauses are logically evaluated before the results + of aggregates are formed. + </p><p> + When an aggregate expression appears in a subquery (see + <a class="xref" href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-SCALAR-SUBQUERIES" title="4.2.11. Scalar Subqueries">Section 4.2.11</a> and + <a class="xref" href="functions-subquery.html" title="9.23. Subquery Expressions">Section 9.23</a>), the aggregate is normally + evaluated over the rows of the subquery. But an exception occurs + if the aggregate's arguments (and <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> + if any) contain only outer-level variables: + the aggregate then belongs to the nearest such outer level, and is + evaluated over the rows of that query. The aggregate expression + as a whole is then an outer reference for the subquery it appears in, + and acts as a constant over any one evaluation of that subquery. + The restriction about + appearing only in the result list or <code class="literal">HAVING</code> clause + applies with respect to the query level that the aggregate belongs to. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SYNTAX-WINDOW-FUNCTIONS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.8. Window Function Calls <a href="#SYNTAX-WINDOW-FUNCTIONS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.16.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.16.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A <em class="firstterm">window function call</em> represents the application + of an aggregate-like function over some portion of the rows selected + by a query. Unlike non-window aggregate calls, this is not tied + to grouping of the selected rows into a single output row — each + row remains separate in the query output. However the window function + has access to all the rows that would be part of the current row's + group according to the grouping specification (<code class="literal">PARTITION BY</code> + list) of the window function call. + The syntax of a window function call is one of the following: + +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>function_name</code></em> ([<span class="optional"><em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [<span class="optional">, <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> ... </span>]</span>]) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] OVER <em class="replaceable"><code>window_name</code></em> +<em class="replaceable"><code>function_name</code></em> ([<span class="optional"><em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [<span class="optional">, <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> ... </span>]</span>]) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] OVER ( <em class="replaceable"><code>window_definition</code></em> ) +<em class="replaceable"><code>function_name</code></em> ( * ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] OVER <em class="replaceable"><code>window_name</code></em> +<em class="replaceable"><code>function_name</code></em> ( * ) [ FILTER ( WHERE <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> ) ] OVER ( <em class="replaceable"><code>window_definition</code></em> ) +</pre><p> + where <em class="replaceable"><code>window_definition</code></em> + has the syntax +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +[ <em class="replaceable"><code>existing_window_name</code></em> ] +[ PARTITION BY <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [, ...] ] +[ ORDER BY <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> [ ASC | DESC | USING <em class="replaceable"><code>operator</code></em> ] [ NULLS { FIRST | LAST } ] [, ...] ] +[ <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_clause</code></em> ] +</pre><p> + The optional <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_clause</code></em> + can be one of +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +{ RANGE | ROWS | GROUPS } <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> [ <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_exclusion</code></em> ] +{ RANGE | ROWS | GROUPS } BETWEEN <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> AND <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> [ <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_exclusion</code></em> ] +</pre><p> + where <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> + and <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> can be one of +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +UNBOUNDED PRECEDING +<em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> PRECEDING +CURRENT ROW +<em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> FOLLOWING +UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING +</pre><p> + and <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_exclusion</code></em> can be one of +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +EXCLUDE CURRENT ROW +EXCLUDE GROUP +EXCLUDE TIES +EXCLUDE NO OTHERS +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Here, <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> represents any value + expression that does not itself contain window function calls. + </p><p> + <em class="replaceable"><code>window_name</code></em> is a reference to a named window + specification defined in the query's <code class="literal">WINDOW</code> clause. + Alternatively, a full <em class="replaceable"><code>window_definition</code></em> can + be given within parentheses, using the same syntax as for defining a + named window in the <code class="literal">WINDOW</code> clause; see the + <a class="xref" href="sql-select.html" title="SELECT"><span class="refentrytitle">SELECT</span></a> reference page for details. It's worth + pointing out that <code class="literal">OVER wname</code> is not exactly equivalent to + <code class="literal">OVER (wname ...)</code>; the latter implies copying and modifying the + window definition, and will be rejected if the referenced window + specification includes a frame clause. + </p><p> + The <code class="literal">PARTITION BY</code> clause groups the rows of the query into + <em class="firstterm">partitions</em>, which are processed separately by the window + function. <code class="literal">PARTITION BY</code> works similarly to a query-level + <code class="literal">GROUP BY</code> clause, except that its expressions are always just + expressions and cannot be output-column names or numbers. + Without <code class="literal">PARTITION BY</code>, all rows produced by the query are + treated as a single partition. + The <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause determines the order in which the rows + of a partition are processed by the window function. It works similarly + to a query-level <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause, but likewise cannot use + output-column names or numbers. Without <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code>, rows are + processed in an unspecified order. + </p><p> + The <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_clause</code></em> specifies + the set of rows constituting the <em class="firstterm">window frame</em>, which is a + subset of the current partition, for those window functions that act on + the frame instead of the whole partition. The set of rows in the frame + can vary depending on which row is the current row. The frame can be + specified in <code class="literal">RANGE</code>, <code class="literal">ROWS</code> + or <code class="literal">GROUPS</code> mode; in each case, it runs from + the <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> to + the <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em>. + If <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> is omitted, the end defaults + to <code class="literal">CURRENT ROW</code>. + </p><p> + A <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> of <code class="literal">UNBOUNDED PRECEDING</code> means + that the frame starts with the first row of the partition, and similarly + a <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> of <code class="literal">UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING</code> means + that the frame ends with the last row of the partition. + </p><p> + In <code class="literal">RANGE</code> or <code class="literal">GROUPS</code> mode, + a <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> of + <code class="literal">CURRENT ROW</code> means the frame starts with the current + row's first <em class="firstterm">peer</em> row (a row that the + window's <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause sorts as equivalent to the + current row), while a <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> of + <code class="literal">CURRENT ROW</code> means the frame ends with the current + row's last peer row. + In <code class="literal">ROWS</code> mode, <code class="literal">CURRENT ROW</code> simply + means the current row. + </p><p> + In the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> <code class="literal">PRECEDING</code> + and <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> <code class="literal">FOLLOWING</code> frame + options, the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> must be an expression not + containing any variables, aggregate functions, or window functions. + The meaning of the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> depends on the + frame mode: + </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p> + In <code class="literal">ROWS</code> mode, + the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> must yield a non-null, + non-negative integer, and the option means that the frame starts or + ends the specified number of rows before or after the current row. + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + In <code class="literal">GROUPS</code> mode, + the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> again must yield a non-null, + non-negative integer, and the option means that the frame starts or + ends the specified number of <em class="firstterm">peer groups</em> + before or after the current row's peer group, where a peer group is a + set of rows that are equivalent in the <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> + ordering. (There must be an <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause + in the window definition to use <code class="literal">GROUPS</code> mode.) + </p></li><li class="listitem"><p> + In <code class="literal">RANGE</code> mode, these options require that + the <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause specify exactly one column. + The <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> specifies the maximum + difference between the value of that column in the current row and + its value in preceding or following rows of the frame. The data type + of the <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> expression varies depending + on the data type of the ordering column. For numeric ordering + columns it is typically of the same type as the ordering column, + but for datetime ordering columns it is an <code class="type">interval</code>. + For example, if the ordering column is of type <code class="type">date</code> + or <code class="type">timestamp</code>, one could write <code class="literal">RANGE BETWEEN + '1 day' PRECEDING AND '10 days' FOLLOWING</code>. + The <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> is still required to be + non-null and non-negative, though the meaning + of <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">non-negative</span>”</span> depends on its data type. + </p></li></ul></div><p> + In any case, the distance to the end of the frame is limited by the + distance to the end of the partition, so that for rows near the partition + ends the frame might contain fewer rows than elsewhere. + </p><p> + Notice that in both <code class="literal">ROWS</code> and <code class="literal">GROUPS</code> + mode, <code class="literal">0 PRECEDING</code> and <code class="literal">0 FOLLOWING</code> + are equivalent to <code class="literal">CURRENT ROW</code>. This normally holds + in <code class="literal">RANGE</code> mode as well, for an appropriate + data-type-specific meaning of <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">zero</span>”</span>. + </p><p> + The <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_exclusion</code></em> option allows rows around + the current row to be excluded from the frame, even if they would be + included according to the frame start and frame end options. + <code class="literal">EXCLUDE CURRENT ROW</code> excludes the current row from the + frame. + <code class="literal">EXCLUDE GROUP</code> excludes the current row and its + ordering peers from the frame. + <code class="literal">EXCLUDE TIES</code> excludes any peers of the current + row from the frame, but not the current row itself. + <code class="literal">EXCLUDE NO OTHERS</code> simply specifies explicitly the + default behavior of not excluding the current row or its peers. + </p><p> + The default framing option is <code class="literal">RANGE UNBOUNDED PRECEDING</code>, + which is the same as <code class="literal">RANGE BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND + CURRENT ROW</code>. With <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code>, this sets the frame to be + all rows from the partition start up through the current row's last + <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> peer. Without <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code>, + this means all rows of the partition are included in the window frame, + since all rows become peers of the current row. + </p><p> + Restrictions are that + <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> cannot be <code class="literal">UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING</code>, + <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> cannot be <code class="literal">UNBOUNDED PRECEDING</code>, + and the <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> choice cannot appear earlier in the + above list of <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> + and <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_end</code></em> options than + the <em class="replaceable"><code>frame_start</code></em> choice does — for example + <code class="literal">RANGE BETWEEN CURRENT ROW AND <em class="replaceable"><code>offset</code></em> + PRECEDING</code> is not allowed. + But, for example, <code class="literal">ROWS BETWEEN 7 PRECEDING AND 8 + PRECEDING</code> is allowed, even though it would never select any + rows. + </p><p> + If <code class="literal">FILTER</code> is specified, then only the input + rows for which the <em class="replaceable"><code>filter_clause</code></em> + evaluates to true are fed to the window function; other rows + are discarded. Only window functions that are aggregates accept + a <code class="literal">FILTER</code> clause. + </p><p> + The built-in window functions are described in <a class="xref" href="functions-window.html#FUNCTIONS-WINDOW-TABLE" title="Table 9.64. General-Purpose Window Functions">Table 9.64</a>. Other window functions can be added by + the user. Also, any built-in or user-defined general-purpose or + statistical aggregate can be used as a window function. (Ordered-set + and hypothetical-set aggregates cannot presently be used as window functions.) + </p><p> + The syntaxes using <code class="literal">*</code> are used for calling parameter-less + aggregate functions as window functions, for example + <code class="literal">count(*) OVER (PARTITION BY x ORDER BY y)</code>. + The asterisk (<code class="literal">*</code>) is customarily not used for + window-specific functions. Window-specific functions do not + allow <code class="literal">DISTINCT</code> or <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> to be used within the + function argument list. + </p><p> + Window function calls are permitted only in the <code class="literal">SELECT</code> + list and the <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause of the query. + </p><p> + More information about window functions can be found in + <a class="xref" href="tutorial-window.html" title="3.5. Window Functions">Section 3.5</a>, + <a class="xref" href="functions-window.html" title="9.22. Window Functions">Section 9.22</a>, and + <a class="xref" href="queries-table-expressions.html#QUERIES-WINDOW" title="7.2.5. Window Function Processing">Section 7.2.5</a>. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-SYNTAX-TYPE-CASTS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.9. Type Casts <a href="#SQL-SYNTAX-TYPE-CASTS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.17.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.17.3" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.17.4" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A type cast specifies a conversion from one data type to another. + <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> accepts two equivalent syntaxes + for type casts: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +CAST ( <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> AS <em class="replaceable"><code>type</code></em> ) +<em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em>::<em class="replaceable"><code>type</code></em> +</pre><p> + The <code class="literal">CAST</code> syntax conforms to SQL; the syntax with + <code class="literal">::</code> is historical <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> + usage. + </p><p> + When a cast is applied to a value expression of a known type, it + represents a run-time type conversion. The cast will succeed only + if a suitable type conversion operation has been defined. Notice that this + is subtly different from the use of casts with constants, as shown in + <a class="xref" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-CONSTANTS-GENERIC" title="4.1.2.7. Constants of Other Types">Section 4.1.2.7</a>. A cast applied to an + unadorned string literal represents the initial assignment of a type + to a literal constant value, and so it will succeed for any type + (if the contents of the string literal are acceptable input syntax for the + data type). + </p><p> + An explicit type cast can usually be omitted if there is no ambiguity as + to the type that a value expression must produce (for example, when it is + assigned to a table column); the system will automatically apply a + type cast in such cases. However, automatic casting is only done for + casts that are marked <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">OK to apply implicitly</span>”</span> + in the system catalogs. Other casts must be invoked with + explicit casting syntax. This restriction is intended to prevent + surprising conversions from being applied silently. + </p><p> + It is also possible to specify a type cast using a function-like + syntax: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>typename</code></em> ( <em class="replaceable"><code>expression</code></em> ) +</pre><p> + However, this only works for types whose names are also valid as + function names. For example, <code class="literal">double precision</code> + cannot be used this way, but the equivalent <code class="literal">float8</code> + can. Also, the names <code class="literal">interval</code>, <code class="literal">time</code>, and + <code class="literal">timestamp</code> can only be used in this fashion if they are + double-quoted, because of syntactic conflicts. Therefore, the use of + the function-like cast syntax leads to inconsistencies and should + probably be avoided. + </p><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + The function-like syntax is in fact just a function call. When + one of the two standard cast syntaxes is used to do a run-time + conversion, it will internally invoke a registered function to + perform the conversion. By convention, these conversion functions + have the same name as their output type, and thus the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">function-like + syntax</span>”</span> is nothing more than a direct invocation of the underlying + conversion function. Obviously, this is not something that a portable + application should rely on. For further details see + <a class="xref" href="sql-createcast.html" title="CREATE CAST"><span class="refentrytitle">CREATE CAST</span></a>. + </p></div></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-SYNTAX-COLLATE-EXPRS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.10. Collation Expressions <a href="#SQL-SYNTAX-COLLATE-EXPRS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.18.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + The <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clause overrides the collation of + an expression. It is appended to the expression it applies to: +</p><pre class="synopsis"> +<em class="replaceable"><code>expr</code></em> COLLATE <em class="replaceable"><code>collation</code></em> +</pre><p> + where <em class="replaceable"><code>collation</code></em> is a possibly + schema-qualified identifier. The <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> + clause binds tighter than operators; parentheses can be used when + necessary. + </p><p> + If no collation is explicitly specified, the database system + either derives a collation from the columns involved in the + expression, or it defaults to the default collation of the + database if no column is involved in the expression. + </p><p> + The two common uses of the <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clause are + overriding the sort order in an <code class="literal">ORDER BY</code> clause, for + example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT a, b, c FROM tbl WHERE ... ORDER BY a COLLATE "C"; +</pre><p> + and overriding the collation of a function or operator call that + has locale-sensitive results, for example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE a > 'foo' COLLATE "C"; +</pre><p> + Note that in the latter case the <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clause is + attached to an input argument of the operator we wish to affect. + It doesn't matter which argument of the operator or function call the + <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clause is attached to, because the collation that is + applied by the operator or function is derived by considering all + arguments, and an explicit <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clause will override the + collations of all other arguments. (Attaching non-matching + <code class="literal">COLLATE</code> clauses to more than one argument, however, is an + error. For more details see <a class="xref" href="collation.html" title="24.2. Collation Support">Section 24.2</a>.) + Thus, this gives the same result as the previous example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE a COLLATE "C" > 'foo'; +</pre><p> + But this is an error: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE (a > 'foo') COLLATE "C"; +</pre><p> + because it attempts to apply a collation to the result of the + <code class="literal">></code> operator, which is of the non-collatable data type + <code class="type">boolean</code>. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-SYNTAX-SCALAR-SUBQUERIES"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.11. Scalar Subqueries <a href="#SQL-SYNTAX-SCALAR-SUBQUERIES" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.19.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A scalar subquery is an ordinary + <code class="command">SELECT</code> query in parentheses that returns exactly one + row with one column. (See <a class="xref" href="queries.html" title="Chapter 7. Queries">Chapter 7</a> for information about writing queries.) + The <code class="command">SELECT</code> query is executed + and the single returned value is used in the surrounding value expression. + It is an error to use a query that + returns more than one row or more than one column as a scalar subquery. + (But if, during a particular execution, the subquery returns no rows, + there is no error; the scalar result is taken to be null.) + The subquery can refer to variables from the surrounding query, + which will act as constants during any one evaluation of the subquery. + See also <a class="xref" href="functions-subquery.html" title="9.23. Subquery Expressions">Section 9.23</a> for other expressions involving subqueries. + </p><p> + For example, the following finds the largest city population in each + state: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT name, (SELECT max(pop) FROM cities WHERE cities.state = states.name) + FROM states; +</pre><p> + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-SYNTAX-ARRAY-CONSTRUCTORS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.12. Array Constructors <a href="#SQL-SYNTAX-ARRAY-CONSTRUCTORS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.20.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.20.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + An array constructor is an expression that builds an + array value using values for its member elements. A simple array + constructor + consists of the key word <code class="literal">ARRAY</code>, a left square bracket + <code class="literal">[</code>, a list of expressions (separated by commas) for the + array element values, and finally a right square bracket <code class="literal">]</code>. + For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ARRAY[1,2,3+4]; + array +--------- + {1,2,7} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + By default, + the array element type is the common type of the member expressions, + determined using the same rules as for <code class="literal">UNION</code> or + <code class="literal">CASE</code> constructs (see <a class="xref" href="typeconv-union-case.html" title="10.5. UNION, CASE, and Related Constructs">Section 10.5</a>). + You can override this by explicitly casting the array constructor to the + desired type, for example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ARRAY[1,2,22.7]::integer[]; + array +---------- + {1,2,23} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + This has the same effect as casting each expression to the array + element type individually. + For more on casting, see <a class="xref" href="sql-expressions.html#SQL-SYNTAX-TYPE-CASTS" title="4.2.9. Type Casts">Section 4.2.9</a>. + </p><p> + Multidimensional array values can be built by nesting array + constructors. + In the inner constructors, the key word <code class="literal">ARRAY</code> can + be omitted. For example, these produce the same result: + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ARRAY[ARRAY[1,2], ARRAY[3,4]]; + array +--------------- + {{1,2},{3,4}} +(1 row) + +SELECT ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]]; + array +--------------- + {{1,2},{3,4}} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + + Since multidimensional arrays must be rectangular, inner constructors + at the same level must produce sub-arrays of identical dimensions. + Any cast applied to the outer <code class="literal">ARRAY</code> constructor propagates + automatically to all the inner constructors. + </p><p> + Multidimensional array constructor elements can be anything yielding + an array of the proper kind, not only a sub-<code class="literal">ARRAY</code> construct. + For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE arr(f1 int[], f2 int[]); + +INSERT INTO arr VALUES (ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]], ARRAY[[5,6],[7,8]]); + +SELECT ARRAY[f1, f2, '{{9,10},{11,12}}'::int[]] FROM arr; + array +------------------------------------------------ + {{{1,2},{3,4}},{{5,6},{7,8}},{{9,10},{11,12}}} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + You can construct an empty array, but since it's impossible to have an + array with no type, you must explicitly cast your empty array to the + desired type. For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ARRAY[]::integer[]; + array +------- + {} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + It is also possible to construct an array from the results of a + subquery. In this form, the array constructor is written with the + key word <code class="literal">ARRAY</code> followed by a parenthesized (not + bracketed) subquery. For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ARRAY(SELECT oid FROM pg_proc WHERE proname LIKE 'bytea%'); + array +------------------------------------------------------------------ + {2011,1954,1948,1952,1951,1244,1950,2005,1949,1953,2006,31,2412} +(1 row) + +SELECT ARRAY(SELECT ARRAY[i, i*2] FROM generate_series(1,5) AS a(i)); + array +---------------------------------- + {{1,2},{2,4},{3,6},{4,8},{5,10}} +(1 row) +</pre><p> + The subquery must return a single column. + If the subquery's output column is of a non-array type, the resulting + one-dimensional array will have an element for each row in the + subquery result, with an element type matching that of the + subquery's output column. + If the subquery's output column is of an array type, the result will be + an array of the same type but one higher dimension; in this case all + the subquery rows must yield arrays of identical dimensionality, else + the result would not be rectangular. + </p><p> + The subscripts of an array value built with <code class="literal">ARRAY</code> + always begin with one. For more information about arrays, see + <a class="xref" href="arrays.html" title="8.15. Arrays">Section 8.15</a>. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SQL-SYNTAX-ROW-CONSTRUCTORS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.13. Row Constructors <a href="#SQL-SYNTAX-ROW-CONSTRUCTORS" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.21.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.21.3" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.3.6.21.4" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A row constructor is an expression that builds a row value (also + called a composite value) using values + for its member fields. A row constructor consists of the key word + <code class="literal">ROW</code>, a left parenthesis, zero or more + expressions (separated by commas) for the row field values, and finally + a right parenthesis. For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test'); +</pre><p> + The key word <code class="literal">ROW</code> is optional when there is more than one + expression in the list. + </p><p> + A row constructor can include the syntax + <em class="replaceable"><code>rowvalue</code></em><code class="literal">.*</code>, + which will be expanded to a list of the elements of the row value, + just as occurs when the <code class="literal">.*</code> syntax is used at the top level + of a <code class="command">SELECT</code> list (see <a class="xref" href="rowtypes.html#ROWTYPES-USAGE" title="8.16.5. Using Composite Types in Queries">Section 8.16.5</a>). + For example, if table <code class="literal">t</code> has + columns <code class="literal">f1</code> and <code class="literal">f2</code>, these are the same: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ROW(t.*, 42) FROM t; +SELECT ROW(t.f1, t.f2, 42) FROM t; +</pre><p> + </p><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + Before <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> 8.2, the + <code class="literal">.*</code> syntax was not expanded in row constructors, so + that writing <code class="literal">ROW(t.*, 42)</code> created a two-field row whose first + field was another row value. The new behavior is usually more useful. + If you need the old behavior of nested row values, write the inner + row value without <code class="literal">.*</code>, for instance + <code class="literal">ROW(t, 42)</code>. + </p></div><p> + By default, the value created by a <code class="literal">ROW</code> expression is of + an anonymous record type. If necessary, it can be cast to a named + composite type — either the row type of a table, or a composite type + created with <code class="command">CREATE TYPE AS</code>. An explicit cast might be needed + to avoid ambiguity. For example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE mytable(f1 int, f2 float, f3 text); + +CREATE FUNCTION getf1(mytable) RETURNS int AS 'SELECT $1.f1' LANGUAGE SQL; + +-- No cast needed since only one getf1() exists +SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')); + getf1 +------- + 1 +(1 row) + +CREATE TYPE myrowtype AS (f1 int, f2 text, f3 numeric); + +CREATE FUNCTION getf1(myrowtype) RETURNS int AS 'SELECT $1.f1' LANGUAGE SQL; + +-- Now we need a cast to indicate which function to call: +SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')); +ERROR: function getf1(record) is not unique + +SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')::mytable); + getf1 +------- + 1 +(1 row) + +SELECT getf1(CAST(ROW(11,'this is a test',2.5) AS myrowtype)); + getf1 +------- + 11 +(1 row) +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Row constructors can be used to build composite values to be stored + in a composite-type table column, or to be passed to a function that + accepts a composite parameter. Also, + it is possible to compare two row values or test a row with + <code class="literal">IS NULL</code> or <code class="literal">IS NOT NULL</code>, for example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test') = ROW(1, 3, 'not the same'); + +SELECT ROW(table.*) IS NULL FROM table; -- detect all-null rows +</pre><p> + For more detail see <a class="xref" href="functions-comparisons.html" title="9.24. Row and Array Comparisons">Section 9.24</a>. + Row constructors can also be used in connection with subqueries, + as discussed in <a class="xref" href="functions-subquery.html" title="9.23. Subquery Expressions">Section 9.23</a>. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="SYNTAX-EXPRESS-EVAL"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">4.2.14. Expression Evaluation Rules <a href="#SYNTAX-EXPRESS-EVAL" class="id_link">#</a></h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.3.6.22.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + The order of evaluation of subexpressions is not defined. In + particular, the inputs of an operator or function are not necessarily + evaluated left-to-right or in any other fixed order. + </p><p> + Furthermore, if the result of an expression can be determined by + evaluating only some parts of it, then other subexpressions + might not be evaluated at all. For instance, if one wrote: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT true OR somefunc(); +</pre><p> + then <code class="literal">somefunc()</code> would (probably) not be called + at all. The same would be the case if one wrote: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT somefunc() OR true; +</pre><p> + Note that this is not the same as the left-to-right + <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">short-circuiting</span>”</span> of Boolean operators that is found + in some programming languages. + </p><p> + As a consequence, it is unwise to use functions with side effects + as part of complex expressions. It is particularly dangerous to + rely on side effects or evaluation order in <code class="literal">WHERE</code> and <code class="literal">HAVING</code> clauses, + since those clauses are extensively reprocessed as part of + developing an execution plan. Boolean + expressions (<code class="literal">AND</code>/<code class="literal">OR</code>/<code class="literal">NOT</code> combinations) in those clauses can be reorganized + in any manner allowed by the laws of Boolean algebra. + </p><p> + When it is essential to force evaluation order, a <code class="literal">CASE</code> + construct (see <a class="xref" href="functions-conditional.html" title="9.18. Conditional Expressions">Section 9.18</a>) can be + used. For example, this is an untrustworthy way of trying to + avoid division by zero in a <code class="literal">WHERE</code> clause: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ... WHERE x > 0 AND y/x > 1.5; +</pre><p> + But this is safe: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT ... WHERE CASE WHEN x > 0 THEN y/x > 1.5 ELSE false END; +</pre><p> + A <code class="literal">CASE</code> construct used in this fashion will defeat optimization + attempts, so it should only be done when necessary. (In this particular + example, it would be better to sidestep the problem by writing + <code class="literal">y > 1.5*x</code> instead.) + </p><p> + <code class="literal">CASE</code> is not a cure-all for such issues, however. + One limitation of the technique illustrated above is that it does not + prevent early evaluation of constant subexpressions. + As described in <a class="xref" href="xfunc-volatility.html" title="38.7. Function Volatility Categories">Section 38.7</a>, functions and + operators marked <code class="literal">IMMUTABLE</code> can be evaluated when + the query is planned rather than when it is executed. Thus for example +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT CASE WHEN x > 0 THEN x ELSE 1/0 END FROM tab; +</pre><p> + is likely to result in a division-by-zero failure due to the planner + trying to simplify the constant subexpression, + even if every row in the table has <code class="literal">x > 0</code> so that the + <code class="literal">ELSE</code> arm would never be entered at run time. + </p><p> + While that particular example might seem silly, related cases that don't + obviously involve constants can occur in queries executed within + functions, since the values of function arguments and local variables + can be inserted into queries as constants for planning purposes. + Within <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> functions, for example, using an + <code class="literal">IF</code>-<code class="literal">THEN</code>-<code class="literal">ELSE</code> statement to protect + a risky computation is much safer than just nesting it in a + <code class="literal">CASE</code> expression. + </p><p> + Another limitation of the same kind is that a <code class="literal">CASE</code> cannot + prevent evaluation of an aggregate expression contained within it, + because aggregate expressions are computed before other + expressions in a <code class="literal">SELECT</code> list or <code class="literal">HAVING</code> clause + are considered. For example, the following query can cause a + division-by-zero error despite seemingly having protected against it: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +SELECT CASE WHEN min(employees) > 0 + THEN avg(expenses / employees) + END + FROM departments; +</pre><p> + The <code class="function">min()</code> and <code class="function">avg()</code> aggregates are computed + concurrently over all the input rows, so if any row + has <code class="structfield">employees</code> equal to zero, the division-by-zero error + will occur before there is any opportunity to test the result of + <code class="function">min()</code>. Instead, use a <code class="literal">WHERE</code> + or <code class="literal">FILTER</code> clause to prevent problematic input rows from + reaching an aggregate function in the first place. + </p></div></div><div class="navfooter"><hr /><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html" title="4.1. 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