hstore This module implements the hstore data type for storing sets of key/value pairs within a single PostgreSQL value. This can be useful in various scenarios, such as rows with many attributes that are rarely examined, or semi-structured data. Keys and values are simply text strings. This module is considered trusted, that is, it can be installed by non-superusers who have CREATE privilege on the current database. The text representation of an hstore, used for input and output, includes zero or more key => value pairs separated by commas. Some examples: k => v foo => bar, baz => whatever "1-a" => "anything at all" The order of the pairs is not significant (and may not be reproduced on output). Whitespace between pairs or around the => sign is ignored. Double-quote keys and values that include whitespace, commas, =s or >s. To include a double quote or a backslash in a key or value, escape it with a backslash. Each key in an hstore is unique. If you declare an hstore with duplicate keys, only one will be stored in the hstore and there is no guarantee as to which will be kept: SELECT 'a=>1,a=>2'::hstore; hstore ---------- "a"=>"1" A value (but not a key) can be an SQL NULL. For example: key => NULL The NULL keyword is case-insensitive. Double-quote the NULL to treat it as the ordinary string NULL. Keep in mind that the hstore text format, when used for input, applies before any required quoting or escaping. If you are passing an hstore literal via a parameter, then no additional processing is needed. But if you're passing it as a quoted literal constant, then any single-quote characters and (depending on the setting of the standard_conforming_strings configuration parameter) backslash characters need to be escaped correctly. See for more on the handling of string constants. On output, double quotes always surround keys and values, even when it's not strictly necessary. The operators provided by the hstore module are shown in , the functions in . Operator Description Example(s) hstore -> text text Returns value associated with given key, or NULL if not present. 'a=>x, b=>y'::hstore -> 'a' x hstore -> text[] text[] Returns values associated with given keys, or NULL if not present. 'a=>x, b=>y, c=>z'::hstore -> ARRAY['c','a'] {"z","x"} hstore || hstore hstore Concatenates two hstores. 'a=>b, c=>d'::hstore || 'c=>x, d=>q'::hstore "a"=>"b", "c"=>"x", "d"=>"q" hstore ? text boolean Does hstore contain key? 'a=>1'::hstore ? 'a' t hstore ?& text[] boolean Does hstore contain all the specified keys? 'a=>1,b=>2'::hstore ?& ARRAY['a','b'] t hstore ?| text[] boolean Does hstore contain any of the specified keys? 'a=>1,b=>2'::hstore ?| ARRAY['b','c'] t hstore @> hstore boolean Does left operand contain right? 'a=>b, b=>1, c=>NULL'::hstore @> 'b=>1' t hstore <@ hstore boolean Is left operand contained in right? 'a=>c'::hstore <@ 'a=>b, b=>1, c=>NULL' f hstore - text hstore Deletes key from left operand. 'a=>1, b=>2, c=>3'::hstore - 'b'::text "a"=>"1", "c"=>"3" hstore - text[] hstore Deletes keys from left operand. 'a=>1, b=>2, c=>3'::hstore - ARRAY['a','b'] "c"=>"3" hstore - hstore hstore Deletes pairs from left operand that match pairs in the right operand. 'a=>1, b=>2, c=>3'::hstore - 'a=>4, b=>2'::hstore "a"=>"1", "c"=>"3" anyelement #= hstore anyelement Replaces fields in the left operand (which must be a composite type) with matching values from hstore. ROW(1,3) #= 'f1=>11'::hstore (11,3) %% hstore text[] Converts hstore to an array of alternating keys and values. %% 'a=>foo, b=>bar'::hstore {a,foo,b,bar} %# hstore text[] Converts hstore to a two-dimensional key/value array. %# 'a=>foo, b=>bar'::hstore {{a,foo},{b,bar}} Function Description Example(s) hstore hstore ( record ) hstore Constructs an hstore from a record or row. hstore(ROW(1,2)) "f1"=>"1", "f2"=>"2" hstore ( text[] ) hstore Constructs an hstore from an array, which may be either a key/value array, or a two-dimensional array. hstore(ARRAY['a','1','b','2']) "a"=>"1", "b"=>"2" hstore(ARRAY[['c','3'],['d','4']]) "c"=>"3", "d"=>"4" hstore ( text[], text[] ) hstore Constructs an hstore from separate key and value arrays. hstore(ARRAY['a','b'], ARRAY['1','2']) "a"=>"1", "b"=>"2" hstore ( text, text ) hstore Makes a single-item hstore. hstore('a', 'b') "a"=>"b" akeys akeys ( hstore ) text[] Extracts an hstore's keys as an array. akeys('a=>1,b=>2') {a,b} skeys skeys ( hstore ) setof text Extracts an hstore's keys as a set. skeys('a=>1,b=>2') a b avals avals ( hstore ) text[] Extracts an hstore's values as an array. avals('a=>1,b=>2') {1,2} svals svals ( hstore ) setof text Extracts an hstore's values as a set. svals('a=>1,b=>2') 1 2 hstore_to_array hstore_to_array ( hstore ) text[] Extracts an hstore's keys and values as an array of alternating keys and values. hstore_to_array('a=>1,b=>2') {a,1,b,2} hstore_to_matrix hstore_to_matrix ( hstore ) text[] Extracts an hstore's keys and values as a two-dimensional array. hstore_to_matrix('a=>1,b=>2') {{a,1},{b,2}} hstore_to_json hstore_to_json ( hstore ) json Converts an hstore to a json value, converting all non-null values to JSON strings. This function is used implicitly when an hstore value is cast to json. hstore_to_json('"a key"=>1, b=>t, c=>null, d=>12345, e=>012345, f=>1.234, g=>2.345e+4') {"a key": "1", "b": "t", "c": null, "d": "12345", "e": "012345", "f": "1.234", "g": "2.345e+4"} hstore_to_jsonb hstore_to_jsonb ( hstore ) jsonb Converts an hstore to a jsonb value, converting all non-null values to JSON strings. This function is used implicitly when an hstore value is cast to jsonb. hstore_to_jsonb('"a key"=>1, b=>t, c=>null, d=>12345, e=>012345, f=>1.234, g=>2.345e+4') {"a key": "1", "b": "t", "c": null, "d": "12345", "e": "012345", "f": "1.234", "g": "2.345e+4"} hstore_to_json_loose hstore_to_json_loose ( hstore ) json Converts an hstore to a json value, but attempts to distinguish numerical and Boolean values so they are unquoted in the JSON. hstore_to_json_loose('"a key"=>1, b=>t, c=>null, d=>12345, e=>012345, f=>1.234, g=>2.345e+4') {"a key": 1, "b": true, "c": null, "d": 12345, "e": "012345", "f": 1.234, "g": 2.345e+4} hstore_to_jsonb_loose hstore_to_jsonb_loose ( hstore ) jsonb Converts an hstore to a jsonb value, but attempts to distinguish numerical and Boolean values so they are unquoted in the JSON. hstore_to_jsonb_loose('"a key"=>1, b=>t, c=>null, d=>12345, e=>012345, f=>1.234, g=>2.345e+4') {"a key": 1, "b": true, "c": null, "d": 12345, "e": "012345", "f": 1.234, "g": 2.345e+4} slice slice ( hstore, text[] ) hstore Extracts a subset of an hstore containing only the specified keys. slice('a=>1,b=>2,c=>3'::hstore, ARRAY['b','c','x']) "b"=>"2", "c"=>"3" each each ( hstore ) setof record ( key text, value text ) Extracts an hstore's keys and values as a set of records. select * from each('a=>1,b=>2') key | value -----+------- a | 1 b | 2 exist exist ( hstore, text ) boolean Does hstore contain key? exist('a=>1', 'a') t defined defined ( hstore, text ) boolean Does hstore contain a non-NULL value for key? defined('a=>NULL', 'a') f delete delete ( hstore, text ) hstore Deletes pair with matching key. delete('a=>1,b=>2', 'b') "a"=>"1" delete ( hstore, text[] ) hstore Deletes pairs with matching keys. delete('a=>1,b=>2,c=>3', ARRAY['a','b']) "c"=>"3" delete ( hstore, hstore ) hstore Deletes pairs matching those in the second argument. delete('a=>1,b=>2', 'a=>4,b=>2'::hstore) "a"=>"1" populate_record populate_record ( anyelement, hstore ) anyelement Replaces fields in the left operand (which must be a composite type) with matching values from hstore. populate_record(ROW(1,2), 'f1=>42'::hstore) (42,2) In addition to these operators and functions, values of the hstore type can be subscripted, allowing them to act like associative arrays. Only a single subscript of type text can be specified; it is interpreted as a key and the corresponding value is fetched or stored. For example, CREATE TABLE mytable (h hstore); INSERT INTO mytable VALUES ('a=>b, c=>d'); SELECT h['a'] FROM mytable; h --- b (1 row) UPDATE mytable SET h['c'] = 'new'; SELECT h FROM mytable; h ---------------------- "a"=>"b", "c"=>"new" (1 row) A subscripted fetch returns NULL if the subscript is NULL or that key does not exist in the hstore. (Thus, a subscripted fetch is not greatly different from the -> operator.) A subscripted update fails if the subscript is NULL; otherwise, it replaces the value for that key, adding an entry to the hstore if the key does not already exist. hstore has GiST and GIN index support for the @>, ?, ?& and ?| operators. For example: CREATE INDEX hidx ON testhstore USING GIST (h); CREATE INDEX hidx ON testhstore USING GIN (h); gist_hstore_ops GiST opclass approximates a set of key/value pairs as a bitmap signature. Its optional integer parameter siglen determines the signature length in bytes. The default length is 16 bytes. Valid values of signature length are between 1 and 2024 bytes. Longer signatures lead to a more precise search (scanning a smaller fraction of the index and fewer heap pages), at the cost of a larger index. Example of creating such an index with a signature length of 32 bytes: CREATE INDEX hidx ON testhstore USING GIST (h gist_hstore_ops(siglen=32)); hstore also supports btree or hash indexes for the = operator. This allows hstore columns to be declared UNIQUE, or to be used in GROUP BY, ORDER BY or DISTINCT expressions. The sort ordering for hstore values is not particularly useful, but these indexes may be useful for equivalence lookups. Create indexes for = comparisons as follows: CREATE INDEX hidx ON testhstore USING BTREE (h); CREATE INDEX hidx ON testhstore USING HASH (h); Add a key, or update an existing key with a new value: UPDATE tab SET h['c'] = '3'; Another way to do the same thing is: UPDATE tab SET h = h || hstore('c', '3'); If multiple keys are to be added or changed in one operation, the concatenation approach is more efficient than subscripting: UPDATE tab SET h = h || hstore(array['q', 'w'], array['11', '12']); Delete a key: UPDATE tab SET h = delete(h, 'k1'); Convert a record to an hstore: CREATE TABLE test (col1 integer, col2 text, col3 text); INSERT INTO test VALUES (123, 'foo', 'bar'); SELECT hstore(t) FROM test AS t; hstore --------------------------------------------- "col1"=>"123", "col2"=>"foo", "col3"=>"bar" (1 row) Convert an hstore to a predefined record type: CREATE TABLE test (col1 integer, col2 text, col3 text); SELECT * FROM populate_record(null::test, '"col1"=>"456", "col2"=>"zzz"'); col1 | col2 | col3 ------+------+------ 456 | zzz | (1 row) Modify an existing record using the values from an hstore: CREATE TABLE test (col1 integer, col2 text, col3 text); INSERT INTO test VALUES (123, 'foo', 'bar'); SELECT (r).* FROM (SELECT t #= '"col3"=>"baz"' AS r FROM test t) s; col1 | col2 | col3 ------+------+------ 123 | foo | baz (1 row) The hstore type, because of its intrinsic liberality, could contain a lot of different keys. Checking for valid keys is the task of the application. The following examples demonstrate several techniques for checking keys and obtaining statistics. Simple example: SELECT * FROM each('aaa=>bq, b=>NULL, ""=>1'); Using a table: CREATE TABLE stat AS SELECT (each(h)).key, (each(h)).value FROM testhstore; Online statistics: SELECT key, count(*) FROM (SELECT (each(h)).key FROM testhstore) AS stat GROUP BY key ORDER BY count DESC, key; key | count -----------+------- line | 883 query | 207 pos | 203 node | 202 space | 197 status | 195 public | 194 title | 190 org | 189 ................... As of PostgreSQL 9.0, hstore uses a different internal representation than previous versions. This presents no obstacle for dump/restore upgrades since the text representation (used in the dump) is unchanged. In the event of a binary upgrade, upward compatibility is maintained by having the new code recognize old-format data. This will entail a slight performance penalty when processing data that has not yet been modified by the new code. It is possible to force an upgrade of all values in a table column by doing an UPDATE statement as follows: UPDATE tablename SET hstorecol = hstorecol || ''; Another way to do it is: ALTER TABLE tablename ALTER hstorecol TYPE hstore USING hstorecol || ''; The ALTER TABLE method requires an ACCESS EXCLUSIVE lock on the table, but does not result in bloating the table with old row versions. Additional extensions are available that implement transforms for the hstore type for the languages PL/Perl and PL/Python. The extensions for PL/Perl are called hstore_plperl and hstore_plperlu, for trusted and untrusted PL/Perl. If you install these transforms and specify them when creating a function, hstore values are mapped to Perl hashes. The extension for PL/Python is called hstore_plpython3u. If you use it, hstore values are mapped to Python dictionaries. It is strongly recommended that the transform extensions be installed in the same schema as hstore. Otherwise there are installation-time security hazards if a transform extension's schema contains objects defined by a hostile user. Oleg Bartunov oleg@sai.msu.su, Moscow, Moscow University, Russia Teodor Sigaev teodor@sigaev.ru, Moscow, Delta-Soft Ltd., Russia Additional enhancements by Andrew Gierth andrew@tao11.riddles.org.uk, United Kingdom