Adding upstream version 255.4.upstream/255.4

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

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+---
+title: Safely Building Images
+category: Concepts
+layout: default
+SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+---
+
+# Building Images Safely
+
+In many scenarios OS installations are shipped as pre-built images, that
+require no further installation process beyond simple `dd`-ing the image to
+disk and booting it up. When building such "golden" OS images for
+`systemd`-based OSes a few points should be taken into account.
+
+Most of the points described here are implemented by the
+[`mkosi`](https://github.com/systemd/mkosi) OS image builder developed and
+maintained by the systemd project. If you are using or working on another image
+builder it's recommended to keep the following concepts and recommendations in
+mind.
+
+## Resources to Reset
+
+Typically the same OS image shall be deployable in multiple instances, and each
+instance should automatically acquire its own identifying credentials on first
+boot. For that it's essential to:
+
+1. Remove the
+   [`/etc/machine-id`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/machine-id.html)
+   file or write the string `uninitialized\n` into it. This file is supposed to
+   carry a 128-bit identifier unique to the system. Only when it is reset it
+   will be auto-generated on first boot and thus be truly unique. If this file
+   is not reset, and carries a valid ID every instance of the system will come
+   up with the same ID and that will likely lead to problems sooner or later,
+   as many network-visible identifiers are commonly derived from the machine
+   ID, for example, IPv6 addresses or transient MAC addresses.
+
+2. Remove the `/var/lib/systemd/random-seed` file (see
+   [`systemd-random-seed(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-random-seed.service.html)),
+   which is used to seed the kernel's random pool on boot. If this file is
+   shipped pre-initialized, every instance will seed its random pool with the
+   same random data that is included in the image, and thus possibly generate
+   random data that is more similar to other instances booted off the same
+   image than advisable.
+
+3. Remove the `/loader/random-seed` file (see
+   [`systemd-boot(7)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-boot.html))
+   from the UEFI System Partition (ESP), in case the `systemd-boot` boot loader
+   is used in the image.
+
+4. It might also make sense to remove
+   [`/etc/hostname`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/hostname.html)
+   and
+   [`/etc/machine-info`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/machine-info.html)
+   which carry additional identifying information about the OS image.
+
+5. Remove `/var/lib/systemd/credential.secret` which is used for protecting
+   service credentials, see
+   [`systemd.exec(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd.exec.html#Credentials)
+   and
+   [`systemd-creds(1)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-creds.html)
+   for details. Note that by removing this file access to previously encrypted
+   credentials from this image is lost. The file is automatically generated if
+   a new credential is encrypted and the file does not exist yet.
+
+## Boot Menu Entry Identifiers
+
+The
+[`kernel-install(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/kernel-install.html)
+logic used to generate
+[Boot Loader Specification Type #1](https://uapi-group.org/specifications/specs/boot_loader_specification/#type-1-boot-loader-specification-entries)
+entries by default uses the machine ID as stored in `/etc/machine-id` for
+naming boot menu entries and the directories in the ESP to place kernel images
+in. This is done in order to allow multiple installations of the same OS on the
+same system without conflicts. However, this is problematic if the machine ID
+shall be generated automatically on first boot: if the ID is not known before
+the first boot it cannot be used to name the most basic resources required for
+the boot process to complete.
+
+Thus, for images that shall acquire their identity on first boot only, it is
+required to use a different identifier for naming boot menu entries. To allow
+this the `kernel-install` logic knows the generalized *entry* *token* concept,
+which can be a freely chosen string to use for identifying the boot menu
+resources of the OS. If not configured explicitly it defaults to the machine
+ID. The file `/etc/kernel/entry-token` may be used to configure this string
+explicitly. Thus, golden image builders should write a suitable identifier into
+this file, for example, the `IMAGE_ID=` or `ID=` field from
+[`/etc/os-release`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html)
+(also see below). It is recommended to do this before the `kernel-install`
+functionality is invoked (i.e. before the package manager is used to install
+packages into the OS tree being prepared), so that the selected string is
+automatically used for all entries to be generated.
+
+## Booting with Empty `/var/` and/or Empty Root File System
+
+`systemd` is designed to be able to come up safely and robustly if the `/var/`
+file system or even the entire root file system (with exception of `/usr/`,
+i.e. the vendor OS resources) is empty (i.e. "unpopulated"). With this in mind
+it's relatively easy to build images that only ship a `/usr/` tree, and
+otherwise carry no other data, populating the rest of the directory hierarchy
+on first boot as needed.
+
+Specifically, the following mechanisms are in place:
+
+1. The `switch-root` logic in systemd, that is used to switch from the initrd
+   phase to the host will create the basic OS hierarchy skeleton if missing. It
+   will create a couple of directories strictly necessary to boot up
+   successfully, plus essential symlinks (such as those necessary for the
+   dynamic loader `ld.so` to function).
+
+2. PID 1 will initialize `/etc/machine-id` automatically if not initialized yet
+   (see above).
+
+3. The
+   [`nss-systemd(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/nss-systemd.html)
+   glibc NSS module ensures the `root` and `nobody` users and groups remain
+   resolvable, even without `/etc/passwd` and `/etc/group` around.
+
+4. The
+   [`systemd-sysusers(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-sysusers.service.html)
+   component will automatically populate `/etc/passwd` and `/etc/group` on
+   first boot with further necessary system users.
+
+5. The
+   [`systemd-tmpfiles(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-tmpfiles-setup.service.html)
+   component ensures that various files and directories below `/etc/`, `/var/`
+   and other places are created automatically at boot if missing. Unlike the
+   directories/symlinks created by the `switch-root` logic above this logic is
+   extensible by packages, and can adjust access modes, file ownership and
+   more. Among others this will also link `/etc/os-release` →
+   `/usr/lib/os-release`, ensuring that the OS release information is
+   unconditionally accessible through `/etc/os-release`.
+
+6. The
+   [`nss-myhostname(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/nss-myhostname.html)
+   glibc NSS module will ensure the local host name as well as `localhost`
+   remains resolvable, even without `/etc/hosts` around.
+
+With these mechanisms the hierarchies below `/var/` and `/etc/` can be safely
+and robustly populated on first boot, so that the OS can safely boot up. Note
+that some auxiliary package are not prepared to operate correctly if their
+configuration data in `/etc/` or their state directories in `/var/` are
+missing. This can typically be addressed via `systemd-tmpfiles` lines that
+ensure the missing files and directories are created if missing. In particular,
+configuration files that are necessary for operation can be automatically
+copied or symlinked from the `/usr/share/factory/etc/` tree via the `C` or `L`
+line types. That said, we recommend that all packages safely fall back to
+internal defaults if their configuration is missing, making such additional
+steps unnecessary.
+
+Note that while `systemd` itself explicitly supports booting up with entirely
+unpopulated images (`/usr/` being the only required directory to be populated)
+distributions might not be there yet: depending on your distribution further,
+manual work might be required to make this scenario work.
+
+## Adapting OS Images to Storage
+
+Typically, if an image is `dd`-ed onto a target disk it will be minimal:
+i.e. only consist of necessary vendor data, and lack "payload" data, that shall
+be individual to the system, and dependent on host parameters. On first boot,
+the OS should take possession of the backing storage as necessary, dynamically
+using available space. Specifically:
+
+1. Additional partitions should be created, that make no sense to ship
+   pre-built in the image. For example, `/tmp/` or `/home/` partitions, or even
+   `/var/` or the root file system (see above).
+
+2. Additional partitions should be created that shall function as A/B
+   secondaries for partitions shipped in the original image. In other words: if
+   the `/usr/` file system shall be updated in an A/B fashion it typically
+   makes sense to ship the original A file system in the deployed image, but
+   create the B partition on first boot.
+
+3. Partitions covering only a part of the disk should be grown to the full
+   extent of the disk.
+
+4. File systems in uninitialized partitions should be formatted with a file
+   system of choice.
+
+5. File systems covering only a part of a partition should be grown to the full
+   extent of the partition.
+
+6. Partitions should be encrypted with cryptographic keys generated locally on
+   the machine the system is first booted on, ensuring these keys remain local
+   and are not shared with any other instance of the OS image.
+
+Or any combination of the above: i.e. first create a partition, then encrypt
+it, then format it.
+
+`systemd` provides multiple tools to implement the above logic:
+
+1. The
+   [`systemd-repart(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-repart.service.html)
+   component may manipulate GPT partition tables automatically on boot, growing
+   partitions or adding in partitions taking the backing storage size into
+   account. It can also encrypt partitions automatically it creates (even bind
+   to TPM2, automatically) and populate partitions from various sources. It
+   does this all in a robust fashion so that aborted invocations will not leave
+   incompletely set up partitions around.
+
+2. The
+   [`systemd-growfs@(8).service`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-growfs.html)
+   tool can automatically grow a file system to the partition it is contained
+   in. The `x-systemd.growfs` mount option in `/etc/fstab` is sufficient to
+   enable this logic for specific mounts. Alternatively appropriately set up
+   partitions can set GPT partition flag 59 to request this behaviour, see the
+   [Discoverable Partitions Specification](https://uapi-group.org/specifications/specs/discoverable_partitions_specification)
+   for details. If the file system is already grown it executes no operation.
+
+3. Similar, the `systemd-makefs@.service` and `systemd-makeswap@.service`
+   services can format file systems and swap spaces before first use, if they
+   carry no file system signature yet. The `x-systemd.makefs` mount option in
+   `/etc/fstab` may be used to request this functionality.
+
+## Provisioning Image Settings
+
+While a lot of work has gone into ensuring `systemd` systems can safely boot
+with unpopulated `/etc/` trees, it sometimes is desirable to set a couple of
+basic settings *after* `dd`-ing the image to disk, but *before* first boot. For
+this the tool
+[`systemd-firstboot(1)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-firstboot.html)
+can be useful, with its `--image=` switch. It may be used to set very basic
+settings, such as the root password or hostname on an OS disk image or
+installed block device.
+
+## Distinguishing First Boot
+
+For various purposes it's useful to be able to distinguish the first boot-up of
+the system from later boot-ups (for example, to set up TPM hardware
+specifically, or register a system somewhere). `systemd` provides mechanisms to
+implement that. Specifically, the `ConditionFirstBoot=` and `AssertFirstBoot=`
+settings may be used to conditionalize units to only run on first boot. See
+[`systemd.unit(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd.unit.html#ConditionFirstBoot=)
+for details.
+
+A special target unit `first-boot-complete.target` may be used as milestone to
+safely handle first boots where the system is powered off too early: if the
+first boot process is aborted before this target is reached, the following boot
+process will be considered a first boot, too. Once the target is reached,
+subsequent boots will not be considered first boots anymore, even if the boot
+process is aborted immediately after. Thus, services that must complete fully
+before a system shall be considered fully past the first boot should be ordered
+before this target unit.
+
+Whether a system will come up in first boot state or not is derived from the
+initialization status of `/etc/machine-id`: if the file already carries a valid
+ID the system is already past the first boot. If it is not initialized yet it
+is still considered in the first boot state. For details see
+[`machine-id(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/machine-id.html).
+
+## Image Metadata
+
+Typically, when operating with golden disk images it is useful to be able to
+identify them and their version. For this the two fields `IMAGE_ID=` and
+`IMAGE_VERSION=` have been defined in
+[`os-release(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html). These
+fields may be accessed from unit files and similar via the `%M` and `%A`
+specifiers.
+
+Depending on how the images are put together it might make sense to leave the
+OS distribution's `os-release` file as is in `/usr/lib/os-release` but to
+replace the usual `/etc/os-release` symlink with a regular file that extends
+the distribution's file with one augmented with these two additional
+fields.
+
+## Links
+
+[`machine-id(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/machine-id.html)<br>
+[`systemd-random-seed(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-random-seed.service.html)<br>
+[`os-release(5)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html)<br>
+[Boot Loader Specification](https://uapi-group.org/specifications/specs/boot_loader_specification)<br>
+[Discoverable Partitions Specification](https://uapi-group.org/specifications/specs/discoverable_partitions_specification)<br>
+[`mkosi`](https://github.com/systemd/mkosi)<br>
+[`systemd-boot(7)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-boot.html)<br>
+[`systemd-repart(8)`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-repart.service.html)<br>
+[`systemd-growfs@(8).service`](https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/systemd-growfs.html)<br>