Adding upstream version 255.4.upstream/255.4

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

13 files changed, 8306 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/10-root.conf b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/10-root.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f728ab6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/10-root.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root
+Format=erofs
+CopyFiles=/etc/
+Verity=data
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8179351
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity
+Verity=hash
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df16015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/confext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity-sig
+Verity=signature
+VerityMatchKey=root
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/10-root.conf b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/10-root.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f500d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/10-root.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root
+Format=erofs
+CopyFiles=/
+Verity=data
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8179351
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity
+Verity=hash
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df16015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/portable.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity-sig
+Verity=signature
+VerityMatchKey=root
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/10-root.conf b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/10-root.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8ef985
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/10-root.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root
+Format=erofs
+CopyFiles=/usr/
+CopyFiles=/opt/
+Verity=data
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8179351
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity
+Verity=hash
+VerityMatchKey=root
+Minimize=best
diff --git a/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df16015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/definitions/sysext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+#  SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+#
+#  This file is part of systemd.
+#
+#  systemd is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
+#  under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by
+#  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or
+#  (at your option) any later version.
+
+[Partition]
+Type=root-verity-sig
+Verity=signature
+VerityMatchKey=root
diff --git a/src/partition/growfs.c b/src/partition/growfs.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62f3ee6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/growfs.c
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#include <errno.h>
+#include <fcntl.h>
+#include <getopt.h>
+#include <linux/magic.h>
+#include <sys/ioctl.h>
+#include <sys/mount.h>
+#include <sys/types.h>
+#include <sys/vfs.h>
+/* This needs to be included after sys/mount.h, as since [0] linux/btrfs.h
+ * includes linux/fs.h causing build errors
+ * See: https://github.com/systemd/systemd/issues/8507
+ * [0] https://github.com/torvalds/linux/commit/a28135303a669917002f569aecebd5758263e4aa
+ */
+#include <linux/btrfs.h>
+
+#include "sd-device.h"
+
+#include "blockdev-util.h"
+#include "btrfs-util.h"
+#include "build.h"
+#include "cryptsetup-util.h"
+#include "device-nodes.h"
+#include "device-util.h"
+#include "devnum-util.h"
+#include "dissect-image.h"
+#include "escape.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "format-util.h"
+#include "log.h"
+#include "main-func.h"
+#include "mountpoint-util.h"
+#include "parse-util.h"
+#include "pretty-print.h"
+#include "resize-fs.h"
+
+static const char *arg_target = NULL;
+static bool arg_dry_run = false;
+
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+static int resize_crypt_luks_device(dev_t devno, const char *fstype, dev_t main_devno) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *devpath = NULL, *main_devpath = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(sym_crypt_freep) struct crypt_device *cd = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int main_devfd = -EBADF;
+        uint64_t size;
+        int r;
+
+        r = dlopen_cryptsetup();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Cannot resize LUKS device: %m");
+
+        main_devfd = r = device_open_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, main_devno, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC, &main_devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open main block device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(main_devno));
+
+        if (ioctl(main_devfd, BLKGETSIZE64, &size) != 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to query size of \"%s\" (before resize): %m",
+                                       main_devpath);
+
+        log_debug("%s is %"PRIu64" bytes", main_devpath, size);
+
+        r = devname_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devno, &devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get devpath of " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(devno));
+
+        r = sym_crypt_init(&cd, devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "crypt_init(\"%s\") failed: %m", devpath);
+
+        cryptsetup_enable_logging(cd);
+
+        r = sym_crypt_load(cd, CRYPT_LUKS, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to load LUKS metadata for %s: %m", devpath);
+
+        if (arg_dry_run)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = sym_crypt_resize(cd, main_devpath, 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "crypt_resize() of %s failed: %m", devpath);
+
+        if (ioctl(main_devfd, BLKGETSIZE64, &size) != 0)
+                log_warning_errno(errno, "Failed to query size of \"%s\" (after resize): %m",
+                                  devpath);
+        else
+                log_debug("%s is now %"PRIu64" bytes", main_devpath, size);
+
+        return 1;
+}
+#endif
+
+static int maybe_resize_underlying_device(
+                int mountfd,
+                const char *mountpath,
+                dev_t main_devno) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *devpath = NULL, *fstype = NULL;
+        dev_t devno;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(mountfd >= 0);
+        assert(mountpath);
+
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+        cryptsetup_enable_logging(NULL);
+#endif
+
+        r = get_block_device_harder_fd(mountfd, &devno);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine underlying block device of \"%s\": %m",
+                                       mountpath);
+        if (devno == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENODEV), "File system \"%s\" not backed by block device.", arg_target);
+
+        log_debug("Underlying device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ", main dev " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ", %s",
+                  DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(devno),
+                  DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(main_devno),
+                  devno == main_devno ? "same" : "different");
+        if (devno == main_devno)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = devname_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devno, &devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get devpath for block device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(devno));
+
+        r = probe_filesystem(devpath, &fstype);
+        if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                return log_warning_errno(r, "Cannot reliably determine probe \"%s\", refusing to proceed.", devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to probe \"%s\": %m", devpath);
+
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+        if (streq_ptr(fstype, "crypto_LUKS"))
+                return resize_crypt_luks_device(devno, fstype, main_devno);
+#endif
+
+        log_debug("Don't know how to resize %s of type %s, ignoring.", devpath, strnull(fstype));
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int help(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *link = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = terminal_urlify_man("systemd-growfs@.service", "8", &link);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        printf("%s [OPTIONS...] /path/to/mountpoint\n\n"
+               "Grow filesystem or encrypted payload to device size.\n\n"
+               "Options:\n"
+               "  -h --help          Show this help and exit\n"
+               "     --version       Print version string and exit\n"
+               "  -n --dry-run       Just print what would be done\n"
+               "\nSee the %s for details.\n",
+               program_invocation_short_name,
+               link);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_argv(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        enum {
+                ARG_VERSION = 0x100,
+        };
+
+        int c;
+
+        static const struct option options[] = {
+                { "help",         no_argument,       NULL, 'h'           },
+                { "version" ,     no_argument,       NULL, ARG_VERSION   },
+                { "dry-run",      no_argument,       NULL, 'n'           },
+                {}
+        };
+
+        assert(argc >= 0);
+        assert(argv);
+
+        while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "hn", options, NULL)) >= 0)
+                switch (c) {
+                case 'h':
+                        return help();
+
+                case ARG_VERSION:
+                        return version();
+
+                case 'n':
+                        arg_dry_run = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case '?':
+                        return -EINVAL;
+
+                default:
+                        assert_not_reached();
+                }
+
+        if (optind + 1 != argc)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "%s excepts exactly one argument (the mount point).",
+                                       program_invocation_short_name);
+
+        arg_target = argv[optind];
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int run(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int mountfd = -EBADF, devfd = -EBADF;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *devpath = NULL;
+        uint64_t size, newsize;
+        dev_t devno;
+        int r;
+
+        log_setup();
+
+        r = parse_argv(argc, argv);
+        if (r <= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = path_is_mount_point(arg_target, NULL, 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to check if \"%s\" is a mount point: %m", arg_target);
+        if (r == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "\"%s\" is not a mount point: %m", arg_target);
+
+        mountfd = open(arg_target, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_DIRECTORY);
+        if (mountfd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open \"%s\": %m", arg_target);
+
+        r = get_block_device_fd(mountfd, &devno);
+        if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                return btrfs_log_dev_root(LOG_ERR, r, arg_target);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine block device of \"%s\": %m", arg_target);
+        if (devno == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENODEV), "File system \"%s\" not backed by block device.", arg_target);
+
+        r = maybe_resize_underlying_device(mountfd, arg_target, devno);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_warning_errno(r, "Unable to resize underlying device of \"%s\", proceeding anyway: %m", arg_target);
+
+        devfd = r = device_open_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devno, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC, &devpath);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open block device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(devno));
+
+        if (ioctl(devfd, BLKGETSIZE64, &size) != 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to query size of \"%s\": %m", devpath);
+
+        log_debug("Resizing \"%s\" to %"PRIu64" bytes...", arg_target, size);
+
+        if (arg_dry_run)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = resize_fs(mountfd, size, &newsize);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to resize \"%s\" to %"PRIu64" bytes: %m",
+                                       arg_target, size);
+        if (newsize == size)
+                log_info("Successfully resized \"%s\" to %s bytes.",
+                         arg_target,
+                         FORMAT_BYTES(newsize));
+        else
+                log_info("Successfully resized \"%s\" to %s bytes (%"PRIu64" bytes lost due to blocksize).",
+                         arg_target,
+                         FORMAT_BYTES(newsize),
+                         size - newsize);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_MAIN_FUNCTION(run);
diff --git a/src/partition/makefs.c b/src/partition/makefs.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53439a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/makefs.c
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#include <fcntl.h>
+#include <sys/file.h>
+#include <sys/prctl.h>
+#include <sys/stat.h>
+#include <sys/types.h>
+#include <unistd.h>
+
+#include "alloc-util.h"
+#include "blockdev-util.h"
+#include "dissect-image.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "main-func.h"
+#include "mkfs-util.h"
+#include "path-util.h"
+#include "process-util.h"
+#include "signal-util.h"
+#include "string-util.h"
+
+static int run(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *device = NULL, *fstype = NULL, *detected = NULL, *label = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int lock_fd = -EBADF;
+        sd_id128_t uuid;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        log_setup();
+
+        if (argc != 3)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "This program expects two arguments.");
+
+        /* type and device must be copied because makefs calls safe_fork, which clears argv[] */
+        fstype = strdup(argv[1]);
+        if (!fstype)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        device = strdup(argv[2]);
+        if (!device)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        if (stat(device, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat \"%s\": %m", device);
+
+        if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                /* Lock the device so that udev doesn't interfere with our work */
+
+                lock_fd = lock_whole_block_device(st.st_rdev, LOCK_EX);
+                if (lock_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(lock_fd, "Failed to lock whole block device of \"%s\": %m", device);
+        } else
+                log_debug("%s is not a block device, no need to lock.", device);
+
+        r = probe_filesystem(device, &detected);
+        if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Ambiguous results of probing for file system on \"%s\", refusing to proceed.", device);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to probe \"%s\": %m", device);
+        if (detected) {
+                log_info("'%s' is not empty (contains file system of type %s), exiting.", device, detected);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = sd_id128_randomize(&uuid);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate UUID for file system: %m");
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(device, &label);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract file name from '%s': %m", device);
+
+        return make_filesystem(device,
+                               fstype,
+                               label,
+                               /* root = */ NULL,
+                               uuid,
+                               /* discard = */ true,
+                               /* quiet = */ true,
+                               /* sector_size = */ 0,
+                               /* extra_mkfs_options = */ NULL);
+}
+
+DEFINE_MAIN_FUNCTION(run);
diff --git a/src/partition/meson.build b/src/partition/meson.build
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78cde2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/meson.build
@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later
+
+executables += [
+        libexec_template + {
+                'name' : 'systemd-growfs',
+                'sources' : files('growfs.c'),
+        },
+        libexec_template + {
+                'name' : 'systemd-makefs',
+                'sources' : files('makefs.c'),
+        },
+        executable_template + {
+                'name' : 'systemd-repart',
+                'public' : true,
+                'conditions' : ['ENABLE_REPART'],
+                'sources' : files('repart.c'),
+                'link_with' : [
+                        libshared,
+                        libshared_fdisk,
+                ],
+                'dependencies' : [
+                        libblkid,
+                        libfdisk,
+                        libopenssl,
+                        threads,
+                ],
+        },
+        executable_template + {
+                'name' : 'systemd-repart.standalone',
+                'public' : have_standalone_binaries,
+                'conditions' : ['ENABLE_REPART'],
+                'sources' : files('repart.c'),
+                'c_args' : '-DSTANDALONE',
+                'link_with' : [
+                        libbasic,
+                        libbasic_gcrypt,
+                        libshared_fdisk,
+                        libshared_static,
+                        libsystemd_static,
+                ],
+                'dependencies' : [
+                        libblkid,
+                        libfdisk,
+                        libopenssl,
+                        threads,
+                ],
+                'build_by_default' : have_standalone_binaries,
+                'install' : have_standalone_binaries,
+        },
+]
+
+if conf.get('ENABLE_REPART') == 1
+        install_data('definitions/confext.repart.d/10-root.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'confext.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/confext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'confext.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/confext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'confext.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/portable.repart.d/10-root.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'portable.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/portable.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'portable.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/portable.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'portable.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/sysext.repart.d/10-root.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'sysext.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/sysext.repart.d/20-root-verity.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'sysext.repart.d')
+        install_data('definitions/sysext.repart.d/30-root-verity-sig.conf', install_dir : repartdefinitionsdir / 'sysext.repart.d')
+endif
diff --git a/src/partition/repart.c b/src/partition/repart.c
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5487aaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/partition/repart.c
@@ -0,0 +1,7753 @@
+/* SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-or-later */
+
+#if HAVE_VALGRIND_MEMCHECK_H
+#include <valgrind/memcheck.h>
+#endif
+
+#include <fcntl.h>
+#include <getopt.h>
+#include <linux/fs.h>
+#include <linux/loop.h>
+#include <sys/file.h>
+#include <sys/ioctl.h>
+#include <sys/stat.h>
+
+#include "sd-device.h"
+#include "sd-id128.h"
+
+#include "alloc-util.h"
+#include "blkid-util.h"
+#include "blockdev-util.h"
+#include "btrfs-util.h"
+#include "build.h"
+#include "chase.h"
+#include "conf-files.h"
+#include "conf-parser.h"
+#include "constants.h"
+#include "cryptsetup-util.h"
+#include "device-util.h"
+#include "devnum-util.h"
+#include "dirent-util.h"
+#include "efivars.h"
+#include "errno-util.h"
+#include "fd-util.h"
+#include "fdisk-util.h"
+#include "fileio.h"
+#include "format-table.h"
+#include "format-util.h"
+#include "fs-util.h"
+#include "glyph-util.h"
+#include "gpt.h"
+#include "hexdecoct.h"
+#include "hmac.h"
+#include "id128-util.h"
+#include "initrd-util.h"
+#include "io-util.h"
+#include "json.h"
+#include "list.h"
+#include "loop-util.h"
+#include "main-func.h"
+#include "mkdir.h"
+#include "mkfs-util.h"
+#include "mount-util.h"
+#include "mountpoint-util.h"
+#include "nulstr-util.h"
+#include "openssl-util.h"
+#include "parse-argument.h"
+#include "parse-helpers.h"
+#include "pretty-print.h"
+#include "proc-cmdline.h"
+#include "process-util.h"
+#include "random-util.h"
+#include "resize-fs.h"
+#include "rm-rf.h"
+#include "sort-util.h"
+#include "specifier.h"
+#include "stdio-util.h"
+#include "string-table.h"
+#include "string-util.h"
+#include "strv.h"
+#include "sync-util.h"
+#include "terminal-util.h"
+#include "tmpfile-util.h"
+#include "tpm2-pcr.h"
+#include "tpm2-util.h"
+#include "user-util.h"
+#include "utf8.h"
+
+/* If not configured otherwise use a minimal partition size of 10M */
+#define DEFAULT_MIN_SIZE (10ULL*1024ULL*1024ULL)
+
+/* Hard lower limit for new partition sizes */
+#define HARD_MIN_SIZE 4096ULL
+
+/* We know up front we're never going to put more than this in a verity sig partition. */
+#define VERITY_SIG_SIZE (HARD_MIN_SIZE*4ULL)
+
+/* libfdisk takes off slightly more than 1M of the disk size when creating a GPT disk label */
+#define GPT_METADATA_SIZE (1044ULL*1024ULL)
+
+/* LUKS2 takes off 16M of the partition size with its metadata by default */
+#define LUKS2_METADATA_SIZE (16ULL*1024ULL*1024ULL)
+
+/* To do LUKS2 offline encryption, we need to keep some extra free space at the end of the partition. */
+#define LUKS2_METADATA_KEEP_FREE (LUKS2_METADATA_SIZE*2ULL)
+
+/* LUKS2 volume key size. */
+#define VOLUME_KEY_SIZE (512ULL/8ULL)
+
+/* Use 4K as the default filesystem sector size because as long as the partitions are aligned to 4K, the
+ * filesystems will then also be compatible with sector sizes 512, 1024 and 2048. */
+#define DEFAULT_FILESYSTEM_SECTOR_SIZE 4096ULL
+
+#define APIVFS_TMP_DIRS_NULSTR "proc\0sys\0dev\0tmp\0run\0var/tmp\0"
+
+/* Note: When growing and placing new partitions we always align to 4K sector size. It's how newer hard disks
+ * are designed, and if everything is aligned to that performance is best. And for older hard disks with 512B
+ * sector size devices were generally assumed to have an even number of sectors, hence at the worst we'll
+ * waste 3K per partition, which is probably fine. */
+
+typedef enum EmptyMode {
+        EMPTY_UNSET,    /* no choice has been made yet */
+        EMPTY_REFUSE,   /* refuse empty disks, never create a partition table */
+        EMPTY_ALLOW,    /* allow empty disks, create partition table if necessary */
+        EMPTY_REQUIRE,  /* require an empty disk, create a partition table */
+        EMPTY_FORCE,    /* make disk empty, erase everything, create a partition table always */
+        EMPTY_CREATE,   /* create disk as loopback file, create a partition table always */
+        _EMPTY_MODE_MAX,
+        _EMPTY_MODE_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} EmptyMode;
+
+typedef enum FilterPartitionType {
+        FILTER_PARTITIONS_NONE,
+        FILTER_PARTITIONS_EXCLUDE,
+        FILTER_PARTITIONS_INCLUDE,
+        _FILTER_PARTITIONS_MAX,
+        _FILTER_PARTITIONS_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} FilterPartitionsType;
+
+static EmptyMode arg_empty = EMPTY_UNSET;
+static bool arg_dry_run = true;
+static const char *arg_node = NULL;
+static char *arg_root = NULL;
+static char *arg_image = NULL;
+static char **arg_definitions = NULL;
+static bool arg_discard = true;
+static bool arg_can_factory_reset = false;
+static int arg_factory_reset = -1;
+static sd_id128_t arg_seed = SD_ID128_NULL;
+static bool arg_randomize = false;
+static int arg_pretty = -1;
+static uint64_t arg_size = UINT64_MAX;
+static bool arg_size_auto = false;
+static JsonFormatFlags arg_json_format_flags = JSON_FORMAT_OFF;
+static PagerFlags arg_pager_flags = 0;
+static bool arg_legend = true;
+static void *arg_key = NULL;
+static size_t arg_key_size = 0;
+static EVP_PKEY *arg_private_key = NULL;
+static X509 *arg_certificate = NULL;
+static char *arg_tpm2_device = NULL;
+static uint32_t arg_tpm2_seal_key_handle = 0;
+static char *arg_tpm2_device_key = NULL;
+static Tpm2PCRValue *arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values = NULL;
+static size_t arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values = 0;
+static char *arg_tpm2_public_key = NULL;
+static uint32_t arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask = 0;
+static char *arg_tpm2_pcrlock = NULL;
+static bool arg_split = false;
+static GptPartitionType *arg_filter_partitions = NULL;
+static size_t arg_n_filter_partitions = 0;
+static FilterPartitionsType arg_filter_partitions_type = FILTER_PARTITIONS_NONE;
+static GptPartitionType *arg_defer_partitions = NULL;
+static size_t arg_n_defer_partitions = 0;
+static uint64_t arg_sector_size = 0;
+static ImagePolicy *arg_image_policy = NULL;
+static Architecture arg_architecture = _ARCHITECTURE_INVALID;
+static int arg_offline = -1;
+static char **arg_copy_from = NULL;
+static char *arg_copy_source = NULL;
+static char *arg_make_ddi = NULL;
+
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_root, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_image, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_definitions, strv_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_key, erase_and_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_private_key, EVP_PKEY_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_certificate, X509_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_tpm2_device, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_tpm2_device_key, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_tpm2_public_key, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_tpm2_pcrlock, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_filter_partitions, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_image_policy, image_policy_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_copy_from, strv_freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_copy_source, freep);
+STATIC_DESTRUCTOR_REGISTER(arg_make_ddi, freep);
+
+typedef struct FreeArea FreeArea;
+
+typedef enum EncryptMode {
+        ENCRYPT_OFF,
+        ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE,
+        ENCRYPT_TPM2,
+        ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE_TPM2,
+        _ENCRYPT_MODE_MAX,
+        _ENCRYPT_MODE_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} EncryptMode;
+
+typedef enum VerityMode {
+        VERITY_OFF,
+        VERITY_DATA,
+        VERITY_HASH,
+        VERITY_SIG,
+        _VERITY_MODE_MAX,
+        _VERITY_MODE_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} VerityMode;
+
+typedef enum MinimizeMode {
+        MINIMIZE_OFF,
+        MINIMIZE_BEST,
+        MINIMIZE_GUESS,
+        _MINIMIZE_MODE_MAX,
+        _MINIMIZE_MODE_INVALID = -EINVAL,
+} MinimizeMode;
+
+typedef struct Partition {
+        char *definition_path;
+        char **drop_in_files;
+
+        GptPartitionType type;
+        sd_id128_t current_uuid, new_uuid;
+        bool new_uuid_is_set;
+        char *current_label, *new_label;
+        sd_id128_t fs_uuid, luks_uuid, verity_uuid;
+        uint8_t verity_salt[SHA256_DIGEST_SIZE];
+
+        bool dropped;
+        bool factory_reset;
+        int32_t priority;
+
+        uint32_t weight, padding_weight;
+
+        uint64_t current_size, new_size;
+        uint64_t size_min, size_max;
+
+        uint64_t current_padding, new_padding;
+        uint64_t padding_min, padding_max;
+
+        uint64_t partno;
+        uint64_t offset;
+
+        struct fdisk_partition *current_partition;
+        struct fdisk_partition *new_partition;
+        FreeArea *padding_area;
+        FreeArea *allocated_to_area;
+
+        char *copy_blocks_path;
+        bool copy_blocks_path_is_our_file;
+        bool copy_blocks_auto;
+        const char *copy_blocks_root;
+        int copy_blocks_fd;
+        uint64_t copy_blocks_offset;
+        uint64_t copy_blocks_size;
+
+        char *format;
+        char **copy_files;
+        char **exclude_files_source;
+        char **exclude_files_target;
+        char **make_directories;
+        char **subvolumes;
+        EncryptMode encrypt;
+        VerityMode verity;
+        char *verity_match_key;
+        MinimizeMode minimize;
+        uint64_t verity_data_block_size;
+        uint64_t verity_hash_block_size;
+
+        uint64_t gpt_flags;
+        int no_auto;
+        int read_only;
+        int growfs;
+
+        struct iovec roothash;
+
+        char *split_name_format;
+        char *split_path;
+
+        struct Partition *siblings[_VERITY_MODE_MAX];
+
+        LIST_FIELDS(struct Partition, partitions);
+} Partition;
+
+#define PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p) (!(p)->definition_path)
+#define PARTITION_EXISTS(p) (!!(p)->current_partition)
+
+struct FreeArea {
+        Partition *after;
+        uint64_t size;
+        uint64_t allocated;
+};
+
+typedef struct Context {
+        LIST_HEAD(Partition, partitions);
+        size_t n_partitions;
+
+        FreeArea **free_areas;
+        size_t n_free_areas;
+
+        uint64_t start, end, total;
+
+        struct fdisk_context *fdisk_context;
+        uint64_t sector_size, grain_size, fs_sector_size;
+
+        sd_id128_t seed;
+
+        char *node;
+        bool node_is_our_file;
+        int backing_fd;
+
+        bool from_scratch;
+} Context;
+
+static const char *empty_mode_table[_EMPTY_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [EMPTY_UNSET]   = "unset",
+        [EMPTY_REFUSE]  = "refuse",
+        [EMPTY_ALLOW]   = "allow",
+        [EMPTY_REQUIRE] = "require",
+        [EMPTY_FORCE]   = "force",
+        [EMPTY_CREATE]  = "create",
+};
+
+static const char *encrypt_mode_table[_ENCRYPT_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [ENCRYPT_OFF] = "off",
+        [ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE] = "key-file",
+        [ENCRYPT_TPM2] = "tpm2",
+        [ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE_TPM2] = "key-file+tpm2",
+};
+
+static const char *verity_mode_table[_VERITY_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [VERITY_OFF]  = "off",
+        [VERITY_DATA] = "data",
+        [VERITY_HASH] = "hash",
+        [VERITY_SIG]  = "signature",
+};
+
+static const char *minimize_mode_table[_MINIMIZE_MODE_MAX] = {
+        [MINIMIZE_OFF]   = "off",
+        [MINIMIZE_BEST]  = "best",
+        [MINIMIZE_GUESS] = "guess",
+};
+
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP(empty_mode, EmptyMode);
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP_FROM_STRING_WITH_BOOLEAN(encrypt_mode, EncryptMode, ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE);
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP(verity_mode, VerityMode);
+DEFINE_PRIVATE_STRING_TABLE_LOOKUP_FROM_STRING_WITH_BOOLEAN(minimize_mode, MinimizeMode, MINIMIZE_BEST);
+
+static uint64_t round_down_size(uint64_t v, uint64_t p) {
+        return (v / p) * p;
+}
+
+static uint64_t round_up_size(uint64_t v, uint64_t p) {
+
+        v = DIV_ROUND_UP(v, p);
+
+        if (v > UINT64_MAX / p)
+                return UINT64_MAX; /* overflow */
+
+        return v * p;
+}
+
+static Partition *partition_new(void) {
+        Partition *p;
+
+        p = new(Partition, 1);
+        if (!p)
+                return NULL;
+
+        *p = (Partition) {
+                .weight = 1000,
+                .padding_weight = 0,
+                .current_size = UINT64_MAX,
+                .new_size = UINT64_MAX,
+                .size_min = UINT64_MAX,
+                .size_max = UINT64_MAX,
+                .current_padding = UINT64_MAX,
+                .new_padding = UINT64_MAX,
+                .padding_min = UINT64_MAX,
+                .padding_max = UINT64_MAX,
+                .partno = UINT64_MAX,
+                .offset = UINT64_MAX,
+                .copy_blocks_fd = -EBADF,
+                .copy_blocks_offset = UINT64_MAX,
+                .copy_blocks_size = UINT64_MAX,
+                .no_auto = -1,
+                .read_only = -1,
+                .growfs = -1,
+                .verity_data_block_size = UINT64_MAX,
+                .verity_hash_block_size = UINT64_MAX,
+        };
+
+        return p;
+}
+
+static Partition* partition_free(Partition *p) {
+        if (!p)
+                return NULL;
+
+        free(p->current_label);
+        free(p->new_label);
+        free(p->definition_path);
+        strv_free(p->drop_in_files);
+
+        if (p->current_partition)
+                fdisk_unref_partition(p->current_partition);
+        if (p->new_partition)
+                fdisk_unref_partition(p->new_partition);
+
+        if (p->copy_blocks_path_is_our_file)
+                unlink_and_free(p->copy_blocks_path);
+        else
+                free(p->copy_blocks_path);
+        safe_close(p->copy_blocks_fd);
+
+        free(p->format);
+        strv_free(p->copy_files);
+        strv_free(p->exclude_files_source);
+        strv_free(p->exclude_files_target);
+        strv_free(p->make_directories);
+        strv_free(p->subvolumes);
+        free(p->verity_match_key);
+
+        iovec_done(&p->roothash);
+
+        free(p->split_name_format);
+        unlink_and_free(p->split_path);
+
+        return mfree(p);
+}
+
+static void partition_foreignize(Partition *p) {
+        assert(p);
+        assert(PARTITION_EXISTS(p));
+
+        /* Reset several parameters set through definition file to make the partition foreign. */
+
+        p->definition_path = mfree(p->definition_path);
+        p->drop_in_files = strv_free(p->drop_in_files);
+
+        p->copy_blocks_path = mfree(p->copy_blocks_path);
+        p->copy_blocks_fd = safe_close(p->copy_blocks_fd);
+        p->copy_blocks_root = NULL;
+
+        p->format = mfree(p->format);
+        p->copy_files = strv_free(p->copy_files);
+        p->exclude_files_source = strv_free(p->exclude_files_source);
+        p->exclude_files_target = strv_free(p->exclude_files_target);
+        p->make_directories = strv_free(p->make_directories);
+        p->subvolumes = strv_free(p->subvolumes);
+        p->verity_match_key = mfree(p->verity_match_key);
+
+        p->priority = 0;
+        p->weight = 1000;
+        p->padding_weight = 0;
+        p->size_min = UINT64_MAX;
+        p->size_max = UINT64_MAX;
+        p->padding_min = UINT64_MAX;
+        p->padding_max = UINT64_MAX;
+        p->no_auto = -1;
+        p->read_only = -1;
+        p->growfs = -1;
+        p->verity = VERITY_OFF;
+}
+
+static bool partition_type_exclude(const GptPartitionType *type) {
+        if (arg_filter_partitions_type == FILTER_PARTITIONS_NONE)
+                return false;
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < arg_n_filter_partitions; i++)
+                if (sd_id128_equal(type->uuid, arg_filter_partitions[i].uuid))
+                        return arg_filter_partitions_type == FILTER_PARTITIONS_EXCLUDE;
+
+        return arg_filter_partitions_type == FILTER_PARTITIONS_INCLUDE;
+}
+
+static bool partition_type_defer(const GptPartitionType *type) {
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < arg_n_defer_partitions; i++)
+                if (sd_id128_equal(type->uuid, arg_defer_partitions[i].uuid))
+                        return true;
+
+        return false;
+}
+
+static Partition* partition_unlink_and_free(Context *context, Partition *p) {
+        if (!p)
+                return NULL;
+
+        LIST_REMOVE(partitions, context->partitions, p);
+
+        assert(context->n_partitions > 0);
+        context->n_partitions--;
+
+        return partition_free(p);
+}
+
+DEFINE_TRIVIAL_CLEANUP_FUNC(Partition*, partition_free);
+
+static Context *context_new(sd_id128_t seed) {
+        Context *context;
+
+        context = new(Context, 1);
+        if (!context)
+                return NULL;
+
+        *context = (Context) {
+                .start = UINT64_MAX,
+                .end = UINT64_MAX,
+                .total = UINT64_MAX,
+                .seed = seed,
+        };
+
+        return context;
+}
+
+static void context_free_free_areas(Context *context) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++)
+                free(context->free_areas[i]);
+
+        context->free_areas = mfree(context->free_areas);
+        context->n_free_areas = 0;
+}
+
+static Context *context_free(Context *context) {
+        if (!context)
+                return NULL;
+
+        while (context->partitions)
+                partition_unlink_and_free(context, context->partitions);
+        assert(context->n_partitions == 0);
+
+        context_free_free_areas(context);
+
+        if (context->fdisk_context)
+                fdisk_unref_context(context->fdisk_context);
+
+        safe_close(context->backing_fd);
+        if (context->node_is_our_file)
+                unlink_and_free(context->node);
+        else
+                free(context->node);
+
+        return mfree(context);
+}
+
+DEFINE_TRIVIAL_CLEANUP_FUNC(Context*, context_free);
+
+static int context_add_free_area(
+                Context *context,
+                uint64_t size,
+                Partition *after) {
+
+        FreeArea *a;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(!after || !after->padding_area);
+
+        if (!GREEDY_REALLOC(context->free_areas, context->n_free_areas + 1))
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        a = new(FreeArea, 1);
+        if (!a)
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        *a = (FreeArea) {
+                .size = size,
+                .after = after,
+        };
+
+        context->free_areas[context->n_free_areas++] = a;
+
+        if (after)
+                after->padding_area = a;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static void partition_drop_or_foreignize(Partition *p) {
+        if (!p || p->dropped || PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p))
+                return;
+
+        if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) {
+                log_info("Can't grow existing partition %s of priority %" PRIi32 ", ignoring.",
+                         strna(p->current_label ?: p->new_label), p->priority);
+
+                /* Handle the partition as foreign. Do not set dropped flag. */
+                partition_foreignize(p);
+        } else {
+                log_info("Can't fit partition %s of priority %" PRIi32 ", dropping.",
+                         p->definition_path, p->priority);
+
+                p->dropped = true;
+                p->allocated_to_area = NULL;
+        }
+}
+
+static bool context_drop_or_foreignize_one_priority(Context *context) {
+        int32_t priority = 0;
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                priority = MAX(priority, p->priority);
+        }
+
+        /* Refuse to drop partitions with 0 or negative priorities or partitions of priorities that have at
+         * least one existing priority */
+        if (priority <= 0)
+                return false;
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->priority < priority)
+                        continue;
+
+                partition_drop_or_foreignize(p);
+
+                /* We ensure that all verity sibling partitions have the same priority, so it's safe
+                 * to drop all siblings here as well. */
+
+                for (VerityMode mode = VERITY_OFF + 1; mode < _VERITY_MODE_MAX; mode++)
+                        partition_drop_or_foreignize(p->siblings[mode]);
+        }
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_min_size(const Context *context, const Partition *p) {
+        uint64_t sz;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+
+        /* Calculate the disk space we really need at minimum for this partition. If the partition already
+         * exists the current size is what we really need. If it doesn't exist yet refuse to allocate less
+         * than 4K.
+         *
+         * DEFAULT_MIN_SIZE is the default SizeMin= we configure if nothing else is specified. */
+
+        if (PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)) {
+                /* Don't allow changing size of partitions not managed by us */
+                assert(p->current_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                return p->current_size;
+        }
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_SIG)
+                return VERITY_SIG_SIZE;
+
+        sz = p->current_size != UINT64_MAX ? p->current_size : HARD_MIN_SIZE;
+
+        if (!PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) {
+                uint64_t d = 0;
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF)
+                        d += round_up_size(LUKS2_METADATA_KEEP_FREE, context->grain_size);
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_size != UINT64_MAX)
+                        d += round_up_size(p->copy_blocks_size, context->grain_size);
+                else if (p->format || p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF) {
+                        uint64_t f;
+
+                        /* If we shall synthesize a file system, take minimal fs size into account (assumed to be 4K if not known) */
+                        f = p->format ? round_up_size(minimal_size_by_fs_name(p->format), context->grain_size) : UINT64_MAX;
+                        d += f == UINT64_MAX ? context->grain_size : f;
+                }
+
+                if (d > sz)
+                        sz = d;
+        }
+
+        return MAX(round_up_size(p->size_min != UINT64_MAX ? p->size_min : DEFAULT_MIN_SIZE, context->grain_size), sz);
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_max_size(const Context *context, const Partition *p) {
+        uint64_t sm;
+
+        /* Calculate how large the partition may become at max. This is generally the configured maximum
+         * size, except when it already exists and is larger than that. In that case it's the existing size,
+         * since we never want to shrink partitions. */
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+
+        if (PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)) {
+                /* Don't allow changing size of partitions not managed by us */
+                assert(p->current_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                return p->current_size;
+        }
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_SIG)
+                return VERITY_SIG_SIZE;
+
+        if (p->size_max == UINT64_MAX)
+                return UINT64_MAX;
+
+        sm = round_down_size(p->size_max, context->grain_size);
+
+        if (p->current_size != UINT64_MAX)
+                sm = MAX(p->current_size, sm);
+
+        return MAX(partition_min_size(context, p), sm);
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_min_padding(const Partition *p) {
+        assert(p);
+        return p->padding_min != UINT64_MAX ? p->padding_min : 0;
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_max_padding(const Partition *p) {
+        assert(p);
+        return p->padding_max;
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_min_size_with_padding(Context *context, const Partition *p) {
+        uint64_t sz;
+
+        /* Calculate the disk space we need for this partition plus any free space coming after it. This
+         * takes user configured padding into account as well as any additional whitespace needed to align
+         * the next partition to 4K again. */
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+
+        sz = partition_min_size(context, p) + partition_min_padding(p);
+
+        if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) {
+                /* If the partition wasn't aligned, add extra space so that any we might add will be aligned */
+                assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                return round_up_size(p->offset + sz, context->grain_size) - p->offset;
+        }
+
+        /* If this is a new partition we'll place it aligned, hence we just need to round up the required size here */
+        return round_up_size(sz, context->grain_size);
+}
+
+static uint64_t free_area_available(const FreeArea *a) {
+        assert(a);
+
+        /* Determines how much of this free area is not allocated yet */
+
+        assert(a->size >= a->allocated);
+        return a->size - a->allocated;
+}
+
+static uint64_t free_area_current_end(Context *context, const FreeArea *a) {
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+
+        if (!a->after)
+                return free_area_available(a);
+
+        assert(a->after->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(a->after->current_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        /* Calculate where the free area ends, based on the offset of the partition preceding it. */
+        return round_up_size(a->after->offset + a->after->current_size, context->grain_size) + free_area_available(a);
+}
+
+static uint64_t free_area_min_end(Context *context, const FreeArea *a) {
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+
+        if (!a->after)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert(a->after->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(a->after->current_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        /* Calculate where the partition would end when we give it as much as it needs. */
+        return round_up_size(a->after->offset + partition_min_size_with_padding(context, a->after), context->grain_size);
+}
+
+static uint64_t free_area_available_for_new_partitions(Context *context, const FreeArea *a) {
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+
+        /* Similar to free_area_available(), but takes into account that the required size and padding of the
+         * preceding partition is honoured. */
+
+        return LESS_BY(free_area_current_end(context, a), free_area_min_end(context, a));
+}
+
+static int free_area_compare(FreeArea *const *a, FreeArea *const*b, Context *context) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        return CMP(free_area_available_for_new_partitions(context, *a),
+                   free_area_available_for_new_partitions(context, *b));
+}
+
+static uint64_t charge_size(Context *context, uint64_t total, uint64_t amount) {
+        assert(context);
+        /* Subtract the specified amount from total, rounding up to multiple of 4K if there's room */
+        assert(amount <= total);
+        return LESS_BY(total, round_up_size(amount, context->grain_size));
+}
+
+static uint64_t charge_weight(uint64_t total, uint64_t amount) {
+        assert(amount <= total);
+        return total - amount;
+}
+
+static bool context_allocate_partitions(Context *context, uint64_t *ret_largest_free_area) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        /* This may be called multiple times. Reset previous assignments. */
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++)
+                context->free_areas[i]->allocated = 0;
+
+        /* Sort free areas by size, putting smallest first */
+        typesafe_qsort_r(context->free_areas, context->n_free_areas, free_area_compare, context);
+
+        /* In any case return size of the largest free area (i.e. not the size of all free areas
+         * combined!) */
+        if (ret_largest_free_area)
+                *ret_largest_free_area =
+                        context->n_free_areas == 0 ? 0 :
+                        free_area_available_for_new_partitions(context, context->free_areas[context->n_free_areas-1]);
+
+        /* Check that each existing partition can fit its area. */
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++)
+                if (free_area_current_end(context, context->free_areas[i]) <
+                    free_area_min_end(context, context->free_areas[i]))
+                        return false;
+
+        /* A simple first-fit algorithm. We return true if we can fit the partitions in, otherwise false. */
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                bool fits = false;
+                uint64_t required;
+                FreeArea *a = NULL;
+
+                /* Skip partitions we already dropped or that already exist */
+                if (p->dropped || PARTITION_EXISTS(p))
+                        continue;
+
+                /* How much do we need to fit? */
+                required = partition_min_size_with_padding(context, p);
+                assert(required % context->grain_size == 0);
+
+                for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++) {
+                        a = context->free_areas[i];
+
+                        if (free_area_available_for_new_partitions(context, a) >= required) {
+                                fits = true;
+                                break;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                if (!fits)
+                        return false; /* 😢 Oh no! We can't fit this partition into any free area! */
+
+                /* Assign the partition to this free area */
+                p->allocated_to_area = a;
+
+                /* Budget the minimal partition size */
+                a->allocated += required;
+        }
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static int context_sum_weights(Context *context, FreeArea *a, uint64_t *ret) {
+        uint64_t weight_sum = 0;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        /* Determine the sum of the weights of all partitions placed in or before the specified free area */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->padding_area != a && p->allocated_to_area != a)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->weight > UINT64_MAX - weight_sum)
+                        goto overflow_sum;
+                weight_sum += p->weight;
+
+                if (p->padding_weight > UINT64_MAX - weight_sum)
+                        goto overflow_sum;
+                weight_sum += p->padding_weight;
+        }
+
+        *ret = weight_sum;
+        return 0;
+
+overflow_sum:
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOVERFLOW), "Combined weight of partition exceeds unsigned 64-bit range, refusing.");
+}
+
+static uint64_t scale_by_weight(uint64_t value, uint64_t weight, uint64_t weight_sum) {
+        assert(weight_sum >= weight);
+
+        for (;;) {
+                if (weight == 0)
+                        return 0;
+                if (weight == weight_sum)
+                        return value;
+                if (value <= UINT64_MAX / weight)
+                        return value * weight / weight_sum;
+
+                /* Rescale weight and weight_sum to make not the calculation overflow. To satisfy the
+                 * following conditions, 'weight_sum' is rounded up but 'weight' is rounded down:
+                 * - the sum of scale_by_weight() for all weights must not be larger than the input value,
+                 * - scale_by_weight() must not be larger than the ideal value (i.e. calculated with uint128_t). */
+                weight_sum = DIV_ROUND_UP(weight_sum, 2);
+                weight /= 2;
+        }
+}
+
+typedef enum GrowPartitionPhase {
+        /* The zeroth phase: do not touch foreign partitions (i.e. those we don't manage). */
+        PHASE_FOREIGN,
+
+        /* The first phase: we charge partitions which need more (according to constraints) than their weight-based share. */
+        PHASE_OVERCHARGE,
+
+        /* The second phase: we charge partitions which need less (according to constraints) than their weight-based share. */
+        PHASE_UNDERCHARGE,
+
+        /* The third phase: we distribute what remains among the remaining partitions, according to the weights */
+        PHASE_DISTRIBUTE,
+
+        _GROW_PARTITION_PHASE_MAX,
+} GrowPartitionPhase;
+
+static bool context_grow_partitions_phase(
+                Context *context,
+                FreeArea *a,
+                GrowPartitionPhase phase,
+                uint64_t *span,
+                uint64_t *weight_sum) {
+
+        bool try_again = false;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+        assert(span);
+        assert(weight_sum);
+
+        /* Now let's look at the intended weights and adjust them taking the minimum space assignments into
+         * account. i.e. if a partition has a small weight but a high minimum space value set it should not
+         * get any additional room from the left-overs. Similar, if two partitions have the same weight they
+         * should get the same space if possible, even if one has a smaller minimum size than the other. */
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+
+                /* Look only at partitions associated with this free area, i.e. immediately
+                 * preceding it, or allocated into it */
+                if (p->allocated_to_area != a && p->padding_area != a)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->new_size == UINT64_MAX) {
+                        uint64_t share, rsz, xsz;
+                        bool charge = false;
+
+                        /* Calculate how much this space this partition needs if everyone would get
+                         * the weight based share */
+                        share = scale_by_weight(*span, p->weight, *weight_sum);
+
+                        rsz = partition_min_size(context, p);
+                        xsz = partition_max_size(context, p);
+
+                        if (phase == PHASE_FOREIGN && PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)) {
+                                /* Never change of foreign partitions (i.e. those we don't manage) */
+
+                                p->new_size = p->current_size;
+                                charge = true;
+
+                        } else if (phase == PHASE_OVERCHARGE && rsz > share) {
+                                /* This partition needs more than its calculated share. Let's assign
+                                 * it that, and take this partition out of all calculations and start
+                                 * again. */
+
+                                p->new_size = rsz;
+                                charge = try_again = true;
+
+                        } else if (phase == PHASE_UNDERCHARGE && xsz < share) {
+                                /* This partition accepts less than its calculated
+                                 * share. Let's assign it that, and take this partition out
+                                 * of all calculations and start again. */
+
+                                p->new_size = xsz;
+                                charge = try_again = true;
+
+                        } else if (phase == PHASE_DISTRIBUTE) {
+                                /* This partition can accept its calculated share. Let's
+                                 * assign it. There's no need to restart things here since
+                                 * assigning this shouldn't impact the shares of the other
+                                 * partitions. */
+
+                                assert(share >= rsz);
+                                p->new_size = CLAMP(round_down_size(share, context->grain_size), rsz, xsz);
+                                charge = true;
+                        }
+
+                        if (charge) {
+                                *span = charge_size(context, *span, p->new_size);
+                                *weight_sum = charge_weight(*weight_sum, p->weight);
+                        }
+                }
+
+                if (p->new_padding == UINT64_MAX) {
+                        uint64_t share, rsz, xsz;
+                        bool charge = false;
+
+                        share = scale_by_weight(*span, p->padding_weight, *weight_sum);
+
+                        rsz = partition_min_padding(p);
+                        xsz = partition_max_padding(p);
+
+                        if (phase == PHASE_OVERCHARGE && rsz > share) {
+                                p->new_padding = rsz;
+                                charge = try_again = true;
+                        } else if (phase == PHASE_UNDERCHARGE && xsz < share) {
+                                p->new_padding = xsz;
+                                charge = try_again = true;
+                        } else if (phase == PHASE_DISTRIBUTE) {
+                                assert(share >= rsz);
+                                p->new_padding = CLAMP(round_down_size(share, context->grain_size), rsz, xsz);
+                                charge = true;
+                        }
+
+                        if (charge) {
+                                *span = charge_size(context, *span, p->new_padding);
+                                *weight_sum = charge_weight(*weight_sum, p->padding_weight);
+                        }
+                }
+        }
+
+        return !try_again;
+}
+
+static void context_grow_partition_one(Context *context, FreeArea *a, Partition *p, uint64_t *span) {
+        uint64_t m;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(span);
+
+        if (*span == 0)
+                return;
+
+        if (p->allocated_to_area != a)
+                return;
+
+        if (PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p))
+                return;
+
+        assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        /* Calculate new size and align. */
+        m = round_down_size(p->new_size + *span, context->grain_size);
+        /* But ensure this doesn't shrink the size. */
+        m = MAX(m, p->new_size);
+        /* And ensure this doesn't exceed the maximum size. */
+        m = MIN(m, partition_max_size(context, p));
+
+        assert(m >= p->new_size);
+
+        *span = charge_size(context, *span, m - p->new_size);
+        p->new_size = m;
+}
+
+static int context_grow_partitions_on_free_area(Context *context, FreeArea *a) {
+        uint64_t weight_sum = 0, span;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(a);
+
+        r = context_sum_weights(context, a, &weight_sum);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Let's calculate the total area covered by this free area and the partition before it */
+        span = a->size;
+        if (a->after) {
+                assert(a->after->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(a->after->current_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+                span += round_up_size(a->after->offset + a->after->current_size, context->grain_size) - a->after->offset;
+        }
+
+        for (GrowPartitionPhase phase = 0; phase < _GROW_PARTITION_PHASE_MAX;)
+                if (context_grow_partitions_phase(context, a, phase, &span, &weight_sum))
+                        phase++; /* go to the next phase */
+
+        /* We still have space left over? Donate to preceding partition if we have one */
+        if (span > 0 && a->after)
+                context_grow_partition_one(context, a, a->after, &span);
+
+        /* What? Even still some space left (maybe because there was no preceding partition, or it had a
+         * size limit), then let's donate it to whoever wants it. */
+        if (span > 0)
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                        context_grow_partition_one(context, a, p, &span);
+                        if (span == 0)
+                                break;
+                }
+
+        /* Yuck, still no one? Then make it padding */
+        if (span > 0 && a->after) {
+                assert(a->after->new_padding != UINT64_MAX);
+                a->after->new_padding += span;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_grow_partitions(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++) {
+                r = context_grow_partitions_on_free_area(context, context->free_areas[i]);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* All existing partitions that have no free space after them can't change size */
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!PARTITION_EXISTS(p) || p->padding_area) {
+                        /* The algorithm above must have initialized this already */
+                        assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                assert(p->new_size == UINT64_MAX);
+                p->new_size = p->current_size;
+
+                assert(p->new_padding == UINT64_MAX);
+                p->new_padding = p->current_padding;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static uint64_t find_first_unused_partno(Context *context) {
+        uint64_t partno = 0;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        for (partno = 0;; partno++) {
+                bool found = false;
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions)
+                        if (p->partno != UINT64_MAX && p->partno == partno)
+                                found = true;
+                if (!found)
+                        break;
+        }
+
+        return partno;
+}
+
+static void context_place_partitions(Context *context) {
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < context->n_free_areas; i++) {
+                FreeArea *a = context->free_areas[i];
+                _unused_ uint64_t left;
+                uint64_t start;
+
+                if (a->after) {
+                        assert(a->after->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                        assert(a->after->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                        assert(a->after->new_padding != UINT64_MAX);
+
+                        start = a->after->offset + a->after->new_size + a->after->new_padding;
+                } else
+                        start = context->start;
+
+                start = round_up_size(start, context->grain_size);
+                left = a->size;
+
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                        if (p->allocated_to_area != a)
+                                continue;
+
+                        p->offset = start;
+                        p->partno = find_first_unused_partno(context);
+
+                        assert(left >= p->new_size);
+                        start += p->new_size;
+                        left -= p->new_size;
+
+                        assert(left >= p->new_padding);
+                        start += p->new_padding;
+                        left -= p->new_padding;
+                }
+        }
+}
+
+static int config_parse_type(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        GptPartitionType *type = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        r = gpt_partition_type_from_string(rvalue, type);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, r, "Failed to parse partition type: %s", rvalue);
+
+        if (arg_architecture >= 0)
+                *type = gpt_partition_type_override_architecture(*type, arg_architecture);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_label(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *resolved = NULL;
+        char **label = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        /* Nota bene: the empty label is a totally valid one. Let's hence not follow our usual rule of
+         * assigning the empty string to reset to default here, but really accept it as label to set. */
+
+        r = specifier_printf(rvalue, GPT_LABEL_MAX, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to expand specifiers in Label=, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (!utf8_is_valid(resolved)) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, 0,
+                           "Partition label not valid UTF-8, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = gpt_partition_label_valid(resolved);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to check if string is valid as GPT partition label, ignoring: \"%s\" (from \"%s\")",
+                           resolved, rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (!r) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, 0,
+                           "Partition label too long for GPT table, ignoring: \"%s\" (from \"%s\")",
+                           resolved, rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        free_and_replace(*label, resolved);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_weight(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        uint32_t *w = ASSERT_PTR(data), v;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        r = safe_atou32(rvalue, &v);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to parse weight value, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (v > 1000U*1000U) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, 0,
+                           "Weight needs to be in range 0…10000000, ignoring: %" PRIu32, v);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        *w = v;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_size4096(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        uint64_t *sz = data, parsed;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+        assert(data);
+
+        r = parse_size(rvalue, 1024, &parsed);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, r,
+                                  "Failed to parse size value: %s", rvalue);
+
+        if (ltype > 0)
+                *sz = round_up_size(parsed, 4096);
+        else if (ltype < 0)
+                *sz = round_down_size(parsed, 4096);
+        else
+                *sz = parsed;
+
+        if (*sz != parsed)
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_NOTICE, filename, line, r, "Rounded %s= size %" PRIu64 " %s %" PRIu64 ", a multiple of 4096.",
+                           lvalue, parsed, special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ARROW_RIGHT), *sz);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_block_size(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        uint64_t *blksz = ASSERT_PTR(data), parsed;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        r = parse_size(rvalue, 1024, &parsed);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, r,
+                                  "Failed to parse size value: %s", rvalue);
+
+        if (parsed < 512 || parsed > 4096)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Value not between 512 and 4096: %s", rvalue);
+
+        if (!ISPOWEROF2(parsed))
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Value not a power of 2: %s", rvalue);
+
+        *blksz = parsed;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_fstype(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        char **fstype = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        const char *e;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        /* Let's provide an easy way to override the chosen fstype for file system partitions */
+        e = secure_getenv("SYSTEMD_REPART_OVERRIDE_FSTYPE");
+        if (e && !streq(rvalue, e)) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_NOTICE, filename, line, 0,
+                           "Overriding defined file system type '%s' with '%s'.", rvalue, e);
+                rvalue = e;
+        }
+
+        if (!filename_is_valid(rvalue))
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, 0,
+                                  "File system type is not valid, refusing: %s", rvalue);
+
+        return free_and_strdup_warn(fstype, rvalue);
+}
+
+static int config_parse_copy_files(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *source = NULL, *buffer = NULL, *resolved_source = NULL, *resolved_target = NULL;
+        const char *p = rvalue, *target;
+        char ***copy_files = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        r = extract_first_word(&p, &source, ":", EXTRACT_CUNESCAPE|EXTRACT_DONT_COALESCE_SEPARATORS);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, r, "Failed to extract source path: %s", rvalue);
+        if (r == 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, 0, "No argument specified: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = extract_first_word(&p, &buffer, ":", EXTRACT_CUNESCAPE|EXTRACT_DONT_COALESCE_SEPARATORS);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, r, "Failed to extract target path: %s", rvalue);
+        if (r == 0)
+                target = source; /* No target, then it's the same as the source */
+        else
+                target = buffer;
+
+        if (!isempty(p))
+                return log_syntax(unit, LOG_ERR, filename, line, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Too many arguments: %s", rvalue);
+
+        r = specifier_printf(source, PATH_MAX-1, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved_source);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to expand specifiers in CopyFiles= source, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = path_simplify_and_warn(resolved_source, PATH_CHECK_ABSOLUTE, unit, filename, line, lvalue);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = specifier_printf(target, PATH_MAX-1, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved_target);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to expand specifiers in CopyFiles= target, ignoring: %s", resolved_target);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = path_simplify_and_warn(resolved_target, PATH_CHECK_ABSOLUTE, unit, filename, line, lvalue);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = strv_consume_pair(copy_files, TAKE_PTR(resolved_source), TAKE_PTR(resolved_target));
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_exclude_files(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *resolved = NULL;
+        char ***exclude_files = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        if (isempty(rvalue)) {
+                *exclude_files = strv_free(*exclude_files);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = specifier_printf(rvalue, PATH_MAX-1, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &resolved);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to expand specifiers in ExcludeFiles= path, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = path_simplify_and_warn(resolved, PATH_CHECK_ABSOLUTE|PATH_KEEP_TRAILING_SLASH, unit, filename, line, lvalue);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (strv_consume(exclude_files, TAKE_PTR(resolved)) < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_copy_blocks(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *d = NULL;
+        Partition *partition = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        if (isempty(rvalue)) {
+                partition->copy_blocks_path = mfree(partition->copy_blocks_path);
+                partition->copy_blocks_auto = false;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (streq(rvalue, "auto")) {
+                partition->copy_blocks_path = mfree(partition->copy_blocks_path);
+                partition->copy_blocks_auto = true;
+                partition->copy_blocks_root = arg_root;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = specifier_printf(rvalue, PATH_MAX-1, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &d);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to expand specifiers in CopyBlocks= source path, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = path_simplify_and_warn(d, PATH_CHECK_ABSOLUTE, unit, filename, line, lvalue);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        free_and_replace(partition->copy_blocks_path, d);
+        partition->copy_blocks_auto = false;
+        partition->copy_blocks_root = arg_root;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_make_dirs(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        char ***sv = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        const char *p = ASSERT_PTR(rvalue);
+        int r;
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *word = NULL, *d = NULL;
+
+                r = extract_first_word(&p, &word, NULL, EXTRACT_UNQUOTE);
+                if (r == -ENOMEM)
+                        return log_oom();
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r, "Invalid syntax, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+                if (r == 0)
+                        return 0;
+
+                r = specifier_printf(word, PATH_MAX-1, system_and_tmp_specifier_table, arg_root, NULL, &d);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                                   "Failed to expand specifiers in MakeDirectories= parameter, ignoring: %s", word);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                r = path_simplify_and_warn(d, PATH_CHECK_ABSOLUTE, unit, filename, line, lvalue);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                r = strv_consume(sv, TAKE_PTR(d));
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+}
+
+static DEFINE_CONFIG_PARSE_ENUM_WITH_DEFAULT(config_parse_encrypt, encrypt_mode, EncryptMode, ENCRYPT_OFF, "Invalid encryption mode");
+
+static int config_parse_gpt_flags(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        uint64_t *gpt_flags = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        assert(rvalue);
+
+        r = safe_atou64(rvalue, gpt_flags);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r,
+                           "Failed to parse Flags= value, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int config_parse_uuid(
+                const char *unit,
+                const char *filename,
+                unsigned line,
+                const char *section,
+                unsigned section_line,
+                const char *lvalue,
+                int ltype,
+                const char *rvalue,
+                void *data,
+                void *userdata) {
+
+        Partition *partition = ASSERT_PTR(data);
+        int r;
+
+        if (isempty(rvalue)) {
+                partition->new_uuid = SD_ID128_NULL;
+                partition->new_uuid_is_set = false;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (streq(rvalue, "null")) {
+                partition->new_uuid = SD_ID128_NULL;
+                partition->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = sd_id128_from_string(rvalue, &partition->new_uuid);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_syntax(unit, LOG_WARNING, filename, line, r, "Failed to parse 128-bit ID/UUID, ignoring: %s", rvalue);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        partition->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static DEFINE_CONFIG_PARSE_ENUM_WITH_DEFAULT(config_parse_verity, verity_mode, VerityMode, VERITY_OFF, "Invalid verity mode");
+static DEFINE_CONFIG_PARSE_ENUM_WITH_DEFAULT(config_parse_minimize, minimize_mode, MinimizeMode, MINIMIZE_OFF, "Invalid minimize mode");
+
+static int partition_read_definition(Partition *p, const char *path, const char *const *conf_file_dirs) {
+
+        ConfigTableItem table[] = {
+                { "Partition", "Type",                     config_parse_type,          0, &p->type                    },
+                { "Partition", "Label",                    config_parse_label,         0, &p->new_label               },
+                { "Partition", "UUID",                     config_parse_uuid,          0, p                           },
+                { "Partition", "Priority",                 config_parse_int32,         0, &p->priority                },
+                { "Partition", "Weight",                   config_parse_weight,        0, &p->weight                  },
+                { "Partition", "PaddingWeight",            config_parse_weight,        0, &p->padding_weight          },
+                { "Partition", "SizeMinBytes",             config_parse_size4096,     -1, &p->size_min                },
+                { "Partition", "SizeMaxBytes",             config_parse_size4096,      1, &p->size_max                },
+                { "Partition", "PaddingMinBytes",          config_parse_size4096,     -1, &p->padding_min             },
+                { "Partition", "PaddingMaxBytes",          config_parse_size4096,      1, &p->padding_max             },
+                { "Partition", "FactoryReset",             config_parse_bool,          0, &p->factory_reset           },
+                { "Partition", "CopyBlocks",               config_parse_copy_blocks,   0, p                           },
+                { "Partition", "Format",                   config_parse_fstype,        0, &p->format                  },
+                { "Partition", "CopyFiles",                config_parse_copy_files,    0, &p->copy_files              },
+                { "Partition", "ExcludeFiles",             config_parse_exclude_files, 0, &p->exclude_files_source    },
+                { "Partition", "ExcludeFilesTarget",       config_parse_exclude_files, 0, &p->exclude_files_target    },
+                { "Partition", "MakeDirectories",          config_parse_make_dirs,     0, &p->make_directories        },
+                { "Partition", "Encrypt",                  config_parse_encrypt,       0, &p->encrypt                 },
+                { "Partition", "Verity",                   config_parse_verity,        0, &p->verity                  },
+                { "Partition", "VerityMatchKey",           config_parse_string,        0, &p->verity_match_key        },
+                { "Partition", "Flags",                    config_parse_gpt_flags,     0, &p->gpt_flags               },
+                { "Partition", "ReadOnly",                 config_parse_tristate,      0, &p->read_only               },
+                { "Partition", "NoAuto",                   config_parse_tristate,      0, &p->no_auto                 },
+                { "Partition", "GrowFileSystem",           config_parse_tristate,      0, &p->growfs                  },
+                { "Partition", "SplitName",                config_parse_string,        0, &p->split_name_format       },
+                { "Partition", "Minimize",                 config_parse_minimize,      0, &p->minimize                },
+                { "Partition", "Subvolumes",               config_parse_make_dirs,     0, &p->subvolumes              },
+                { "Partition", "VerityDataBlockSizeBytes", config_parse_block_size,    0, &p->verity_data_block_size  },
+                { "Partition", "VerityHashBlockSizeBytes", config_parse_block_size,    0, &p->verity_hash_block_size  },
+                {}
+        };
+        int r;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *filename = NULL;
+        const char* dropin_dirname;
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(path, &filename);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from path '%s': %m", path);
+
+        dropin_dirname = strjoina(filename, ".d");
+
+        r = config_parse_many(
+                        STRV_MAKE_CONST(path),
+                        conf_file_dirs,
+                        dropin_dirname,
+                        arg_definitions ? NULL : arg_root,
+                        "Partition\0",
+                        config_item_table_lookup, table,
+                        CONFIG_PARSE_WARN,
+                        p,
+                        NULL,
+                        &p->drop_in_files);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (partition_type_exclude(&p->type))
+                return 0;
+
+        if (p->size_min != UINT64_MAX && p->size_max != UINT64_MAX && p->size_min > p->size_max)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "SizeMinBytes= larger than SizeMaxBytes=, refusing.");
+
+        if (p->padding_min != UINT64_MAX && p->padding_max != UINT64_MAX && p->padding_min > p->padding_max)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "PaddingMinBytes= larger than PaddingMaxBytes=, refusing.");
+
+        if (sd_id128_is_null(p->type.uuid))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Type= not defined, refusing.");
+
+        if ((p->copy_blocks_path || p->copy_blocks_auto) &&
+            (p->format || !strv_isempty(p->copy_files) || !strv_isempty(p->make_directories)))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Format=/CopyFiles=/MakeDirectories= and CopyBlocks= cannot be combined, refusing.");
+
+        if ((!strv_isempty(p->copy_files) || !strv_isempty(p->make_directories)) && streq_ptr(p->format, "swap"))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Format=swap and CopyFiles= cannot be combined, refusing.");
+
+        if (!p->format) {
+                const char *format = NULL;
+
+                if (!strv_isempty(p->copy_files) || !strv_isempty(p->make_directories) || (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF && !(p->copy_blocks_path || p->copy_blocks_auto)))
+                        /* Pick "vfat" as file system for esp and xbootldr partitions, otherwise default to "ext4". */
+                        format = IN_SET(p->type.designator, PARTITION_ESP, PARTITION_XBOOTLDR) ? "vfat" : "ext4";
+                else if (p->type.designator == PARTITION_SWAP)
+                        format = "swap";
+
+                if (format) {
+                        p->format = strdup(format);
+                        if (!p->format)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (p->minimize != MINIMIZE_OFF && !p->format && p->verity != VERITY_HASH)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Minimize= can only be enabled if Format= or Verity=hash are set");
+
+        if (p->minimize == MINIMIZE_BEST && (p->format && !fstype_is_ro(p->format)) && p->verity != VERITY_HASH)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Minimize=best can only be used with read-only filesystems or Verity=hash");
+
+        if ((!strv_isempty(p->copy_files) || !strv_isempty(p->make_directories)) && !mkfs_supports_root_option(p->format) && geteuid() != 0)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                  "Need to be root to populate %s filesystems with CopyFiles=/MakeDirectories=",
+                                  p->format);
+
+        if (p->format && fstype_is_ro(p->format) && strv_isempty(p->copy_files) && strv_isempty(p->make_directories))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Cannot format %s filesystem without source files, refusing", p->format);
+
+        if (p->verity != VERITY_OFF || p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF) {
+                r = dlopen_cryptsetup();
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, r,
+                                          "libcryptsetup not found, Verity=/Encrypt= are not supported: %m");
+        }
+
+        if (p->verity != VERITY_OFF && !p->verity_match_key)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "VerityMatchKey= must be set if Verity=%s", verity_mode_to_string(p->verity));
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_OFF && p->verity_match_key)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "VerityMatchKey= can only be set if Verity= is not \"%s\"",
+                                  verity_mode_to_string(p->verity));
+
+        if (IN_SET(p->verity, VERITY_HASH, VERITY_SIG) &&
+                (p->copy_files || p->copy_blocks_path || p->copy_blocks_auto || p->format || p->make_directories))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "CopyBlocks=/CopyFiles=/Format=/MakeDirectories= cannot be used with Verity=%s",
+                                  verity_mode_to_string(p->verity));
+
+        if (p->verity != VERITY_OFF && p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Encrypting verity hash/data partitions is not supported");
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_SIG && !arg_private_key)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Verity signature partition requested but no private key provided (--private-key=)");
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_SIG && !arg_certificate)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "Verity signature partition requested but no PEM certificate provided (--certificate=)");
+
+        if (p->verity == VERITY_SIG && (p->size_min != UINT64_MAX || p->size_max != UINT64_MAX))
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                  "SizeMinBytes=/SizeMaxBytes= cannot be used with Verity=%s",
+                                  verity_mode_to_string(p->verity));
+
+        if (!strv_isempty(p->subvolumes) && arg_offline > 0)
+                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP),
+                                  "Subvolumes= cannot be used with --offline=yes");
+
+        /* Verity partitions are read only, let's imply the RO flag hence, unless explicitly configured otherwise. */
+        if ((IN_SET(p->type.designator,
+                    PARTITION_ROOT_VERITY,
+                    PARTITION_USR_VERITY) || p->verity == VERITY_DATA) && p->read_only < 0)
+                p->read_only = true;
+
+        /* Default to "growfs" on, unless read-only */
+        if (gpt_partition_type_knows_growfs(p->type) &&
+            p->read_only <= 0)
+                p->growfs = true;
+
+        if (!p->split_name_format) {
+                char *s = strdup("%t");
+                if (!s)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                p->split_name_format = s;
+        } else if (streq(p->split_name_format, "-"))
+                p->split_name_format = mfree(p->split_name_format);
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int find_verity_sibling(Context *context, Partition *p, VerityMode mode, Partition **ret) {
+        Partition *s = NULL;
+
+        assert(p);
+        assert(p->verity != VERITY_OFF);
+        assert(p->verity_match_key);
+        assert(mode != VERITY_OFF);
+        assert(p->verity != mode);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        /* Try to find the matching sibling partition of the given type for a verity partition. For a data
+         * partition, this is the corresponding hash partition with the same verity name (and vice versa for
+         * the hash partition). */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                if (p == q)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (q->verity != mode)
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(q->verity_match_key);
+
+                if (!streq(p->verity_match_key, q->verity_match_key))
+                        continue;
+
+                if (s)
+                        return -ENOTUNIQ;
+
+                s = q;
+        }
+
+        if (!s)
+                return -ENXIO;
+
+        *ret = s;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_open_and_lock_backing_fd(const char *node, int operation, int *backing_fd) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+
+        assert(node);
+        assert(backing_fd);
+
+        if (*backing_fd >= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        fd = open(node, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open device '%s': %m", node);
+
+        /* Tell udev not to interfere while we are processing the device */
+        if (flock(fd, operation) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to lock device '%s': %m", node);
+
+        log_debug("Device %s opened and locked.", node);
+        *backing_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int determine_current_padding(
+                struct fdisk_context *c,
+                struct fdisk_table *t,
+                struct fdisk_partition *p,
+                uint64_t secsz,
+                uint64_t grainsz,
+                uint64_t *ret) {
+
+        size_t n_partitions;
+        uint64_t offset, next = UINT64_MAX;
+
+        assert(c);
+        assert(t);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        if (!fdisk_partition_has_end(p))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Partition has no end!");
+
+        offset = fdisk_partition_get_end(p);
+        assert(offset < UINT64_MAX);
+        offset++; /* The end is one sector before the next partition or padding. */
+        assert(offset < UINT64_MAX / secsz);
+        offset *= secsz;
+
+        n_partitions = fdisk_table_get_nents(t);
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < n_partitions; i++) {
+                struct fdisk_partition *q;
+                uint64_t start;
+
+                q = fdisk_table_get_partition(t, i);
+                if (!q)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to read partition metadata: %m");
+
+                if (fdisk_partition_is_used(q) <= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!fdisk_partition_has_start(q))
+                        continue;
+
+                start = fdisk_partition_get_start(q);
+                assert(start < UINT64_MAX / secsz);
+                start *= secsz;
+
+                if (start >= offset && (next == UINT64_MAX || next > start))
+                        next = start;
+        }
+
+        if (next == UINT64_MAX) {
+                /* No later partition? In that case check the end of the usable area */
+                next = fdisk_get_last_lba(c);
+                assert(next < UINT64_MAX);
+                next++; /* The last LBA is one sector before the end */
+
+                assert(next < UINT64_MAX / secsz);
+                next *= secsz;
+
+                if (offset > next)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Partition end beyond disk end.");
+        }
+
+        assert(next >= offset);
+        offset = round_up_size(offset, grainsz);
+        next = round_down_size(next, grainsz);
+
+        *ret = LESS_BY(next, offset); /* Saturated subtraction, rounding might have fucked things up */
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_copy_from_one(Context *context, const char *src) {
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_contextp) struct fdisk_context *c = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_tablep) struct fdisk_table *t = NULL;
+        Partition *last = NULL;
+        unsigned long secsz, grainsz;
+        size_t n_partitions;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(src);
+
+        r = context_open_and_lock_backing_fd(src, LOCK_SH, &fd);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = fd_verify_regular(fd);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "%s is not a file: %m", src);
+
+        r = fdisk_new_context_at(fd, /* path = */ NULL, /* read_only = */ true, /* sector_size = */ UINT32_MAX, &c);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create fdisk context: %m");
+
+        secsz = fdisk_get_sector_size(c);
+        grainsz = fdisk_get_grain_size(c);
+
+        /* Insist on a power of two, and that it's a multiple of 512, i.e. the traditional sector size. */
+        if (secsz < 512 || !ISPOWEROF2(secsz))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Sector size %lu is not a power of two larger than 512? Refusing.", secsz);
+
+        if (!fdisk_is_labeltype(c, FDISK_DISKLABEL_GPT))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EHWPOISON), "Cannot copy from disk %s with no GPT disk label.", src);
+
+        r = fdisk_get_partitions(c, &t);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire partition table: %m");
+
+        n_partitions = fdisk_table_get_nents(t);
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < n_partitions; i++) {
+                _cleanup_(partition_freep) Partition *np = NULL;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *label_copy = NULL;
+                struct fdisk_partition *p;
+                const char *label;
+                uint64_t sz, start, padding;
+                sd_id128_t ptid, id;
+                GptPartitionType type;
+
+                p = fdisk_table_get_partition(t, i);
+                if (!p)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to read partition metadata: %m");
+
+                if (fdisk_partition_is_used(p) <= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (fdisk_partition_has_start(p) <= 0 ||
+                    fdisk_partition_has_size(p) <= 0 ||
+                    fdisk_partition_has_partno(p) <= 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Found a partition without a position, size or number.");
+
+                r = fdisk_partition_get_type_as_id128(p, &ptid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to query partition type UUID: %m");
+
+                type = gpt_partition_type_from_uuid(ptid);
+
+                r = fdisk_partition_get_uuid_as_id128(p, &id);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to query partition UUID: %m");
+
+                label = fdisk_partition_get_name(p);
+                if (!isempty(label)) {
+                        label_copy = strdup(label);
+                        if (!label_copy)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+
+                sz = fdisk_partition_get_size(p);
+                assert(sz <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+                sz *= secsz;
+
+                start = fdisk_partition_get_start(p);
+                assert(start <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+                start *= secsz;
+
+                if (partition_type_exclude(&type))
+                        continue;
+
+                np = partition_new();
+                if (!np)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                np->type = type;
+                np->new_uuid = id;
+                np->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+                np->size_min = np->size_max = sz;
+                np->new_label = TAKE_PTR(label_copy);
+
+                np->definition_path = strdup(src);
+                if (!np->definition_path)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = determine_current_padding(c, t, p, secsz, grainsz, &padding);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                np->padding_min = np->padding_max = padding;
+
+                np->copy_blocks_path = strdup(src);
+                if (!np->copy_blocks_path)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                np->copy_blocks_fd = fcntl(fd, F_DUPFD_CLOEXEC, 3);
+                if (np->copy_blocks_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to duplicate file descriptor of %s: %m", src);
+
+                np->copy_blocks_offset = start;
+                np->copy_blocks_size = sz;
+
+                r = fdisk_partition_get_attrs_as_uint64(p, &np->gpt_flags);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get partition flags: %m");
+
+                LIST_INSERT_AFTER(partitions, context->partitions, last, np);
+                last = TAKE_PTR(np);
+                context->n_partitions++;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_copy_from(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(src, arg_copy_from) {
+                r = context_copy_from_one(context, *src);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_read_definitions(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_strv_free_ char **files = NULL;
+        Partition *last = LIST_FIND_TAIL(partitions, context->partitions);
+        const char *const *dirs;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        dirs = (const char* const*) (arg_definitions ?: CONF_PATHS_STRV("repart.d"));
+
+        r = conf_files_list_strv(&files, ".conf", arg_definitions ? NULL : arg_root, CONF_FILES_REGULAR|CONF_FILES_FILTER_MASKED, dirs);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to enumerate *.conf files: %m");
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(f, files) {
+                _cleanup_(partition_freep) Partition *p = NULL;
+
+                p = partition_new();
+                if (!p)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                p->definition_path = strdup(*f);
+                if (!p->definition_path)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = partition_read_definition(p, *f, dirs);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                if (r == 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                LIST_INSERT_AFTER(partitions, context->partitions, last, p);
+                last = TAKE_PTR(p);
+                context->n_partitions++;
+        }
+
+        /* Check that each configured verity hash/data partition has a matching verity data/hash partition. */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->verity == VERITY_OFF)
+                        continue;
+
+                for (VerityMode mode = VERITY_OFF + 1; mode < _VERITY_MODE_MAX; mode++) {
+                        Partition *q = NULL;
+
+                        if (p->verity == mode)
+                                continue;
+
+                        if (p->siblings[mode])
+                                continue;
+
+                        r = find_verity_sibling(context, p, mode, &q);
+                        if (r == -ENXIO) {
+                                if (mode != VERITY_SIG)
+                                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, p->definition_path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                          "Missing verity %s partition for verity %s partition with VerityMatchKey=%s",
+                                                          verity_mode_to_string(mode), verity_mode_to_string(p->verity), p->verity_match_key);
+                        } else if (r == -ENOTUNIQ)
+                                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, p->definition_path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                  "Multiple verity %s partitions found for verity %s partition with VerityMatchKey=%s",
+                                                  verity_mode_to_string(mode), verity_mode_to_string(p->verity), p->verity_match_key);
+                        else if (r < 0)
+                                return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, p->definition_path, 1, r,
+                                                  "Failed to find verity %s partition for verity %s partition with VerityMatchKey=%s",
+                                                  verity_mode_to_string(mode), verity_mode_to_string(p->verity), p->verity_match_key);
+
+                        if (q) {
+                                if (q->priority != p->priority)
+                                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, p->definition_path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                          "Priority mismatch (%i != %i) for verity sibling partitions with VerityMatchKey=%s",
+                                                          p->priority, q->priority, p->verity_match_key);
+
+                                p->siblings[mode] = q;
+                        }
+                }
+        }
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                Partition *dp;
+
+                if (p->verity != VERITY_HASH)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->minimize == MINIMIZE_OFF)
+                        continue;
+
+                assert_se(dp = p->siblings[VERITY_DATA]);
+
+                if (dp->minimize == MINIMIZE_OFF && !(dp->copy_blocks_path || dp->copy_blocks_auto))
+                        return log_syntax(NULL, LOG_ERR, p->definition_path, 1, SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                          "Minimize= set for verity hash partition but data partition does "
+                                          "not set CopyBlocks= or Minimize=");
+
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fdisk_ask_cb(struct fdisk_context *c, struct fdisk_ask *ask, void *data) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *ids = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (fdisk_ask_get_type(ask) != FDISK_ASKTYPE_STRING)
+                return -EINVAL;
+
+        ids = new(char, SD_ID128_UUID_STRING_MAX);
+        if (!ids)
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        r = fdisk_ask_string_set_result(ask, sd_id128_to_uuid_string(*(sd_id128_t*) data, ids));
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        TAKE_PTR(ids);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fdisk_set_disklabel_id_by_uuid(struct fdisk_context *c, sd_id128_t id) {
+        int r;
+
+        r = fdisk_set_ask(c, fdisk_ask_cb, &id);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = fdisk_set_disklabel_id(c);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        return fdisk_set_ask(c, NULL, NULL);
+}
+
+static int derive_uuid(sd_id128_t base, const char *token, sd_id128_t *ret) {
+        union {
+                uint8_t md[SHA256_DIGEST_SIZE];
+                sd_id128_t id;
+        } result;
+
+        assert(token);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        /* Derive a new UUID from the specified UUID in a stable and reasonably safe way. Specifically, we
+         * calculate the HMAC-SHA256 of the specified token string, keyed by the supplied base (typically the
+         * machine ID). We use the machine ID as key (and not as cleartext!) of the HMAC operation since it's
+         * the machine ID we don't want to leak. */
+
+        hmac_sha256(base.bytes, sizeof(base.bytes), token, strlen(token), result.md);
+
+        /* Take the first half, mark it as v4 UUID */
+        assert_cc(sizeof(result.md) == sizeof(result.id) * 2);
+        *ret = id128_make_v4_uuid(result.id);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static void derive_salt(sd_id128_t base, const char *token, uint8_t ret[static SHA256_DIGEST_SIZE]) {
+        assert(token);
+
+        hmac_sha256(base.bytes, sizeof(base.bytes), token, strlen(token), ret);
+}
+
+static int context_load_partition_table(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_contextp) struct fdisk_context *c = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_tablep) struct fdisk_table *t = NULL;
+        uint64_t left_boundary = UINT64_MAX, first_lba, last_lba, nsectors;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *disk_uuid_string = NULL;
+        bool from_scratch = false;
+        sd_id128_t disk_uuid;
+        size_t n_partitions;
+        unsigned long secsz;
+        uint64_t grainsz, fs_secsz = DEFAULT_FILESYSTEM_SECTOR_SIZE;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(!context->fdisk_context);
+        assert(!context->free_areas);
+        assert(context->start == UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(context->end == UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(context->total == UINT64_MAX);
+
+        c = fdisk_new_context();
+        if (!c)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        if (arg_sector_size > 0) {
+                fs_secsz = arg_sector_size;
+                r = fdisk_save_user_sector_size(c, /* phy= */ 0, arg_sector_size);
+        } else {
+                uint32_t ssz;
+                struct stat st;
+
+                r = context_open_and_lock_backing_fd(
+                                context->node,
+                                arg_dry_run ? LOCK_SH : LOCK_EX,
+                                &context->backing_fd);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (fstat(context->backing_fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat %s: %m", context->node);
+
+                if (IN_SET(arg_empty, EMPTY_REQUIRE, EMPTY_FORCE, EMPTY_CREATE) && S_ISREG(st.st_mode))
+                        /* Don't probe sector size from partition table if we are supposed to strat from an empty disk */
+                        fs_secsz = ssz = 512;
+                else {
+                        /* Auto-detect sector size if not specified. */
+                        r = probe_sector_size_prefer_ioctl(context->backing_fd, &ssz);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to probe sector size of '%s': %m", context->node);
+
+                        /* If we found the sector size and we're operating on a block device, use it as the file
+                         * system sector size as well, as we know its the sector size of the actual block device and
+                         * not just the offset at which we found the GPT header. */
+                        if (r > 0 && S_ISBLK(st.st_mode))
+                                fs_secsz = ssz;
+                }
+
+                r = fdisk_save_user_sector_size(c, /* phy= */ 0, ssz);
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set sector size: %m");
+
+        /* libfdisk doesn't have an API to operate on arbitrary fds, hence reopen the fd going via the
+         * /proc/self/fd/ magic path if we have an existing fd. Open the original file otherwise. */
+        r = fdisk_assign_device(
+                        c,
+                        context->backing_fd >= 0 ? FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(context->backing_fd) : context->node,
+                        arg_dry_run);
+        if (r == -EINVAL && arg_size_auto) {
+                struct stat st;
+
+                /* libfdisk returns EINVAL if opening a file of size zero. Let's check for that, and accept
+                 * it if automatic sizing is requested. */
+
+                if (context->backing_fd < 0)
+                        r = stat(context->node, &st);
+                else
+                        r = fstat(context->backing_fd, &st);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat block device '%s': %m", context->node);
+
+                if (S_ISREG(st.st_mode) && st.st_size == 0) {
+                        /* Use the fallback values if we have no better idea */
+                        context->sector_size = fdisk_get_sector_size(c);
+                        context->fs_sector_size = fs_secsz;
+                        context->grain_size = 4096;
+                        return /* from_scratch = */ true;
+                }
+
+                r = -EINVAL;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open device '%s': %m", context->node);
+
+        if (context->backing_fd < 0) {
+                /* If we have no fd referencing the device yet, make a copy of the fd now, so that we have one */
+                r = context_open_and_lock_backing_fd(FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fdisk_get_devfd(c)),
+                                                     arg_dry_run ? LOCK_SH : LOCK_EX,
+                                                     &context->backing_fd);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* The offsets/sizes libfdisk returns to us will be in multiple of the sector size of the
+         * device. This is typically 512, and sometimes 4096. Let's query libfdisk once for it, and then use
+         * it for all our needs. Note that the values we use ourselves always are in bytes though, thus mean
+         * the same thing universally. Also note that regardless what kind of sector size is in use we'll
+         * place partitions at multiples of 4K. */
+        secsz = fdisk_get_sector_size(c);
+
+        /* Insist on a power of two, and that it's a multiple of 512, i.e. the traditional sector size. */
+        if (secsz < 512 || !ISPOWEROF2(secsz))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Sector size %lu is not a power of two larger than 512? Refusing.", secsz);
+
+        /* Use at least 4K, and ensure it's a multiple of the sector size, regardless if that is smaller or
+         * larger */
+        grainsz = secsz < 4096 ? 4096 : secsz;
+
+        log_debug("Sector size of device is %lu bytes. Using grain size of %" PRIu64 ".", secsz, grainsz);
+
+        switch (arg_empty) {
+
+        case EMPTY_REFUSE:
+                /* Refuse empty disks, insist on an existing GPT partition table */
+                if (!fdisk_is_labeltype(c, FDISK_DISKLABEL_GPT))
+                        return log_notice_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EHWPOISON), "Disk %s has no GPT disk label, not repartitioning.", context->node);
+
+                break;
+
+        case EMPTY_REQUIRE:
+                /* Require an empty disk, refuse any existing partition table */
+                r = fdisk_has_label(c);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine whether disk %s has a disk label: %m", context->node);
+                if (r > 0)
+                        return log_notice_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EHWPOISON), "Disk %s already has a disk label, refusing.", context->node);
+
+                from_scratch = true;
+                break;
+
+        case EMPTY_ALLOW:
+                /* Allow both an empty disk and an existing partition table, but only GPT */
+                r = fdisk_has_label(c);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine whether disk %s has a disk label: %m", context->node);
+                if (r > 0) {
+                        if (!fdisk_is_labeltype(c, FDISK_DISKLABEL_GPT))
+                                return log_notice_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EHWPOISON), "Disk %s has non-GPT disk label, not repartitioning.", context->node);
+                } else
+                        from_scratch = true;
+
+                break;
+
+        case EMPTY_FORCE:
+        case EMPTY_CREATE:
+                /* Always reinitiaize the disk, don't consider what there was on the disk before */
+                from_scratch = true;
+                break;
+
+        default:
+                assert_not_reached();
+        }
+
+        if (from_scratch) {
+                r = fdisk_create_disklabel(c, "gpt");
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create GPT disk label: %m");
+
+                r = derive_uuid(context->seed, "disk-uuid", &disk_uuid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire disk GPT uuid: %m");
+
+                r = fdisk_set_disklabel_id_by_uuid(c, disk_uuid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set GPT disk label: %m");
+
+                goto add_initial_free_area;
+        }
+
+        r = fdisk_get_disklabel_id(c, &disk_uuid_string);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get current GPT disk label UUID: %m");
+
+        r = id128_from_string_nonzero(disk_uuid_string, &disk_uuid);
+        if (r == -ENXIO) {
+                r = derive_uuid(context->seed, "disk-uuid", &disk_uuid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire disk GPT uuid: %m");
+
+                r = fdisk_set_disklabel_id(c);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set GPT disk label: %m");
+        } else if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse current GPT disk label UUID: %m");
+
+        r = fdisk_get_partitions(c, &t);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire partition table: %m");
+
+        n_partitions = fdisk_table_get_nents(t);
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < n_partitions; i++) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *label_copy = NULL;
+                Partition *last = NULL;
+                struct fdisk_partition *p;
+                const char *label;
+                uint64_t sz, start;
+                bool found = false;
+                sd_id128_t ptid, id;
+                size_t partno;
+
+                p = fdisk_table_get_partition(t, i);
+                if (!p)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to read partition metadata: %m");
+
+                if (fdisk_partition_is_used(p) <= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (fdisk_partition_has_start(p) <= 0 ||
+                    fdisk_partition_has_size(p) <= 0 ||
+                    fdisk_partition_has_partno(p) <= 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Found a partition without a position, size or number.");
+
+                r = fdisk_partition_get_type_as_id128(p, &ptid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to query partition type UUID: %m");
+
+                r = fdisk_partition_get_uuid_as_id128(p, &id);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to query partition UUID: %m");
+
+                label = fdisk_partition_get_name(p);
+                if (!isempty(label)) {
+                        label_copy = strdup(label);
+                        if (!label_copy)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+
+                sz = fdisk_partition_get_size(p);
+                assert(sz <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+                sz *= secsz;
+
+                start = fdisk_partition_get_start(p);
+                assert(start <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+                start *= secsz;
+
+                partno = fdisk_partition_get_partno(p);
+
+                if (left_boundary == UINT64_MAX || left_boundary > start)
+                        left_boundary = start;
+
+                /* Assign this existing partition to the first partition of the right type that doesn't have
+                 * an existing one assigned yet. */
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, pp, context->partitions) {
+                        last = pp;
+
+                        if (!sd_id128_equal(pp->type.uuid, ptid))
+                                continue;
+
+                        if (!pp->current_partition) {
+                                pp->current_uuid = id;
+                                pp->current_size = sz;
+                                pp->offset = start;
+                                pp->partno = partno;
+                                pp->current_label = TAKE_PTR(label_copy);
+
+                                pp->current_partition = p;
+                                fdisk_ref_partition(p);
+
+                                r = determine_current_padding(c, t, p, secsz, grainsz, &pp->current_padding);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return r;
+
+                                if (pp->current_padding > 0) {
+                                        r = context_add_free_area(context, pp->current_padding, pp);
+                                        if (r < 0)
+                                                return r;
+                                }
+
+                                found = true;
+                                break;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                /* If we have no matching definition, create a new one. */
+                if (!found) {
+                        _cleanup_(partition_freep) Partition *np = NULL;
+
+                        np = partition_new();
+                        if (!np)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        np->current_uuid = id;
+                        np->type = gpt_partition_type_from_uuid(ptid);
+                        np->current_size = sz;
+                        np->offset = start;
+                        np->partno = partno;
+                        np->current_label = TAKE_PTR(label_copy);
+
+                        np->current_partition = p;
+                        fdisk_ref_partition(p);
+
+                        r = determine_current_padding(c, t, p, secsz, grainsz, &np->current_padding);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        if (np->current_padding > 0) {
+                                r = context_add_free_area(context, np->current_padding, np);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return r;
+                        }
+
+                        LIST_INSERT_AFTER(partitions, context->partitions, last, TAKE_PTR(np));
+                        context->n_partitions++;
+                }
+        }
+
+add_initial_free_area:
+        nsectors = fdisk_get_nsectors(c);
+        assert(nsectors <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+        nsectors *= secsz;
+
+        first_lba = fdisk_get_first_lba(c);
+        assert(first_lba <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+        first_lba *= secsz;
+
+        last_lba = fdisk_get_last_lba(c);
+        assert(last_lba < UINT64_MAX);
+        last_lba++;
+        assert(last_lba <= UINT64_MAX/secsz);
+        last_lba *= secsz;
+
+        assert(last_lba >= first_lba);
+
+        if (left_boundary == UINT64_MAX) {
+                /* No partitions at all? Then the whole disk is up for grabs. */
+
+                first_lba = round_up_size(first_lba, grainsz);
+                last_lba = round_down_size(last_lba, grainsz);
+
+                if (last_lba > first_lba) {
+                        r = context_add_free_area(context, last_lba - first_lba, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        } else {
+                /* Add space left of first partition */
+                assert(left_boundary >= first_lba);
+
+                first_lba = round_up_size(first_lba, grainsz);
+                left_boundary = round_down_size(left_boundary, grainsz);
+                last_lba = round_down_size(last_lba, grainsz);
+
+                if (left_boundary > first_lba) {
+                        r = context_add_free_area(context, left_boundary - first_lba, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        context->start = first_lba;
+        context->end = last_lba;
+        context->total = nsectors;
+        context->sector_size = secsz;
+        context->fs_sector_size = fs_secsz;
+        context->grain_size = grainsz;
+        context->fdisk_context = TAKE_PTR(c);
+
+        return from_scratch;
+}
+
+static void context_unload_partition_table(Context *context) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+
+                /* Entirely remove partitions that have no configuration */
+                if (PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)) {
+                        partition_unlink_and_free(context, p);
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                /* Otherwise drop all data we read off the block device and everything we might have
+                 * calculated based on it */
+
+                p->dropped = false;
+                p->current_size = UINT64_MAX;
+                p->new_size = UINT64_MAX;
+                p->current_padding = UINT64_MAX;
+                p->new_padding = UINT64_MAX;
+                p->partno = UINT64_MAX;
+                p->offset = UINT64_MAX;
+
+                if (p->current_partition) {
+                        fdisk_unref_partition(p->current_partition);
+                        p->current_partition = NULL;
+                }
+
+                if (p->new_partition) {
+                        fdisk_unref_partition(p->new_partition);
+                        p->new_partition = NULL;
+                }
+
+                p->padding_area = NULL;
+                p->allocated_to_area = NULL;
+
+                p->current_uuid = SD_ID128_NULL;
+                p->current_label = mfree(p->current_label);
+        }
+
+        context->start = UINT64_MAX;
+        context->end = UINT64_MAX;
+        context->total = UINT64_MAX;
+
+        if (context->fdisk_context) {
+                fdisk_unref_context(context->fdisk_context);
+                context->fdisk_context = NULL;
+        }
+
+        context_free_free_areas(context);
+}
+
+static int format_size_change(uint64_t from, uint64_t to, char **ret) {
+        char *t;
+
+        if (from != UINT64_MAX) {
+                if (from == to || to == UINT64_MAX)
+                        t = strdup(FORMAT_BYTES(from));
+                else
+                        t = strjoin(FORMAT_BYTES(from), " ", special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ARROW_RIGHT), " ", FORMAT_BYTES(to));
+        } else if (to != UINT64_MAX)
+                t = strjoin(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ARROW_RIGHT), " ", FORMAT_BYTES(to));
+        else {
+                *ret = NULL;
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (!t)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        *ret = t;
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static const char *partition_label(const Partition *p) {
+        assert(p);
+
+        if (p->new_label)
+                return p->new_label;
+
+        if (p->current_label)
+                return p->current_label;
+
+        return gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string(p->type.uuid);
+}
+
+static int context_dump_partitions(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_(table_unrefp) Table *t = NULL;
+        uint64_t sum_padding = 0, sum_size = 0;
+        int r;
+        const size_t roothash_col = 14, dropin_files_col = 15, split_path_col = 16;
+        bool has_roothash = false, has_dropin_files = false, has_split_path = false;
+
+        if ((arg_json_format_flags & JSON_FORMAT_OFF) && context->n_partitions == 0) {
+                log_info("Empty partition table.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        t = table_new("type",
+                      "label",
+                      "uuid",
+                      "partno",
+                      "file",
+                      "node",
+                      "offset",
+                      "old size",
+                      "raw size",
+                      "size",
+                      "old padding",
+                      "raw padding",
+                      "padding",
+                      "activity",
+                      "roothash",
+                      "drop-in files",
+                      "split path");
+        if (!t)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        if (!DEBUG_LOGGING) {
+                if (arg_json_format_flags & JSON_FORMAT_OFF)
+                        (void) table_set_display(t, (size_t) 0, (size_t) 1, (size_t) 2, (size_t) 3, (size_t) 4,
+                                                    (size_t) 8, (size_t) 9, (size_t) 12, roothash_col, dropin_files_col,
+                                                    split_path_col);
+                else
+                        (void) table_set_display(t, (size_t) 0, (size_t) 1, (size_t) 2, (size_t) 3, (size_t) 4,
+                                                    (size_t) 5, (size_t) 6, (size_t) 7, (size_t) 8, (size_t) 10,
+                                                    (size_t) 11, (size_t) 13, roothash_col, dropin_files_col,
+                                                    split_path_col);
+        }
+
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 5), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 6), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 7), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 8), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 9), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 10), 100);
+        (void) table_set_align_percent(t, table_get_cell(t, 0, 11), 100);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *size_change = NULL, *padding_change = NULL, *partname = NULL, *rh = NULL;
+                char uuid_buffer[SD_ID128_UUID_STRING_MAX];
+                const char *label, *activity = NULL;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->current_size == UINT64_MAX)
+                        activity = "create";
+                else if (p->current_size != p->new_size)
+                        activity = "resize";
+
+                label = partition_label(p);
+                partname = p->partno != UINT64_MAX ? fdisk_partname(context->node, p->partno+1) : NULL;
+
+                r = format_size_change(p->current_size, p->new_size, &size_change);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = format_size_change(p->current_padding, p->new_padding, &padding_change);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (p->new_size != UINT64_MAX)
+                        sum_size += p->new_size;
+                if (p->new_padding != UINT64_MAX)
+                        sum_padding += p->new_padding;
+
+                if (p->verity != VERITY_OFF) {
+                        Partition *hp = p->verity == VERITY_HASH ? p : p->siblings[VERITY_HASH];
+
+                        rh = iovec_is_set(&hp->roothash) ? hexmem(hp->roothash.iov_base, hp->roothash.iov_len) : strdup("TBD");
+                        if (!rh)
+                                return log_oom();
+                }
+
+                r = table_add_many(
+                                t,
+                                TABLE_STRING, gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string_harder(p->type.uuid, uuid_buffer),
+                                TABLE_STRING, empty_to_null(label) ?: "-", TABLE_SET_COLOR, empty_to_null(label) ? NULL : ansi_grey(),
+                                TABLE_UUID, p->new_uuid_is_set ? p->new_uuid : p->current_uuid,
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->partno,
+                                TABLE_PATH_BASENAME, p->definition_path, TABLE_SET_COLOR, p->definition_path ? NULL : ansi_grey(),
+                                TABLE_STRING, partname ?: "-", TABLE_SET_COLOR, partname ? NULL : ansi_highlight(),
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->offset,
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->current_size == UINT64_MAX ? 0 : p->current_size,
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->new_size,
+                                TABLE_STRING, size_change, TABLE_SET_COLOR, !p->partitions_next && sum_size > 0 ? ansi_underline() : NULL,
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->current_padding == UINT64_MAX ? 0 : p->current_padding,
+                                TABLE_UINT64, p->new_padding,
+                                TABLE_STRING, padding_change, TABLE_SET_COLOR, !p->partitions_next && sum_padding > 0 ? ansi_underline() : NULL,
+                                TABLE_STRING, activity ?: "unchanged",
+                                TABLE_STRING, rh,
+                                TABLE_STRV, p->drop_in_files,
+                                TABLE_STRING, empty_to_null(p->split_path) ?: "-");
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return table_log_add_error(r);
+
+                has_roothash = has_roothash || !isempty(rh);
+                has_dropin_files = has_dropin_files || !strv_isempty(p->drop_in_files);
+                has_split_path = has_split_path || !isempty(p->split_path);
+        }
+
+        if ((arg_json_format_flags & JSON_FORMAT_OFF) && (sum_padding > 0 || sum_size > 0)) {
+                const char *a, *b;
+
+                a = strjoina(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_SIGMA), " = ", FORMAT_BYTES(sum_size));
+                b = strjoina(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_SIGMA), " = ", FORMAT_BYTES(sum_padding));
+
+                r = table_add_many(
+                                t,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_STRING, a,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_STRING, b,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY,
+                                TABLE_EMPTY);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return table_log_add_error(r);
+        }
+
+        if (!has_roothash) {
+                r = table_hide_column_from_display(t, roothash_col);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set columns to display: %m");
+        }
+
+        if (!has_dropin_files) {
+                r = table_hide_column_from_display(t, dropin_files_col);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set columns to display: %m");
+        }
+
+        if (!has_split_path) {
+                r = table_hide_column_from_display(t, split_path_col);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set columns to display: %m");
+        }
+
+        return table_print_with_pager(t, arg_json_format_flags, arg_pager_flags, arg_legend);
+}
+
+static int context_bar_char_process_partition(
+                Context *context,
+                Partition *bar[],
+                size_t n,
+                Partition *p,
+                size_t **start_array,
+                size_t *n_start_array) {
+
+        uint64_t from, to, total;
+        size_t x, y;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(bar);
+        assert(n > 0);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(start_array);
+        assert(n_start_array);
+
+        if (p->dropped)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        from = p->offset;
+        to = from + p->new_size;
+
+        assert(context->total > 0);
+        total = context->total;
+
+        assert(from <= total);
+        x = from * n / total;
+
+        assert(to <= total);
+        y = to * n / total;
+
+        assert(x <= y);
+        assert(y <= n);
+
+        for (size_t i = x; i < y; i++)
+                bar[i] = p;
+
+        if (!GREEDY_REALLOC_APPEND(*start_array, *n_start_array, &x, 1))
+                return log_oom();
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int partition_hint(const Partition *p, const char *node, char **ret) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *buf = NULL;
+        const char *label;
+        sd_id128_t id;
+
+        /* Tries really hard to find a suitable description for this partition */
+
+        if (p->definition_path)
+                return path_extract_filename(p->definition_path, ret);
+
+        label = partition_label(p);
+        if (!isempty(label)) {
+                buf = strdup(label);
+                goto done;
+        }
+
+        if (p->partno != UINT64_MAX) {
+                buf = fdisk_partname(node, p->partno+1);
+                goto done;
+        }
+
+        if (p->new_uuid_is_set)
+                id = p->new_uuid;
+        else if (!sd_id128_is_null(p->current_uuid))
+                id = p->current_uuid;
+        else
+                id = p->type.uuid;
+
+        buf = strdup(SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(id));
+
+done:
+        if (!buf)
+                return -ENOMEM;
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(buf);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_dump_partition_bar(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_free_ Partition **bar = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ size_t *start_array = NULL;
+        size_t n_start_array = 0;
+        Partition *last = NULL;
+        bool z = false;
+        size_t c, j = 0;
+        int r;
+
+        assert_se((c = columns()) >= 2);
+        c -= 2; /* We do not use the leftmost and rightmost character cell */
+
+        bar = new0(Partition*, c);
+        if (!bar)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                r = context_bar_char_process_partition(context, bar, c, p, &start_array, &n_start_array);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        putc(' ', stdout);
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < c; i++) {
+                if (bar[i]) {
+                        if (last != bar[i])
+                                z = !z;
+
+                        fputs(z ? ansi_green() : ansi_yellow(), stdout);
+                        fputs(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_DARK_SHADE), stdout);
+                } else {
+                        fputs(ansi_normal(), stdout);
+                        fputs(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_LIGHT_SHADE), stdout);
+                }
+
+                last = bar[i];
+        }
+
+        fputs(ansi_normal(), stdout);
+        putc('\n', stdout);
+
+        for (size_t i = 0; i < n_start_array; i++) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char **line = NULL;
+
+                line = new0(char*, c);
+                if (!line)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                j = 0;
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *d = NULL;
+
+                        if (p->dropped)
+                                continue;
+
+                        j++;
+
+                        if (i < n_start_array - j) {
+
+                                if (line[start_array[j-1]]) {
+                                        const char *e;
+
+                                        /* Upgrade final corner to the right with a branch to the right */
+                                        e = startswith(line[start_array[j-1]], special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_RIGHT));
+                                        if (e) {
+                                                d = strjoin(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_BRANCH), e);
+                                                if (!d)
+                                                        return log_oom();
+                                        }
+                                }
+
+                                if (!d) {
+                                        d = strdup(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_VERTICAL));
+                                        if (!d)
+                                                return log_oom();
+                                }
+
+                        } else if (i == n_start_array - j) {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *hint = NULL;
+
+                                (void) partition_hint(p, context->node, &hint);
+
+                                if (streq_ptr(line[start_array[j-1]], special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_VERTICAL)))
+                                        d = strjoin(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_BRANCH), " ", strna(hint));
+                                else
+                                        d = strjoin(special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_TREE_RIGHT), " ", strna(hint));
+
+                                if (!d)
+                                        return log_oom();
+                        }
+
+                        if (d)
+                                free_and_replace(line[start_array[j-1]], d);
+                }
+
+                putc(' ', stdout);
+
+                j = 0;
+                while (j < c) {
+                        if (line[j]) {
+                                fputs(line[j], stdout);
+                                j += utf8_console_width(line[j]);
+                        } else {
+                                putc(' ', stdout);
+                                j++;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                putc('\n', stdout);
+
+                for (j = 0; j < c; j++)
+                        free(line[j]);
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static bool context_has_roothash(Context *context) {
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions)
+                if (iovec_is_set(&p->roothash))
+                        return true;
+
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int context_dump(Context *context, bool late) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (arg_pretty == 0 && FLAGS_SET(arg_json_format_flags, JSON_FORMAT_OFF))
+                return 0;
+
+        /* If we're outputting JSON, only dump after doing all operations so we can include the roothashes
+         * in the output.  */
+        if (!late && !FLAGS_SET(arg_json_format_flags, JSON_FORMAT_OFF))
+                return 0;
+
+        /* If we're not outputting JSON, only dump again after doing all operations if there are any
+         * roothashes that we need to communicate to the user. */
+        if (late && FLAGS_SET(arg_json_format_flags, JSON_FORMAT_OFF) && !context_has_roothash(context))
+                return 0;
+
+        r = context_dump_partitions(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Make sure we only write the partition bar once, even if we're writing the partition table twice to
+         * communicate roothashes. */
+        if (FLAGS_SET(arg_json_format_flags, JSON_FORMAT_OFF) && !late) {
+                putc('\n', stdout);
+
+                r = context_dump_partition_bar(context);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                putc('\n', stdout);
+        }
+
+        fflush(stdout);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+
+static bool context_changed(const Context *context) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->allocated_to_area)
+                        return true;
+
+                if (p->new_size != p->current_size)
+                        return true;
+        }
+
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int context_wipe_range(Context *context, uint64_t offset, uint64_t size) {
+        _cleanup_(blkid_free_probep) blkid_probe probe = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        probe = blkid_new_probe();
+        if (!probe)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        errno = 0;
+        r = blkid_probe_set_device(probe, fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context), offset, size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno ?: SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to allocate device probe for wiping.");
+
+        errno = 0;
+        if (blkid_probe_enable_superblocks(probe, true) < 0 ||
+            blkid_probe_set_superblocks_flags(probe, BLKID_SUBLKS_MAGIC|BLKID_SUBLKS_BADCSUM) < 0 ||
+            blkid_probe_enable_partitions(probe, true) < 0 ||
+            blkid_probe_set_partitions_flags(probe, BLKID_PARTS_MAGIC) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno ?: SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to enable superblock and partition probing.");
+
+        for (;;) {
+                errno = 0;
+                r = blkid_do_probe(probe);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno_or_else(EIO), "Failed to probe for file systems.");
+                if (r > 0)
+                        break;
+
+                errno = 0;
+                if (blkid_do_wipe(probe, false) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno_or_else(EIO), "Failed to wipe file system signature.");
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_wipe_partition(Context *context, Partition *p) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(!PARTITION_EXISTS(p)); /* Safety check: never wipe existing partitions */
+
+        assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        r = context_wipe_range(context, p->offset, p->new_size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        log_info("Successfully wiped file system signatures from future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_discard_range(
+                Context *context,
+                uint64_t offset,
+                uint64_t size) {
+
+        struct stat st;
+        int fd;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+        if (size <= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert_se((fd = fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context)) >= 0);
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return -errno;
+
+        if (S_ISREG(st.st_mode)) {
+                if (fallocate(fd, FALLOC_FL_PUNCH_HOLE|FALLOC_FL_KEEP_SIZE, offset, size) < 0) {
+                        if (ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(errno))
+                                return -EOPNOTSUPP;
+
+                        return -errno;
+                }
+
+                return 1;
+        }
+
+        if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                uint64_t range[2], end;
+
+                range[0] = round_up_size(offset, context->sector_size);
+
+                if (offset > UINT64_MAX - size)
+                        return -ERANGE;
+
+                end = offset + size;
+                if (end <= range[0])
+                        return 0;
+
+                range[1] = round_down_size(end - range[0], context->sector_size);
+                if (range[1] <= 0)
+                        return 0;
+
+                if (ioctl(fd, BLKDISCARD, range) < 0) {
+                        if (ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(errno))
+                                return -EOPNOTSUPP;
+
+                        return -errno;
+                }
+
+                return 1;
+        }
+
+        return -EOPNOTSUPP;
+}
+
+static int context_discard_partition(Context *context, Partition *p) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+
+        assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+        assert(!PARTITION_EXISTS(p)); /* Safety check: never discard existing partitions */
+
+        if (!arg_discard)
+                return 0;
+
+        r = context_discard_range(context, p->offset, p->new_size);
+        if (r == -EOPNOTSUPP) {
+                log_info("Storage does not support discard, not discarding data in future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r == -EBUSY) {
+                /* Let's handle this gracefully: https://bugzilla.kernel.org/show_bug.cgi?id=211167 */
+                log_info("Block device is busy, not discarding partition %" PRIu64 " because it probably is mounted.", p->partno);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r == 0) {
+                log_info("Partition %" PRIu64 " too short for discard, skipping.", p->partno);
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to discard data for future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+
+        log_info("Successfully discarded data from future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int context_discard_gap_after(Context *context, Partition *p) {
+        uint64_t gap, next = UINT64_MAX;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(!p || (p->offset != UINT64_MAX && p->new_size != UINT64_MAX));
+
+        if (!arg_discard)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (p)
+                gap = p->offset + p->new_size;
+        else
+                /* The context start gets rounded up to grain_size, however
+                 * existing partitions may be before that so ensure the gap
+                 * starts at the first actually usable lba
+                 */
+                gap = fdisk_get_first_lba(context->fdisk_context) * context->sector_size;
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                if (q->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(q->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(q->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+
+                if (q->offset < gap)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (next == UINT64_MAX || q->offset < next)
+                        next = q->offset;
+        }
+
+        if (next == UINT64_MAX) {
+                next = (fdisk_get_last_lba(context->fdisk_context) + 1) * context->sector_size;
+                if (gap > next)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Partition end beyond disk end.");
+        }
+
+        assert(next >= gap);
+        r = context_discard_range(context, gap, next - gap);
+        if (r == -EOPNOTSUPP) {
+                if (p)
+                        log_info("Storage does not support discard, not discarding gap after partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                else
+                        log_info("Storage does not support discard, not discarding gap at beginning of disk.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+        if (r == 0)  /* Too short */
+                return 0;
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (p)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to discard gap after partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                else
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to discard gap at beginning of disk.");
+        }
+
+        if (p)
+                log_info("Successfully discarded gap after partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+        else
+                log_info("Successfully discarded gap at beginning of disk.");
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_wipe_and_discard(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (arg_empty == EMPTY_CREATE) /* If we just created the image, no need to wipe */
+                return 0;
+
+        /* Wipe and discard the contents of all partitions we are about to create. We skip the discarding if
+         * we were supposed to start from scratch anyway, as in that case we just discard the whole block
+         * device in one go early on. */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+
+                if (!p->allocated_to_area)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (partition_type_defer(&p->type))
+                        continue;
+
+                r = context_wipe_partition(context, p);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (!context->from_scratch) {
+                        r = context_discard_partition(context, p);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        r = context_discard_gap_after(context, p);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (!context->from_scratch) {
+                r = context_discard_gap_after(context, NULL);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+typedef struct DecryptedPartitionTarget {
+        int fd;
+        char *dm_name;
+        char *volume;
+        struct crypt_device *device;
+} DecryptedPartitionTarget;
+
+static DecryptedPartitionTarget* decrypted_partition_target_free(DecryptedPartitionTarget *t) {
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+        int r;
+
+        if (!t)
+                return NULL;
+
+        safe_close(t->fd);
+
+        /* udev or so might access out block device in the background while we are done. Let's hence
+         * force detach the volume. We sync'ed before, hence this should be safe. */
+        r = sym_crypt_deactivate_by_name(t->device, t->dm_name, CRYPT_DEACTIVATE_FORCE);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_warning_errno(r, "Failed to deactivate LUKS device, ignoring: %m");
+
+        sym_crypt_free(t->device);
+        free(t->dm_name);
+        free(t->volume);
+        free(t);
+#endif
+        return NULL;
+}
+
+typedef struct {
+        LoopDevice *loop;
+        int fd;
+        char *path;
+        int whole_fd;
+        DecryptedPartitionTarget *decrypted;
+} PartitionTarget;
+
+static int partition_target_fd(PartitionTarget *t) {
+        assert(t);
+        assert(t->loop || t->fd >= 0 || t->whole_fd >= 0);
+
+        if (t->decrypted)
+                return t->decrypted->fd;
+
+        if (t->loop)
+                return t->loop->fd;
+
+        if (t->fd >= 0)
+                return t->fd;
+
+        return t->whole_fd;
+}
+
+static const char* partition_target_path(PartitionTarget *t) {
+        assert(t);
+        assert(t->loop || t->path);
+
+        if (t->decrypted)
+                return t->decrypted->volume;
+
+        if (t->loop)
+                return t->loop->node;
+
+        return t->path;
+}
+
+static PartitionTarget *partition_target_free(PartitionTarget *t) {
+        if (!t)
+                return NULL;
+
+        decrypted_partition_target_free(t->decrypted);
+        loop_device_unref(t->loop);
+        safe_close(t->fd);
+        unlink_and_free(t->path);
+
+        return mfree(t);
+}
+
+DEFINE_TRIVIAL_CLEANUP_FUNC(PartitionTarget*, partition_target_free);
+
+static int prepare_temporary_file(PartitionTarget *t, uint64_t size) {
+        _cleanup_(unlink_and_freep) char *temp = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+        const char *vt;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(t);
+
+        r = var_tmp_dir(&vt);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not determine temporary directory: %m");
+
+        temp = path_join(vt, "repart-XXXXXX");
+        if (!temp)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        fd = mkostemp_safe(temp);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(fd, "Failed to create temporary file: %m");
+
+        if (ftruncate(fd, size) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to truncate temporary file to %s: %m",
+                                       FORMAT_BYTES(size));
+
+        t->fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+        t->path = TAKE_PTR(temp);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_target_prepare(
+                Context *context,
+                Partition *p,
+                uint64_t size,
+                bool need_path,
+                PartitionTarget **ret) {
+
+        _cleanup_(partition_target_freep) PartitionTarget *t = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(loop_device_unrefp) LoopDevice *d = NULL;
+        int whole_fd, r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        assert_se((whole_fd = fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context)) >= 0);
+
+        t = new(PartitionTarget, 1);
+        if (!t)
+                return log_oom();
+        *t = (PartitionTarget) {
+                .fd = -EBADF,
+                .whole_fd = -EBADF,
+        };
+
+        if (!need_path) {
+                if (lseek(whole_fd, p->offset, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to partition offset: %m");
+
+                t->whole_fd = whole_fd;
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(t);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        /* Loopback block devices are not only useful to turn regular files into block devices, but
+         * also to cut out sections of block devices into new block devices. */
+
+        if (arg_offline <= 0) {
+                r = loop_device_make(whole_fd, O_RDWR, p->offset, size, context->sector_size, 0, LOCK_EX, &d);
+                if (r < 0 && (arg_offline == 0 || (r != -ENOENT && !ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r)) || !strv_isempty(p->subvolumes)))
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to make loopback device of future partition %" PRIu64 ": %m", p->partno);
+                if (r >= 0) {
+                        t->loop = TAKE_PTR(d);
+                        *ret = TAKE_PTR(t);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                log_debug_errno(r, "No access to loop devices, falling back to a regular file");
+        }
+
+        /* If we can't allocate a loop device, let's write to a regular file that we copy into the final
+         * image so we can run in containers and without needing root privileges. On filesystems with
+         * reflinking support, we can take advantage of this and just reflink the result into the image.
+         */
+
+        r = prepare_temporary_file(t, size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(t);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_target_grow(PartitionTarget *t, uint64_t size) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(t);
+        assert(!t->decrypted);
+
+        if (t->loop) {
+                r = loop_device_refresh_size(t->loop, UINT64_MAX, size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to refresh loopback device size: %m");
+        } else if (t->fd >= 0) {
+                if (ftruncate(t->fd, size) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to grow '%s' to %s by truncation: %m",
+                                               t->path, FORMAT_BYTES(size));
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_target_sync(Context *context, Partition *p, PartitionTarget *t) {
+        int whole_fd, r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(t);
+
+        assert_se((whole_fd = fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context)) >= 0);
+
+        if (t->decrypted && fsync(t->decrypted->fd) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to sync changes to '%s': %m", t->decrypted->volume);
+
+        if (t->loop) {
+                r = loop_device_sync(t->loop);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to sync loopback device: %m");
+        } else if (t->fd >= 0) {
+                struct stat st;
+
+                if (lseek(whole_fd, p->offset, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to partition offset: %m");
+
+                if (lseek(t->fd, 0, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to start of temporary file: %m");
+
+                if (fstat(t->fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat temporary file: %m");
+
+                if (st.st_size > (off_t) p->new_size)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOSPC),
+                                               "Partition %" PRIu64 "'s contents (%s) don't fit in the partition (%s)",
+                                               p->partno, FORMAT_BYTES(st.st_size), FORMAT_BYTES(p->new_size));
+
+                r = copy_bytes(t->fd, whole_fd, UINT64_MAX, COPY_REFLINK|COPY_HOLES|COPY_FSYNC);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy bytes to partition: %m");
+        } else {
+                if (fsync(t->whole_fd) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to sync changes: %m");
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_encrypt(Context *context, Partition *p, PartitionTarget *target, bool offline) {
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP && HAVE_CRYPT_SET_DATA_OFFSET && HAVE_CRYPT_REENCRYPT_INIT_BY_PASSPHRASE && HAVE_CRYPT_REENCRYPT
+        const char *node = partition_target_path(target);
+        struct crypt_params_luks2 luks_params = {
+                .label = strempty(ASSERT_PTR(p)->new_label),
+                .sector_size = ASSERT_PTR(context)->fs_sector_size,
+                .data_device = offline ? node : NULL,
+        };
+        struct crypt_params_reencrypt reencrypt_params = {
+                .mode = CRYPT_REENCRYPT_ENCRYPT,
+                .direction = CRYPT_REENCRYPT_BACKWARD,
+                .resilience = "datashift",
+                .data_shift = LUKS2_METADATA_SIZE / 512,
+                .luks2 = &luks_params,
+                .flags = CRYPT_REENCRYPT_INITIALIZE_ONLY|CRYPT_REENCRYPT_MOVE_FIRST_SEGMENT,
+        };
+        _cleanup_(sym_crypt_freep) struct crypt_device *cd = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(erase_and_freep) char *base64_encoded = NULL;
+        _cleanup_fclose_ FILE *h = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *hp = NULL, *vol = NULL, *dm_name = NULL;
+        const char *passphrase = NULL;
+        size_t passphrase_size = 0;
+        const char *vt;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF);
+
+        r = dlopen_cryptsetup();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "libcryptsetup not found, cannot encrypt: %m");
+
+        log_info("Encrypting future partition %" PRIu64 "...", p->partno);
+
+        if (offline) {
+                r = var_tmp_dir(&vt);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine temporary files directory: %m");
+
+                r = fopen_temporary_child(vt, &h, &hp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create temporary LUKS header file: %m");
+
+                /* Weird cryptsetup requirement which requires the header file to be the size of at least one
+                 * sector. */
+                if (ftruncate(fileno(h), luks_params.sector_size) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to grow temporary LUKS header file: %m");
+        } else {
+                if (asprintf(&dm_name, "luks-repart-%08" PRIx64, random_u64()) < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                vol = path_join("/dev/mapper/", dm_name);
+                if (!vol)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        r = sym_crypt_init(&cd, offline ? hp : node);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to allocate libcryptsetup context for %s: %m", hp);
+
+        cryptsetup_enable_logging(cd);
+
+        if (offline) {
+                /* Disable kernel keyring usage by libcryptsetup as a workaround for
+                 * https://gitlab.com/cryptsetup/cryptsetup/-/merge_requests/273. This makes sure that we can
+                 * do offline encryption even when repart is running in a container. */
+                r = sym_crypt_volume_key_keyring(cd, false);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to disable kernel keyring: %m");
+
+                r = sym_crypt_metadata_locking(cd, false);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to disable metadata locking: %m");
+
+                r = sym_crypt_set_data_offset(cd, LUKS2_METADATA_SIZE / 512);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set data offset: %m");
+        }
+
+        r = sym_crypt_format(
+                        cd,
+                        CRYPT_LUKS2,
+                        "aes",
+                        "xts-plain64",
+                        SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(p->luks_uuid),
+                        NULL,
+                        VOLUME_KEY_SIZE,
+                        &luks_params);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to LUKS2 format future partition: %m");
+
+        if (IN_SET(p->encrypt, ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE, ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE_TPM2)) {
+                r = sym_crypt_keyslot_add_by_volume_key(
+                                cd,
+                                CRYPT_ANY_SLOT,
+                                NULL,
+                                VOLUME_KEY_SIZE,
+                                strempty(arg_key),
+                                arg_key_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to add LUKS2 key: %m");
+
+                passphrase = strempty(arg_key);
+                passphrase_size = arg_key_size;
+        }
+
+        if (IN_SET(p->encrypt, ENCRYPT_TPM2, ENCRYPT_KEY_FILE_TPM2)) {
+#if HAVE_TPM2
+                _cleanup_(json_variant_unrefp) JsonVariant *v = NULL;
+                _cleanup_(erase_and_freep) void *secret = NULL;
+                _cleanup_free_ void *pubkey = NULL;
+                _cleanup_free_ void *blob = NULL, *srk_buf = NULL;
+                size_t secret_size, blob_size, pubkey_size = 0, srk_buf_size = 0;
+                ssize_t base64_encoded_size;
+                int keyslot;
+                TPM2Flags flags = 0;
+
+                if (arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask != 0) {
+                        r = tpm2_load_pcr_public_key(arg_tpm2_public_key, &pubkey, &pubkey_size);
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                if (arg_tpm2_public_key || r != -ENOENT)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read TPM PCR public key: %m");
+
+                                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to read TPM2 PCR public key, proceeding without: %m");
+                                arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask = 0;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                TPM2B_PUBLIC public;
+                if (pubkey) {
+                        r = tpm2_tpm2b_public_from_pem(pubkey, pubkey_size, &public);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not convert public key to TPM2B_PUBLIC: %m");
+                }
+
+                _cleanup_(tpm2_pcrlock_policy_done) Tpm2PCRLockPolicy pcrlock_policy = {};
+                if (arg_tpm2_pcrlock) {
+                        r = tpm2_pcrlock_policy_load(arg_tpm2_pcrlock, &pcrlock_policy);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        flags |= TPM2_FLAGS_USE_PCRLOCK;
+                }
+
+                _cleanup_(tpm2_context_unrefp) Tpm2Context *tpm2_context = NULL;
+                TPM2B_PUBLIC device_key_public = {};
+                if (arg_tpm2_device_key) {
+                        r = tpm2_load_public_key_file(arg_tpm2_device_key, &device_key_public);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        if (!tpm2_pcr_values_has_all_values(arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                       "Must provide all PCR values when using TPM2 device key.");
+                } else {
+                        r = tpm2_context_new(arg_tpm2_device, &tpm2_context);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create TPM2 context: %m");
+
+                        if (!tpm2_pcr_values_has_all_values(arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values)) {
+                                r = tpm2_pcr_read_missing_values(tpm2_context, arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Could not read pcr values: %m");
+                        }
+                }
+
+                uint16_t hash_pcr_bank = 0;
+                uint32_t hash_pcr_mask = 0;
+                if (arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values > 0) {
+                        size_t hash_count;
+                        r = tpm2_pcr_values_hash_count(arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values, &hash_count);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not get hash count: %m");
+
+                        if (hash_count > 1)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Multiple PCR banks selected.");
+
+                        hash_pcr_bank = arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values[0].hash;
+                        r = tpm2_pcr_values_to_mask(arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values, hash_pcr_bank, &hash_pcr_mask);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not get hash mask: %m");
+                }
+
+                TPM2B_DIGEST policy = TPM2B_DIGEST_MAKE(NULL, TPM2_SHA256_DIGEST_SIZE);
+                r = tpm2_calculate_sealing_policy(
+                                arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values,
+                                arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values,
+                                pubkey ? &public : NULL,
+                                /* use_pin= */ false,
+                                arg_tpm2_pcrlock ? &pcrlock_policy : NULL,
+                                &policy);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Could not calculate sealing policy digest: %m");
+
+                if (arg_tpm2_device_key)
+                        r = tpm2_calculate_seal(
+                                        arg_tpm2_seal_key_handle,
+                                        &device_key_public,
+                                        /* attributes= */ NULL,
+                                        /* secret= */ NULL, /* secret_size= */ 0,
+                                        &policy,
+                                        /* pin= */ NULL,
+                                        &secret, &secret_size,
+                                        &blob, &blob_size,
+                                        &srk_buf, &srk_buf_size);
+                else
+                        r = tpm2_seal(tpm2_context,
+                                      arg_tpm2_seal_key_handle,
+                                      &policy,
+                                      /* pin= */ NULL,
+                                      &secret, &secret_size,
+                                      &blob, &blob_size,
+                                      /* ret_primary_alg= */ NULL,
+                                      &srk_buf, &srk_buf_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to seal to TPM2: %m");
+
+                base64_encoded_size = base64mem(secret, secret_size, &base64_encoded);
+                if (base64_encoded_size < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(base64_encoded_size, "Failed to base64 encode secret key: %m");
+
+                r = cryptsetup_set_minimal_pbkdf(cd);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set minimal PBKDF: %m");
+
+                keyslot = sym_crypt_keyslot_add_by_volume_key(
+                                cd,
+                                CRYPT_ANY_SLOT,
+                                /* volume_key= */ NULL,
+                                /* volume_key_size= */ VOLUME_KEY_SIZE,
+                                base64_encoded,
+                                base64_encoded_size);
+                if (keyslot < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(keyslot, "Failed to add new TPM2 key: %m");
+
+                r = tpm2_make_luks2_json(
+                                keyslot,
+                                hash_pcr_mask,
+                                hash_pcr_bank,
+                                pubkey, pubkey_size,
+                                arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask,
+                                /* primary_alg= */ 0,
+                                blob, blob_size,
+                                policy.buffer, policy.size,
+                                NULL, 0, /* no salt because tpm2_seal has no pin */
+                                srk_buf, srk_buf_size,
+                                flags,
+                                &v);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to prepare TPM2 JSON token object: %m");
+
+                r = cryptsetup_add_token_json(cd, v);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to add TPM2 JSON token to LUKS2 header: %m");
+
+                passphrase = base64_encoded;
+                passphrase_size = strlen(base64_encoded);
+#else
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP),
+                                       "Support for TPM2 enrollment not enabled.");
+#endif
+        }
+
+        if (offline) {
+                r = sym_crypt_reencrypt_init_by_passphrase(
+                                cd,
+                                NULL,
+                                passphrase,
+                                passphrase_size,
+                                CRYPT_ANY_SLOT,
+                                0,
+                                sym_crypt_get_cipher(cd),
+                                sym_crypt_get_cipher_mode(cd),
+                                &reencrypt_params);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to prepare for reencryption: %m");
+
+                /* crypt_reencrypt_init_by_passphrase() doesn't actually put the LUKS header at the front, we
+                 * have to do that ourselves. */
+
+                sym_crypt_free(cd);
+                cd = NULL;
+
+                r = sym_crypt_init(&cd, node);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to allocate libcryptsetup context for %s: %m", node);
+
+                r = sym_crypt_header_restore(cd, CRYPT_LUKS2, hp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to place new LUKS header at head of %s: %m", node);
+
+                reencrypt_params.flags &= ~CRYPT_REENCRYPT_INITIALIZE_ONLY;
+
+                r = sym_crypt_reencrypt_init_by_passphrase(
+                                cd,
+                                NULL,
+                                passphrase,
+                                passphrase_size,
+                                CRYPT_ANY_SLOT,
+                                0,
+                                NULL,
+                                NULL,
+                                &reencrypt_params);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to load reencryption context: %m");
+
+                r = sym_crypt_reencrypt(cd, NULL);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to encrypt %s: %m", node);
+        } else {
+                _cleanup_free_ DecryptedPartitionTarget *t = NULL;
+                _cleanup_close_ int dev_fd = -1;
+
+                r = sym_crypt_activate_by_volume_key(
+                                cd,
+                                dm_name,
+                                NULL,
+                                VOLUME_KEY_SIZE,
+                                arg_discard ? CRYPT_ACTIVATE_ALLOW_DISCARDS : 0);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to activate LUKS superblock: %m");
+
+                dev_fd = open(vol, O_RDWR|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOCTTY);
+                if (dev_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open LUKS volume '%s': %m", vol);
+
+                if (flock(dev_fd, LOCK_EX) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to lock '%s': %m", vol);
+
+                t = new(DecryptedPartitionTarget, 1);
+                if (!t)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                *t = (DecryptedPartitionTarget) {
+                        .fd = TAKE_FD(dev_fd),
+                        .dm_name = TAKE_PTR(dm_name),
+                        .volume = TAKE_PTR(vol),
+                        .device = TAKE_PTR(cd),
+                };
+
+                target->decrypted = TAKE_PTR(t);
+        }
+
+        log_info("Successfully encrypted future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+
+        return 0;
+#else
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP),
+                               "libcryptsetup is not supported or is missing required symbols, cannot encrypt: %m");
+#endif
+}
+
+static int partition_format_verity_hash(
+                Context *context,
+                Partition *p,
+                const char *node,
+                const char *data_node) {
+
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+        Partition *dp;
+        _cleanup_(partition_target_freep) PartitionTarget *t = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(sym_crypt_freep) struct crypt_device *cd = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *hint = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(p->verity == VERITY_HASH);
+        assert(data_node);
+
+        if (p->dropped)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never format existing partitions */
+                return 0;
+
+        /* Minimized partitions will use the copy blocks logic so let's make sure to skip those here. */
+        if (p->copy_blocks_fd >= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert_se(dp = p->siblings[VERITY_DATA]);
+        assert(!dp->dropped);
+
+        (void) partition_hint(p, node, &hint);
+
+        r = dlopen_cryptsetup();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "libcryptsetup not found, cannot setup verity: %m");
+
+        if (!node) {
+                r = partition_target_prepare(context, p, p->new_size, /*need_path=*/ true, &t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                node = partition_target_path(t);
+        }
+
+        if (p->verity_data_block_size == UINT64_MAX)
+                p->verity_data_block_size = context->fs_sector_size;
+        if (p->verity_hash_block_size == UINT64_MAX)
+                p->verity_hash_block_size = context->fs_sector_size;
+
+        r = sym_crypt_init(&cd, node);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to allocate libcryptsetup context for %s: %m", node);
+
+        cryptsetup_enable_logging(cd);
+
+        r = sym_crypt_format(
+                        cd, CRYPT_VERITY, NULL, NULL, SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(p->verity_uuid), NULL, 0,
+                        &(struct crypt_params_verity){
+                                .data_device = data_node,
+                                .flags = CRYPT_VERITY_CREATE_HASH,
+                                .hash_name = "sha256",
+                                .hash_type = 1,
+                                .data_block_size = p->verity_data_block_size,
+                                .hash_block_size = p->verity_hash_block_size,
+                                .salt_size = sizeof(p->verity_salt),
+                                .salt = (const char*)p->verity_salt,
+                        });
+        if (r < 0) {
+                /* libcryptsetup reports non-descriptive EIO errors for every I/O failure. Luckily, it
+                 * doesn't clobber errno so let's check for ENOSPC so we can report a better error if the
+                 * partition is too small. */
+                if (r == -EIO && errno == ENOSPC)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno,
+                                               "Verity hash data does not fit in partition %s with size %s",
+                                               strna(hint), FORMAT_BYTES(p->new_size));
+
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to setup verity hash data of partition %s: %m", strna(hint));
+        }
+
+        if (t) {
+                r = partition_target_sync(context, p, t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        r = sym_crypt_get_volume_key_size(cd);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine verity root hash size of partition %s: %m", strna(hint));
+
+        _cleanup_(iovec_done) struct iovec rh = {
+                .iov_base = malloc(r),
+                .iov_len = r,
+        };
+        if (!rh.iov_base)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        r = sym_crypt_volume_key_get(cd, CRYPT_ANY_SLOT, (char *) rh.iov_base, &rh.iov_len, NULL, 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to get verity root hash of partition %s: %m", strna(hint));
+
+        assert(rh.iov_len >= sizeof(sd_id128_t) * 2);
+
+        if (!dp->new_uuid_is_set) {
+                memcpy_safe(dp->new_uuid.bytes, rh.iov_base, sizeof(sd_id128_t));
+                dp->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+        }
+
+        if (!p->new_uuid_is_set) {
+                memcpy_safe(p->new_uuid.bytes, (uint8_t*) rh.iov_base + (rh.iov_len - sizeof(sd_id128_t)), sizeof(sd_id128_t));
+                p->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+        }
+
+        p->roothash = TAKE_STRUCT(rh);
+
+        return 0;
+#else
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP), "libcryptsetup is not supported, cannot setup verity hashes: %m");
+#endif
+}
+
+static int sign_verity_roothash(
+                const struct iovec *roothash,
+                struct iovec *ret_signature) {
+
+#if HAVE_OPENSSL
+        _cleanup_(BIO_freep) BIO *rb = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(PKCS7_freep) PKCS7 *p7 = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *hex = NULL;
+        _cleanup_free_ uint8_t *sig = NULL;
+        int sigsz;
+
+        assert(roothash);
+        assert(iovec_is_set(roothash));
+        assert(ret_signature);
+
+        hex = hexmem(roothash->iov_base, roothash->iov_len);
+        if (!hex)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        rb = BIO_new_mem_buf(hex, -1);
+        if (!rb)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        p7 = PKCS7_sign(arg_certificate, arg_private_key, NULL, rb, PKCS7_DETACHED|PKCS7_NOATTR|PKCS7_BINARY);
+        if (!p7)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to calculate PKCS7 signature: %s",
+                                       ERR_error_string(ERR_get_error(), NULL));
+
+        sigsz = i2d_PKCS7(p7, &sig);
+        if (sigsz < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to convert PKCS7 signature to DER: %s",
+                                       ERR_error_string(ERR_get_error(), NULL));
+
+        ret_signature->iov_base = TAKE_PTR(sig);
+        ret_signature->iov_len = sigsz;
+
+        return 0;
+#else
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP), "OpenSSL is not supported, cannot setup verity signature: %m");
+#endif
+}
+
+static int partition_format_verity_sig(Context *context, Partition *p) {
+        _cleanup_(json_variant_unrefp) JsonVariant *v = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(iovec_done) struct iovec sig = {};
+        _cleanup_free_ char *text = NULL, *hint = NULL;
+        Partition *hp;
+        uint8_t fp[X509_FINGERPRINT_SIZE];
+        int whole_fd, r;
+
+        assert(p->verity == VERITY_SIG);
+
+        if (p->dropped)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p))
+                return 0;
+
+        (void) partition_hint(p, context->node, &hint);
+
+        assert_se(hp = p->siblings[VERITY_HASH]);
+        assert(!hp->dropped);
+
+        assert(arg_certificate);
+
+        assert_se((whole_fd = fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context)) >= 0);
+
+        r = sign_verity_roothash(&hp->roothash, &sig);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = x509_fingerprint(arg_certificate, fp);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Unable to calculate X509 certificate fingerprint: %m");
+
+        r = json_build(&v,
+                        JSON_BUILD_OBJECT(
+                                JSON_BUILD_PAIR("rootHash", JSON_BUILD_HEX(hp->roothash.iov_base, hp->roothash.iov_len)),
+                                JSON_BUILD_PAIR(
+                                        "certificateFingerprint",
+                                        JSON_BUILD_HEX(fp, sizeof(fp))
+                                ),
+                                JSON_BUILD_PAIR("signature", JSON_BUILD_IOVEC_BASE64(&sig))
+                        )
+        );
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to build verity signature JSON object: %m");
+
+        r = json_variant_format(v, 0, &text);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to format verity signature JSON object: %m");
+
+        if (strlen(text)+1 > p->new_size)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(E2BIG), "Verity signature too long for partition: %m");
+
+        r = strgrowpad0(&text, p->new_size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to pad string to %s", FORMAT_BYTES(p->new_size));
+
+        if (lseek(whole_fd, p->offset, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to partition %s offset: %m", strna(hint));
+
+        r = loop_write(whole_fd, text, p->new_size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write verity signature to partition %s: %m", strna(hint));
+
+        if (fsync(whole_fd) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to synchronize partition %s: %m", strna(hint));
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_copy_blocks(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        /* Copy in file systems on the block level */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_(partition_target_freep) PartitionTarget *t = NULL;
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_fd < 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never copy over existing partitions */
+                        continue;
+
+                if (partition_type_defer(&p->type))
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->copy_blocks_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->new_size >= p->copy_blocks_size + (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF ? LUKS2_METADATA_KEEP_FREE : 0));
+
+                usec_t start_timestamp = now(CLOCK_MONOTONIC);
+
+                r = partition_target_prepare(context, p, p->new_size,
+                                             /*need_path=*/ p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF || p->siblings[VERITY_HASH],
+                                             &t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF && t->loop) {
+                        r = partition_encrypt(context, p, t, /* offline = */ false);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_offset == UINT64_MAX)
+                        log_info("Copying in '%s' (%s) on block level into future partition %" PRIu64 ".",
+                                 p->copy_blocks_path, FORMAT_BYTES(p->copy_blocks_size), p->partno);
+                else {
+                        log_info("Copying in '%s' @ %" PRIu64 " (%s) on block level into future partition %" PRIu64 ".",
+                                 p->copy_blocks_path, p->copy_blocks_offset, FORMAT_BYTES(p->copy_blocks_size), p->partno);
+
+                        if (lseek(p->copy_blocks_fd, p->copy_blocks_offset, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to copy blocks offset in %s: %m", p->copy_blocks_path);
+                }
+
+                r = copy_bytes(p->copy_blocks_fd, partition_target_fd(t), p->copy_blocks_size, COPY_REFLINK);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy in data from '%s': %m", p->copy_blocks_path);
+
+                log_info("Copying in of '%s' on block level completed.", p->copy_blocks_path);
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF && !t->loop) {
+                        r = partition_encrypt(context, p, t, /* offline = */ true);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                r = partition_target_sync(context, p, t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                usec_t time_spent = usec_sub_unsigned(now(CLOCK_MONOTONIC), start_timestamp);
+                if (time_spent > 250 * USEC_PER_MSEC) /* Show throughput, but not if we spent too little time on it, since it's just noise then */
+                        log_info("Block level copying and synchronization of partition %" PRIu64 " complete in %s (%s/s).",
+                                 p->partno, FORMAT_TIMESPAN(time_spent, 0), FORMAT_BYTES((uint64_t) ((double) p->copy_blocks_size / time_spent * USEC_PER_SEC)));
+                else
+                        log_info("Block level copying and synchronization of partition %" PRIu64 " complete in %s.",
+                                 p->partno, FORMAT_TIMESPAN(time_spent, 0));
+
+                if (p->siblings[VERITY_HASH] && !partition_type_defer(&p->siblings[VERITY_HASH]->type)) {
+                        r = partition_format_verity_hash(context, p->siblings[VERITY_HASH],
+                                                         /* node = */ NULL, partition_target_path(t));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (p->siblings[VERITY_SIG] && !partition_type_defer(&p->siblings[VERITY_SIG]->type)) {
+                        r = partition_format_verity_sig(context, p->siblings[VERITY_SIG]);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int add_exclude_path(const char *path, Hashmap **denylist, DenyType type) {
+        _cleanup_free_ struct stat *st = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(path);
+        assert(denylist);
+
+        st = new(struct stat, 1);
+        if (!st)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        r = chase_and_stat(path, arg_copy_source, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, NULL, st);
+        if (r == -ENOENT)
+                return 0;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to stat source file '%s/%s': %m", strempty(arg_copy_source), path);
+
+        r = hashmap_ensure_put(denylist, &inode_hash_ops, st, INT_TO_PTR(type));
+        if (r == -EEXIST)
+                return 0;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+        if (r > 0)
+                TAKE_PTR(st);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int make_copy_files_denylist(
+                Context *context,
+                const Partition *p,
+                const char *source,
+                const char *target,
+                Hashmap **ret) {
+
+        _cleanup_hashmap_free_ Hashmap *denylist = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(source);
+        assert(target);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        /* Always exclude the top level APIVFS and temporary directories since the contents of these
+         * directories are almost certainly not intended to end up in an image. */
+
+        NULSTR_FOREACH(s, APIVFS_TMP_DIRS_NULSTR) {
+                r = add_exclude_path(s, &denylist, DENY_CONTENTS);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* Add the user configured excludes. */
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(e, p->exclude_files_source) {
+                r = add_exclude_path(*e, &denylist, endswith(*e, "/") ? DENY_CONTENTS : DENY_INODE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(e, p->exclude_files_target) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
+
+                const char *s = path_startswith(*e, target);
+                if (!s)
+                        continue;
+
+                path = path_join(source, s);
+                if (!path)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = add_exclude_path(path, &denylist, endswith(*e, "/") ? DENY_CONTENTS : DENY_INODE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* If we're populating a root partition, we don't want any files to end up under the APIVFS mount
+         * points. While we already exclude <source>/proc, users could still do something such as
+         * "CopyFiles=/abc:/". Now, if /abc has a proc subdirectory with files in it, those will end up in
+         * the top level proc directory in the root partition, which we want to avoid. To deal with these
+         * cases, whenever we're populating a root partition and the target of CopyFiles= is the root
+         * directory of the root partition, we exclude all directories under the source that are named after
+         * APIVFS directories or named after mount points of other partitions that are also going to be part
+         * of the image. */
+
+        if (p->type.designator == PARTITION_ROOT && empty_or_root(target)) {
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                        if (q->type.designator == PARTITION_ROOT)
+                                continue;
+
+                        const char *sources = gpt_partition_type_mountpoint_nulstr(q->type);
+                        if (!sources)
+                                continue;
+
+                        NULSTR_FOREACH(s, sources) {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
+
+                                /* Exclude only the children of partition mount points so that the nested
+                                 * partition mount point itself still ends up in the upper partition. */
+
+                                path = path_join(source, s);
+                                if (!path)
+                                        return -ENOMEM;
+
+                                r = add_exclude_path(path, &denylist, DENY_CONTENTS);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return r;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                NULSTR_FOREACH(s, APIVFS_TMP_DIRS_NULSTR) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
+
+                        path = path_join(source, s);
+                        if (!path)
+                                return -ENOMEM;
+
+                        r = add_exclude_path(path, &denylist, DENY_CONTENTS);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(denylist);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int add_subvolume_path(const char *path, Set **subvolumes) {
+        _cleanup_free_ struct stat *st = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(path);
+        assert(subvolumes);
+
+        st = new(struct stat, 1);
+        if (!st)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        r = chase_and_stat(path, arg_copy_source, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, NULL, st);
+        if (r == -ENOENT)
+                return 0;
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to stat source file '%s/%s': %m", strempty(arg_copy_source), path);
+
+        r = set_ensure_consume(subvolumes, &inode_hash_ops, TAKE_PTR(st));
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int make_subvolumes_set(
+                Context *context,
+                const Partition *p,
+                const char *source,
+                const char *target,
+                Set **ret) {
+        _cleanup_set_free_ Set *subvolumes = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(target);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(subvolume, p->subvolumes) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
+
+                const char *s = path_startswith(*subvolume, target);
+                if (!s)
+                        continue;
+
+                path = path_join(source, s);
+                if (!path)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = add_subvolume_path(path, &subvolumes);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(subvolumes);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int do_copy_files(Context *context, Partition *p, const char *root) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(p);
+        assert(root);
+
+        /* copy_tree_at() automatically copies the permissions of source directories to target directories if
+         * it created them. However, the root directory is created by us, so we have to manually take care
+         * that it is initialized. We use the first source directory targeting "/" as the metadata source for
+         * the root directory. */
+        STRV_FOREACH_PAIR(source, target, p->copy_files) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int rfd = -EBADF, sfd = -EBADF;
+
+                if (!path_equal(*target, "/"))
+                        continue;
+
+                rfd = open(root, O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOFOLLOW);
+                if (rfd < 0)
+                        return -errno;
+
+                sfd = chase_and_open(*source, arg_copy_source, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_PATH|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOCTTY, NULL);
+                if (sfd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(sfd, "Failed to open source file '%s%s': %m", strempty(arg_copy_source), *source);
+
+                (void) copy_xattr(sfd, NULL, rfd, NULL, COPY_ALL_XATTRS);
+                (void) copy_access(sfd, rfd);
+                (void) copy_times(sfd, rfd, 0);
+
+                break;
+        }
+
+        STRV_FOREACH_PAIR(source, target, p->copy_files) {
+                _cleanup_hashmap_free_ Hashmap *denylist = NULL;
+                _cleanup_set_free_ Set *subvolumes_by_source_inode = NULL;
+                _cleanup_close_ int sfd = -EBADF, pfd = -EBADF, tfd = -EBADF;
+
+                r = make_copy_files_denylist(context, p, *source, *target, &denylist);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = make_subvolumes_set(context, p, *source, *target, &subvolumes_by_source_inode);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                sfd = chase_and_open(*source, arg_copy_source, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_CLOEXEC|O_NOCTTY, NULL);
+                if (sfd == -ENOENT) {
+                        log_notice_errno(sfd, "Failed to open source file '%s%s', skipping: %m", strempty(arg_copy_source), *source);
+                        continue;
+                }
+                if (sfd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(sfd, "Failed to open source file '%s%s': %m", strempty(arg_copy_source), *source);
+
+                r = fd_verify_regular(sfd);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (r != -EISDIR)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to check type of source file '%s': %m", *source);
+
+                        /* We are looking at a directory */
+                        tfd = chase_and_open(*target, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC, NULL);
+                        if (tfd < 0) {
+                                _cleanup_free_ char *dn = NULL, *fn = NULL;
+
+                                if (tfd != -ENOENT)
+                                        return log_error_errno(tfd, "Failed to open target directory '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                                r = path_extract_filename(*target, &fn);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                                r = path_extract_directory(*target, &dn);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract directory from '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                                r = mkdir_p_root(root, dn, UID_INVALID, GID_INVALID, 0755, p->subvolumes);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create parent directory '%s': %m", dn);
+
+                                pfd = chase_and_open(dn, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC, NULL);
+                                if (pfd < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(pfd, "Failed to open parent directory of target: %m");
+
+                                r = copy_tree_at(
+                                                sfd, ".",
+                                                pfd, fn,
+                                                UID_INVALID, GID_INVALID,
+                                                COPY_REFLINK|COPY_HOLES|COPY_MERGE|COPY_REPLACE|COPY_SIGINT|COPY_HARDLINKS|COPY_ALL_XATTRS|COPY_GRACEFUL_WARN|COPY_TRUNCATE,
+                                                denylist, subvolumes_by_source_inode);
+                        } else
+                                r = copy_tree_at(
+                                                sfd, ".",
+                                                tfd, ".",
+                                                UID_INVALID, GID_INVALID,
+                                                COPY_REFLINK|COPY_HOLES|COPY_MERGE|COPY_REPLACE|COPY_SIGINT|COPY_HARDLINKS|COPY_ALL_XATTRS|COPY_GRACEFUL_WARN|COPY_TRUNCATE,
+                                                denylist, subvolumes_by_source_inode);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy '%s%s' to '%s%s': %m",
+                                                       strempty(arg_copy_source), *source, strempty(root), *target);
+                } else {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *dn = NULL, *fn = NULL;
+
+                        /* We are looking at a regular file */
+
+                        r = path_extract_filename(*target, &fn);
+                        if (r == -EADDRNOTAVAIL || r == O_DIRECTORY)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EISDIR),
+                                                       "Target path '%s' refers to a directory, but source path '%s' refers to regular file, can't copy.", *target, *source);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                        r = path_extract_directory(*target, &dn);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract directory from '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                        r = mkdir_p_root(root, dn, UID_INVALID, GID_INVALID, 0755, p->subvolumes);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create parent directory: %m");
+
+                        pfd = chase_and_open(dn, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC, NULL);
+                        if (pfd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(pfd, "Failed to open parent directory of target: %m");
+
+                        tfd = openat(pfd, fn, O_CREAT|O_EXCL|O_WRONLY|O_CLOEXEC, 0700);
+                        if (tfd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create target file '%s': %m", *target);
+
+                        r = copy_bytes(sfd, tfd, UINT64_MAX, COPY_REFLINK|COPY_HOLES|COPY_SIGINT|COPY_TRUNCATE);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy '%s' to '%s%s': %m", *source, strempty(arg_copy_source), *target);
+
+                        (void) copy_xattr(sfd, NULL, tfd, NULL, COPY_ALL_XATTRS);
+                        (void) copy_access(sfd, tfd);
+                        (void) copy_times(sfd, tfd, 0);
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int do_make_directories(Partition *p, const char *root) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(p);
+        assert(root);
+
+        STRV_FOREACH(d, p->make_directories) {
+                r = mkdir_p_root(root, *d, UID_INVALID, GID_INVALID, 0755, p->subvolumes);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create directory '%s' in file system: %m", *d);
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static bool partition_needs_populate(Partition *p) {
+        assert(p);
+        return !strv_isempty(p->copy_files) || !strv_isempty(p->make_directories);
+}
+
+static int partition_populate_directory(Context *context, Partition *p, char **ret) {
+        _cleanup_(rm_rf_physical_and_freep) char *root = NULL;
+        const char *vt;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(ret);
+
+        log_info("Populating %s filesystem.", p->format);
+
+        r = var_tmp_dir(&vt);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not determine temporary directory: %m");
+
+        r = tempfn_random_child(vt, "repart", &root);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate temporary directory: %m");
+
+        r = mkdir(root, 0755);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create temporary directory: %m");
+
+        r = do_copy_files(context, p, root);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = do_make_directories(p, root);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        log_info("Successfully populated %s filesystem.", p->format);
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(root);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_populate_filesystem(Context *context, Partition *p, const char *node) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(p);
+        assert(node);
+
+        log_info("Populating %s filesystem.", p->format);
+
+        /* We copy in a child process, since we have to mount the fs for that, and we don't want that fs to
+         * appear in the host namespace. Hence we fork a child that has its own file system namespace and
+         * detached mount propagation. */
+
+        r = safe_fork("(sd-copy)", FORK_DEATHSIG_SIGTERM|FORK_LOG|FORK_WAIT|FORK_NEW_MOUNTNS|FORK_MOUNTNS_SLAVE, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r == 0) {
+                static const char fs[] = "/run/systemd/mount-root";
+                /* This is a child process with its own mount namespace and propagation to host turned off */
+
+                r = mkdir_p(fs, 0700);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create mount point: %m");
+                        _exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
+                }
+
+                if (mount_nofollow_verbose(LOG_ERR, node, fs, p->format, MS_NOATIME|MS_NODEV|MS_NOEXEC|MS_NOSUID, NULL) < 0)
+                        _exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
+
+                if (do_copy_files(context, p, fs) < 0)
+                        _exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
+
+                if (do_make_directories(p, fs) < 0)
+                        _exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
+
+                r = syncfs_path(AT_FDCWD, fs);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        log_error_errno(r, "Failed to synchronize written files: %m");
+                        _exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
+                }
+
+                _exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
+        }
+
+        log_info("Successfully populated %s filesystem.", p->format);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_mkfs(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        /* Make a file system */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_(rm_rf_physical_and_freep) char *root = NULL;
+                _cleanup_(partition_target_freep) PartitionTarget *t = NULL;
+                _cleanup_strv_free_ char **extra_mkfs_options = NULL;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never format existing partitions */
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!p->format)
+                        continue;
+
+                /* Minimized partitions will use the copy blocks logic so let's make sure to skip those here. */
+                if (p->copy_blocks_fd >= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (partition_type_defer(&p->type))
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->new_size >= (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF ? LUKS2_METADATA_KEEP_FREE : 0));
+
+                /* If we're doing encryption, we make sure we keep free space at the end which is required
+                 * for cryptsetup's offline encryption. */
+                r = partition_target_prepare(context, p,
+                                             p->new_size - (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF ? LUKS2_METADATA_KEEP_FREE : 0),
+                                             /*need_path=*/ true,
+                                             &t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF && t->loop) {
+                        r = partition_target_grow(t, p->new_size);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        r = partition_encrypt(context, p, t, /* offline = */ false);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to encrypt device: %m");
+                }
+
+                log_info("Formatting future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+
+                /* If we're not writing to a loop device or if we're populating a read-only filesystem, we
+                 * have to populate using the filesystem's mkfs's --root (or equivalent) option. To do that,
+                 * we need to set up the final directory tree beforehand. */
+
+                if (partition_needs_populate(p) && (!t->loop || fstype_is_ro(p->format))) {
+                        if (!mkfs_supports_root_option(p->format))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENODEV),
+                                                        "Loop device access is required to populate %s filesystems.",
+                                                        p->format);
+
+                        r = partition_populate_directory(context, p, &root);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                r = mkfs_options_from_env("REPART", p->format, &extra_mkfs_options);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r,
+                                               "Failed to determine mkfs command line options for '%s': %m",
+                                               p->format);
+
+                r = make_filesystem(partition_target_path(t), p->format, strempty(p->new_label), root,
+                                    p->fs_uuid, arg_discard, /* quiet = */ false,
+                                    context->fs_sector_size, extra_mkfs_options);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                /* The mkfs binary we invoked might have removed our temporary file when we're not operating
+                 * on a loop device, so let's make sure we open the file again to make sure our file
+                 * descriptor points to any potential new file. */
+
+                if (t->fd >= 0 && t->path && !t->loop) {
+                        safe_close(t->fd);
+                        t->fd = open(t->path, O_RDWR|O_CLOEXEC);
+                        if (t->fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to reopen temporary file: %m");
+                }
+
+                log_info("Successfully formatted future partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+
+                /* If we're writing to a loop device, we can now mount the empty filesystem and populate it. */
+                if (partition_needs_populate(p) && !root) {
+                        assert(t->loop);
+
+                        r = partition_populate_filesystem(context, p, partition_target_path(t));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF && !t->loop) {
+                        r = partition_target_grow(t, p->new_size);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        r = partition_encrypt(context, p, t, /* offline = */ true);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to encrypt device: %m");
+                }
+
+                /* Note that we always sync explicitly here, since mkfs.fat doesn't do that on its own, and
+                 * if we don't sync before detaching a block device the in-flight sectors possibly won't hit
+                 * the disk. */
+
+                r = partition_target_sync(context, p, t);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (p->siblings[VERITY_HASH] && !partition_type_defer(&p->siblings[VERITY_HASH]->type)) {
+                        r = partition_format_verity_hash(context, p->siblings[VERITY_HASH],
+                                                         /* node = */ NULL, partition_target_path(t));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (p->siblings[VERITY_SIG] && !partition_type_defer(&p->siblings[VERITY_SIG]->type)) {
+                        r = partition_format_verity_sig(context, p->siblings[VERITY_SIG]);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_x509_certificate(const char *certificate, size_t certificate_size, X509 **ret) {
+#if HAVE_OPENSSL
+        _cleanup_(X509_freep) X509 *cert = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(BIO_freep) BIO *cb = NULL;
+
+        assert(certificate);
+        assert(certificate_size > 0);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        cb = BIO_new_mem_buf(certificate, certificate_size);
+        if (!cb)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        cert = PEM_read_bio_X509(cb, NULL, NULL, NULL);
+        if (!cert)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADMSG), "Failed to parse X.509 certificate: %s",
+                                       ERR_error_string(ERR_get_error(), NULL));
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(cert);
+
+        return 0;
+#else
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP), "OpenSSL is not supported, cannot parse X509 certificate.");
+#endif
+}
+
+static int parse_private_key(const char *key, size_t key_size, EVP_PKEY **ret) {
+#if HAVE_OPENSSL
+        _cleanup_(BIO_freep) BIO *kb = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(EVP_PKEY_freep) EVP_PKEY *pk = NULL;
+
+        assert(key);
+        assert(key_size > 0);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        kb = BIO_new_mem_buf(key, key_size);
+        if (!kb)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        pk = PEM_read_bio_PrivateKey(kb, NULL, NULL, NULL);
+        if (!pk)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EIO), "Failed to parse PEM private key: %s",
+                                       ERR_error_string(ERR_get_error(), NULL));
+
+        if (ret)
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(pk);
+
+        return 0;
+#else
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP), "OpenSSL is not supported, cannot parse private key.");
+#endif
+}
+
+static int partition_acquire_uuid(Context *context, Partition *p, sd_id128_t *ret) {
+        struct {
+                sd_id128_t type_uuid;
+                uint64_t counter;
+        } _packed_ plaintext = {};
+        union {
+                uint8_t md[SHA256_DIGEST_SIZE];
+                sd_id128_t id;
+        } result;
+
+        uint64_t k = 0;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        /* Calculate a good UUID for the indicated partition. We want a certain degree of reproducibility,
+         * hence we won't generate the UUIDs randomly. Instead we use a cryptographic hash (precisely:
+         * HMAC-SHA256) to derive them from a single seed. The seed is generally the machine ID of the
+         * installation we are processing, but if random behaviour is desired can be random, too. We use the
+         * seed value as key for the HMAC (since the machine ID is something we generally don't want to leak)
+         * and the partition type as plaintext. The partition type is suffixed with a counter (only for the
+         * second and later partition of the same type) if we have more than one partition of the same
+         * time. Or in other words:
+         *
+         * With:
+         *     SEED := /etc/machine-id
+         *
+         * If first partition instance of type TYPE_UUID:
+         *     PARTITION_UUID := HMAC-SHA256(SEED, TYPE_UUID)
+         *
+         * For all later partition instances of type TYPE_UUID with INSTANCE being the LE64 encoded instance number:
+         *     PARTITION_UUID := HMAC-SHA256(SEED, TYPE_UUID || INSTANCE)
+         */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                if (p == q)
+                        break;
+
+                if (!sd_id128_equal(p->type.uuid, q->type.uuid))
+                        continue;
+
+                k++;
+        }
+
+        plaintext.type_uuid = p->type.uuid;
+        plaintext.counter = htole64(k);
+
+        hmac_sha256(context->seed.bytes, sizeof(context->seed.bytes),
+                    &plaintext,
+                    k == 0 ? sizeof(sd_id128_t) : sizeof(plaintext),
+                    result.md);
+
+        /* Take the first half, mark it as v4 UUID */
+        assert_cc(sizeof(result.md) == sizeof(result.id) * 2);
+        result.id = id128_make_v4_uuid(result.id);
+
+        /* Ensure this partition UUID is actually unique, and there's no remaining partition from an earlier run? */
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                if (p == q)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (sd_id128_in_set(result.id, q->current_uuid, q->new_uuid)) {
+                        log_warning("Partition UUID calculated from seed for partition %" PRIu64 " already used, reverting to randomized UUID.", p->partno);
+
+                        r = sd_id128_randomize(&result.id);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate randomized UUID: %m");
+
+                        break;
+                }
+        }
+
+        *ret = result.id;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int partition_acquire_label(Context *context, Partition *p, char **ret) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *label = NULL;
+        const char *prefix;
+        unsigned k = 1;
+
+        assert(context);
+        assert(p);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        prefix = gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string(p->type.uuid);
+        if (!prefix)
+                prefix = "linux";
+
+        for (;;) {
+                const char *ll = label ?: prefix;
+                bool retry = false;
+
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                        if (p == q)
+                                break;
+
+                        if (streq_ptr(ll, q->current_label) ||
+                            streq_ptr(ll, q->new_label)) {
+                                retry = true;
+                                break;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                if (!retry)
+                        break;
+
+                label = mfree(label);
+                if (asprintf(&label, "%s-%u", prefix, ++k) < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (!label) {
+                label = strdup(prefix);
+                if (!label)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(label);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_acquire_partition_uuids_and_labels(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                sd_id128_t uuid;
+
+                /* Never touch foreign partitions */
+                if (PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)) {
+                        p->new_uuid = p->current_uuid;
+
+                        if (p->current_label) {
+                                r = free_and_strdup_warn(&p->new_label, strempty(p->current_label));
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return r;
+                        }
+
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (!sd_id128_is_null(p->current_uuid))
+                        p->new_uuid = uuid = p->current_uuid; /* Never change initialized UUIDs */
+                else if (p->new_uuid_is_set)
+                        uuid = p->new_uuid;
+                else {
+                        /* Not explicitly set by user! */
+                        r = partition_acquire_uuid(context, p, &uuid);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        /* The final verity hash/data UUIDs can only be determined after formatting the
+                         * verity hash partition. However, we still want to use the generated partition UUID
+                         * to derive other UUIDs to keep things unique and reproducible, so we always
+                         * generate a UUID if none is set, but we only use it as the actual partition UUID if
+                         * verity is not configured. */
+                        if (!IN_SET(p->verity, VERITY_DATA, VERITY_HASH)) {
+                                p->new_uuid = uuid;
+                                p->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+                        }
+                }
+
+                /* Calculate the UUID for the file system as HMAC-SHA256 of the string "file-system-uuid",
+                 * keyed off the partition UUID. */
+                r = derive_uuid(uuid, "file-system-uuid", &p->fs_uuid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (p->encrypt != ENCRYPT_OFF) {
+                        r = derive_uuid(uuid, "luks-uuid", &p->luks_uuid);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                /* Derive the verity salt and verity superblock UUID from the seed to keep them reproducible */
+                if (p->verity == VERITY_HASH) {
+                        derive_salt(context->seed, "verity-salt", p->verity_salt);
+
+                        r = derive_uuid(context->seed, "verity-uuid", &p->verity_uuid);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire verity uuid: %m");
+                }
+
+                if (!isempty(p->current_label)) {
+                        /* never change initialized labels */
+                        r = free_and_strdup_warn(&p->new_label, p->current_label);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                } else if (!p->new_label) {
+                        /* Not explicitly set by user! */
+
+                        r = partition_acquire_label(context, p, &p->new_label);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int set_gpt_flags(struct fdisk_partition *q, uint64_t flags) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *a = NULL;
+
+        for (unsigned i = 0; i < sizeof(flags) * 8; i++) {
+                uint64_t bit = UINT64_C(1) << i;
+                char buf[DECIMAL_STR_MAX(unsigned)+1];
+
+                if (!FLAGS_SET(flags, bit))
+                        continue;
+
+                xsprintf(buf, "%u", i);
+                if (!strextend_with_separator(&a, ",", buf))
+                        return -ENOMEM;
+        }
+
+        return fdisk_partition_set_attrs(q, a);
+}
+
+static uint64_t partition_merge_flags(Partition *p) {
+        uint64_t f;
+
+        assert(p);
+
+        f = p->gpt_flags;
+
+        if (p->no_auto >= 0) {
+                if (gpt_partition_type_knows_no_auto(p->type))
+                        SET_FLAG(f, SD_GPT_FLAG_NO_AUTO, p->no_auto);
+                else {
+                        char buffer[SD_ID128_UUID_STRING_MAX];
+                        log_warning("Configured NoAuto=%s for partition type '%s' that doesn't support it, ignoring.",
+                                    yes_no(p->no_auto),
+                                    gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string_harder(p->type.uuid, buffer));
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (p->read_only >= 0) {
+                if (gpt_partition_type_knows_read_only(p->type))
+                        SET_FLAG(f, SD_GPT_FLAG_READ_ONLY, p->read_only);
+                else {
+                        char buffer[SD_ID128_UUID_STRING_MAX];
+                        log_warning("Configured ReadOnly=%s for partition type '%s' that doesn't support it, ignoring.",
+                                    yes_no(p->read_only),
+                                    gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string_harder(p->type.uuid, buffer));
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (p->growfs >= 0) {
+                if (gpt_partition_type_knows_growfs(p->type))
+                        SET_FLAG(f, SD_GPT_FLAG_GROWFS, p->growfs);
+                else {
+                        char buffer[SD_ID128_UUID_STRING_MAX];
+                        log_warning("Configured GrowFileSystem=%s for partition type '%s' that doesn't support it, ignoring.",
+                                    yes_no(p->growfs),
+                                    gpt_partition_type_uuid_to_string_harder(p->type.uuid, buffer));
+                }
+        }
+
+        return f;
+}
+
+static int context_mangle_partitions(Context *context) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (partition_type_defer(&p->type))
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(p->new_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->offset != UINT64_MAX);
+                assert(p->partno != UINT64_MAX);
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) {
+                        bool changed = false;
+
+                        assert(p->current_partition);
+
+                        if (p->new_size != p->current_size) {
+                                assert(p->new_size >= p->current_size);
+                                assert(p->new_size % context->sector_size == 0);
+
+                                r = fdisk_partition_size_explicit(p->current_partition, true);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to enable explicit sizing: %m");
+
+                                r = fdisk_partition_set_size(p->current_partition, p->new_size / context->sector_size);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to grow partition: %m");
+
+                                log_info("Growing existing partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                                changed = true;
+                        }
+
+                        if (!sd_id128_equal(p->new_uuid, p->current_uuid)) {
+                                r = fdisk_partition_set_uuid(p->current_partition, SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(p->new_uuid));
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition UUID: %m");
+
+                                log_info("Initializing UUID of existing partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                                changed = true;
+                        }
+
+                        if (!streq_ptr(p->new_label, p->current_label)) {
+                                r = fdisk_partition_set_name(p->current_partition, strempty(p->new_label));
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition label: %m");
+
+                                log_info("Setting partition label of existing partition %" PRIu64 ".", p->partno);
+                                changed = true;
+                        }
+
+                        if (changed) {
+                                assert(!PARTITION_IS_FOREIGN(p)); /* never touch foreign partitions */
+
+                                r = fdisk_set_partition(context->fdisk_context, p->partno, p->current_partition);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to update partition: %m");
+                        }
+                } else {
+                        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_partitionp) struct fdisk_partition *q = NULL;
+                        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_parttypep) struct fdisk_parttype *t = NULL;
+
+                        assert(!p->new_partition);
+                        assert(p->offset % context->sector_size == 0);
+                        assert(p->new_size % context->sector_size == 0);
+                        assert(p->new_label);
+
+                        t = fdisk_new_parttype();
+                        if (!t)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        r = fdisk_parttype_set_typestr(t, SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(p->type.uuid));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to initialize partition type: %m");
+
+                        q = fdisk_new_partition();
+                        if (!q)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_type(q, t);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition type: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_size_explicit(q, true);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to enable explicit sizing: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_start(q, p->offset / context->sector_size);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to position partition: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_size(q, p->new_size / context->sector_size);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to grow partition: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_partno(q, p->partno);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition number: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_uuid(q, SD_ID128_TO_UUID_STRING(p->new_uuid));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition UUID: %m");
+
+                        r = fdisk_partition_set_name(q, strempty(p->new_label));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set partition label: %m");
+
+                        /* Merge the no auto + read only + growfs setting with the literal flags, and set them for the partition */
+                        r = set_gpt_flags(q, partition_merge_flags(p));
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to set GPT partition flags: %m");
+
+                        log_info("Adding new partition %" PRIu64 " to partition table.", p->partno);
+
+                        r = fdisk_add_partition(context->fdisk_context, q, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to add partition: %m");
+
+                        assert(!p->new_partition);
+                        p->new_partition = TAKE_PTR(q);
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int split_name_printf(Partition *p, char **ret) {
+        assert(p);
+
+        const Specifier table[] = {
+                { 't', specifier_string, GPT_PARTITION_TYPE_UUID_TO_STRING_HARDER(p->type.uuid) },
+                { 'T', specifier_id128,  &p->type.uuid                                          },
+                { 'U', specifier_id128,  &p->new_uuid                                           },
+                { 'n', specifier_uint64, &p->partno                                             },
+
+                COMMON_SYSTEM_SPECIFIERS,
+                {}
+        };
+
+        return specifier_printf(p->split_name_format, NAME_MAX, table, arg_root, p, ret);
+}
+
+static int split_node(const char *node, char **ret_base, char **ret_ext) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *base = NULL, *ext = NULL;
+        char *e;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(node);
+        assert(ret_base);
+        assert(ret_ext);
+
+        r = path_extract_filename(node, &base);
+        if (r == O_DIRECTORY || r == -EADDRNOTAVAIL)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Device node %s cannot be a directory", node);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract filename from %s: %m", node);
+
+        e = endswith(base, ".raw");
+        if (e) {
+                ext = strdup(e);
+                if (!ext)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                *e = 0;
+        }
+
+        *ret_base = TAKE_PTR(base);
+        *ret_ext = TAKE_PTR(ext);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int split_name_resolve(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *parent = NULL, *base = NULL, *ext = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        r = path_extract_directory(context->node, &parent);
+        if (r < 0 && r != -EDESTADDRREQ)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract directory from %s: %m", context->node);
+
+        r = split_node(context->node, &base, &ext);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *resolved = NULL;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!p->split_name_format)
+                        continue;
+
+                r = split_name_printf(p, &resolved);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to resolve specifiers in %s: %m", p->split_name_format);
+
+                if (parent)
+                        p->split_path = strjoin(parent, "/", base, ".", resolved, ext);
+                else
+                        p->split_path = strjoin(base, ".", resolved, ext);
+                if (!p->split_path)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                if (!p->split_path)
+                        continue;
+
+                LIST_FOREACH(partitions, q, context->partitions) {
+                        if (p == q)
+                                continue;
+
+                        if (!q->split_path)
+                                continue;
+
+                        if (!streq(p->split_path, q->split_path))
+                                continue;
+
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOTUNIQ),
+                                               "%s and %s have the same resolved split name \"%s\", refusing",
+                                               p->definition_path, q->definition_path, p->split_path);
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_split(Context *context) {
+        int fd = -EBADF, r;
+
+        if (!arg_split)
+                return 0;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        /* We can't do resolution earlier because the partition UUIDs for verity partitions are only filled
+         * in after they've been generated. */
+
+        r = split_name_resolve(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int fdt = -EBADF;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!p->split_path)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (partition_type_defer(&p->type))
+                        continue;
+
+                fdt = open(p->split_path, O_WRONLY|O_NOCTTY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOFOLLOW|O_CREAT|O_EXCL, 0666);
+                if (fdt < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(fdt, "Failed to open split partition file %s: %m", p->split_path);
+
+                if (fd < 0)
+                        assert_se((fd = fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context)) >= 0);
+
+                if (lseek(fd, p->offset, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek to partition offset: %m");
+
+                r = copy_bytes(fd, fdt, p->new_size, COPY_REFLINK|COPY_HOLES|COPY_TRUNCATE);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to copy to split partition %s: %m", p->split_path);
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_write_partition_table(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_tablep) struct fdisk_table *original_table = NULL;
+        int capable, r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (!context->from_scratch && !context_changed(context)) {
+                log_info("No changes.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (arg_dry_run) {
+                log_notice("Refusing to repartition, please re-run with --dry-run=no.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        log_info("Applying changes to %s.", context->node);
+
+        if (context->from_scratch && arg_empty != EMPTY_CREATE) {
+                /* Erase everything if we operate from scratch, except if the image was just created anyway, and thus is definitely empty. */
+                r = context_wipe_range(context, 0, context->total);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                log_info("Wiped block device.");
+
+                if (arg_discard) {
+                        r = context_discard_range(context, 0, context->total);
+                        if (r == -EOPNOTSUPP)
+                                log_info("Storage does not support discard, not discarding entire block device data.");
+                        else if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to discard entire block device: %m");
+                        else if (r > 0)
+                                log_info("Discarded entire block device.");
+                }
+        }
+
+        r = fdisk_get_partitions(context->fdisk_context, &original_table);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to acquire partition table: %m");
+
+        /* Wipe fs signatures and discard sectors where the new partitions are going to be placed and in the
+         * gaps between partitions, just to be sure. */
+        r = context_wipe_and_discard(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = context_copy_blocks(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = context_mkfs(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = context_mangle_partitions(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        log_info("Writing new partition table.");
+
+        r = fdisk_write_disklabel(context->fdisk_context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write partition table: %m");
+
+        capable = blockdev_partscan_enabled(fdisk_get_devfd(context->fdisk_context));
+        if (capable == -ENOTBLK)
+                log_debug("Not telling kernel to reread partition table, since we are not operating on a block device.");
+        else if (capable < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(capable, "Failed to check if block device supports partition scanning: %m");
+        else if (capable > 0) {
+                log_info("Telling kernel to reread partition table.");
+
+                if (context->from_scratch)
+                        r = fdisk_reread_partition_table(context->fdisk_context);
+                else
+                        r = fdisk_reread_changes(context->fdisk_context, original_table);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to reread partition table: %m");
+        } else
+                log_notice("Not telling kernel to reread partition table, because selected image does not support kernel partition block devices.");
+
+        log_info("All done.");
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_read_seed(Context *context, const char *root) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (!sd_id128_is_null(context->seed))
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!arg_randomize) {
+                r = id128_get_machine(root, &context->seed);
+                if (r >= 0)
+                        return 0;
+
+                if (!ERRNO_IS_MACHINE_ID_UNSET(r))
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse machine ID of image: %m");
+
+                log_info("No machine ID set, using randomized partition UUIDs.");
+        }
+
+        r = sd_id128_randomize(&context->seed);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate randomized seed: %m");
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_factory_reset(Context *context) {
+        size_t n = 0;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (arg_factory_reset <= 0)
+                return 0;
+
+        if (context->from_scratch) /* Nothing to reset if we start from scratch */
+                return 0;
+
+        if (arg_dry_run) {
+                log_notice("Refusing to factory reset, please re-run with --dry-run=no.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        log_info("Applying factory reset.");
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+
+                if (!p->factory_reset || !PARTITION_EXISTS(p))
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(p->partno != UINT64_MAX);
+
+                log_info("Removing partition %" PRIu64 " for factory reset.", p->partno);
+
+                r = fdisk_delete_partition(context->fdisk_context, p->partno);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to remove partition %" PRIu64 ": %m", p->partno);
+
+                n++;
+        }
+
+        if (n == 0) {
+                log_info("Factory reset requested, but no partitions to delete found.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = fdisk_write_disklabel(context->fdisk_context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write disk label: %m");
+
+        log_info("Successfully deleted %zu partitions.", n);
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int context_can_factory_reset(Context *context) {
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions)
+                if (p->factory_reset && PARTITION_EXISTS(p))
+                        return true;
+
+        return false;
+}
+
+static int resolve_copy_blocks_auto_candidate(
+                dev_t partition_devno,
+                GptPartitionType partition_type,
+                dev_t restrict_devno,
+                sd_id128_t *ret_uuid) {
+
+        _cleanup_(blkid_free_probep) blkid_probe b = NULL;
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+        const char *pttype, *t;
+        sd_id128_t pt_parsed, u;
+        blkid_partition pp;
+        dev_t whole_devno;
+        blkid_partlist pl;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Checks if the specified partition has the specified GPT type UUID, and is located on the specified
+         * 'restrict_devno' device. The type check is particularly relevant if we have Verity volume which is
+         * backed by two separate partitions: the data and the hash partitions, and we need to find the right
+         * one of the two. */
+
+        r = block_get_whole_disk(partition_devno, &whole_devno);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(
+                                r,
+                                "Unable to determine containing block device of partition %u:%u: %m",
+                                major(partition_devno), minor(partition_devno));
+
+        if (restrict_devno != (dev_t) -1 &&
+            restrict_devno != whole_devno)
+                return log_error_errno(
+                                SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                "Partition %u:%u is located outside of block device %u:%u, refusing.",
+                                major(partition_devno), minor(partition_devno),
+                                major(restrict_devno), minor(restrict_devno));
+
+        fd = r = device_open_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, whole_devno, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK, &p);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open block device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(whole_devno));
+
+        b = blkid_new_probe();
+        if (!b)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        errno = 0;
+        r = blkid_probe_set_device(b, fd, 0, 0);
+        if (r != 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno_or_else(ENOMEM), "Failed to open block device '%s': %m", p);
+
+        (void) blkid_probe_enable_partitions(b, 1);
+        (void) blkid_probe_set_partitions_flags(b, BLKID_PARTS_ENTRY_DETAILS);
+
+        errno = 0;
+        r = blkid_do_safeprobe(b);
+        if (r == _BLKID_SAFEPROBE_ERROR)
+                return log_error_errno(errno_or_else(EIO), "Unable to probe for partition table of '%s': %m", p);
+        if (IN_SET(r, _BLKID_SAFEPROBE_AMBIGUOUS, _BLKID_SAFEPROBE_NOT_FOUND)) {
+                log_debug("Didn't find partition table on block device '%s'.", p);
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        assert(r == _BLKID_SAFEPROBE_FOUND);
+
+        (void) blkid_probe_lookup_value(b, "PTTYPE", &pttype, NULL);
+        if (!streq_ptr(pttype, "gpt")) {
+                log_debug("Didn't find a GPT partition table on '%s'.", p);
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        errno = 0;
+        pl = blkid_probe_get_partitions(b);
+        if (!pl)
+                return log_error_errno(errno_or_else(EIO), "Unable read partition table of '%s': %m", p);
+
+        pp = blkid_partlist_devno_to_partition(pl, partition_devno);
+        if (!pp) {
+                log_debug("Partition %u:%u has no matching partition table entry on '%s'.",
+                          major(partition_devno), minor(partition_devno), p);
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        t = blkid_partition_get_type_string(pp);
+        if (isempty(t)) {
+                log_debug("Partition %u:%u has no type on '%s'.",
+                          major(partition_devno), minor(partition_devno), p);
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        r = sd_id128_from_string(t, &pt_parsed);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to parse partition type \"%s\": %m", t);
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        if (!sd_id128_equal(pt_parsed, partition_type.uuid)) {
+                log_debug("Partition %u:%u has non-matching partition type " SD_ID128_FORMAT_STR " (needed: " SD_ID128_FORMAT_STR "), ignoring.",
+                          major(partition_devno), minor(partition_devno),
+                          SD_ID128_FORMAT_VAL(pt_parsed), SD_ID128_FORMAT_VAL(partition_type.uuid));
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        r = blkid_partition_get_uuid_id128(pp, &u);
+        if (r == -ENXIO) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Partition " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR " has no UUID.", DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(partition_devno));
+                return false;
+        }
+        if (r < 0) {
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to read partition UUID of " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m", DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(partition_devno));
+                return false;
+        }
+
+        log_debug("Automatically found partition " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR " of right type " SD_ID128_FORMAT_STR ".",
+                  DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(partition_devno),
+                  SD_ID128_FORMAT_VAL(pt_parsed));
+
+        if (ret_uuid)
+                *ret_uuid = u;
+
+        return true;
+}
+
+static int find_backing_devno(
+                const char *path,
+                const char *root,
+                dev_t *ret) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *resolved = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(path);
+
+        r = chase(path, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, &resolved, NULL);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = path_is_mount_point(resolved, NULL, 0);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r == 0) /* Not a mount point, then it's not a partition of its own, let's not automatically use it. */
+                return -ENOENT;
+
+        r = get_block_device(resolved, ret);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r == 0) /* Not backed by physical file system, we can't use this */
+                return -ENOENT;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int resolve_copy_blocks_auto(
+                GptPartitionType type,
+                const char *root,
+                dev_t restrict_devno,
+                dev_t *ret_devno,
+                sd_id128_t *ret_uuid) {
+
+        const char *try1 = NULL, *try2 = NULL;
+        char p[SYS_BLOCK_PATH_MAX("/slaves")];
+        _cleanup_closedir_ DIR *d = NULL;
+        sd_id128_t found_uuid = SD_ID128_NULL;
+        dev_t devno, found = 0;
+        int r;
+
+        /* Enforce some security restrictions: CopyBlocks=auto should not be an avenue to get outside of the
+         * --root=/--image= confinement. Specifically, refuse CopyBlocks= in combination with --root= at all,
+         * and restrict block device references in the --image= case to loopback block device we set up.
+         *
+         * restrict_devno contain the dev_t of the loop back device we operate on in case of --image=, and
+         * thus declares which device (and its partition subdevices) we shall limit access to. If
+         * restrict_devno is zero no device probing access shall be allowed at all (used for --root=) and if
+         * it is (dev_t) -1 then free access shall be allowed (if neither switch is used). */
+
+        if (restrict_devno == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                       "Automatic discovery of backing block devices not permitted in --root= mode, refusing.");
+
+        /* Handles CopyBlocks=auto, and finds the right source partition to copy from. We look for matching
+         * partitions in the host, using the appropriate directory as key and ensuring that the partition
+         * type matches. */
+
+        if (type.designator == PARTITION_ROOT)
+                try1 = "/";
+        else if (type.designator == PARTITION_USR)
+                try1 = "/usr/";
+        else if (type.designator == PARTITION_ROOT_VERITY)
+                try1 = "/";
+        else if (type.designator == PARTITION_USR_VERITY)
+                try1 = "/usr/";
+        else if (type.designator == PARTITION_ESP) {
+                try1 = "/efi/";
+                try2 = "/boot/";
+        } else if (type.designator == PARTITION_XBOOTLDR)
+                try1 = "/boot/";
+        else
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOPNOTSUPP),
+                                       "Partition type " SD_ID128_FORMAT_STR " not supported from automatic source block device discovery.",
+                                       SD_ID128_FORMAT_VAL(type.uuid));
+
+        r = find_backing_devno(try1, root, &devno);
+        if (r == -ENOENT && try2)
+                r = find_backing_devno(try2, root, &devno);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to resolve automatic CopyBlocks= path for partition type " SD_ID128_FORMAT_STR ", sorry: %m",
+                                       SD_ID128_FORMAT_VAL(type.uuid));
+
+        xsprintf_sys_block_path(p, "/slaves", devno);
+        d = opendir(p);
+        if (d) {
+                struct dirent *de;
+
+                for (;;) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *q = NULL, *t = NULL;
+                        sd_id128_t u;
+                        dev_t sl;
+
+                        errno = 0;
+                        de = readdir_no_dot(d);
+                        if (!de) {
+                                if (errno != 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to read directory '%s': %m", p);
+
+                                break;
+                        }
+
+                        if (!IN_SET(de->d_type, DT_LNK, DT_UNKNOWN))
+                                continue;
+
+                        q = path_join(p, de->d_name, "/dev");
+                        if (!q)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        r = read_one_line_file(q, &t);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read %s: %m", q);
+
+                        r = parse_devnum(t, &sl);
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to parse %s, ignoring: %m", q);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+                        if (major(sl) == 0) {
+                                log_debug("Device backing %s is special, ignoring.", q);
+                                continue;
+                        }
+
+                        r = resolve_copy_blocks_auto_candidate(sl, type, restrict_devno, &u);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        if (r > 0) {
+                                /* We found a matching one! */
+                                if (found != 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOTUNIQ),
+                                                               "Multiple matching partitions found, refusing.");
+
+                                found = sl;
+                                found_uuid = u;
+                        }
+                }
+        } else if (errno != ENOENT)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed open %s: %m", p);
+        else {
+                r = resolve_copy_blocks_auto_candidate(devno, type, restrict_devno, &found_uuid);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                if (r > 0)
+                        found = devno;
+        }
+
+        if (found == 0)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENXIO),
+                                       "Unable to automatically discover suitable partition to copy blocks from.");
+
+        if (ret_devno)
+                *ret_devno = found;
+
+        if (ret_uuid)
+                *ret_uuid = found_uuid;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_open_copy_block_paths(
+                Context *context,
+                dev_t restrict_devno) {
+
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_close_ int source_fd = -EBADF;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *opened = NULL;
+                sd_id128_t uuid = SD_ID128_NULL;
+                uint64_t size;
+                struct stat st;
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_fd >= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(p->copy_blocks_size == UINT64_MAX);
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never copy over partitions that already exist! */
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_path) {
+
+                        source_fd = chase_and_open(p->copy_blocks_path, p->copy_blocks_root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK, &opened);
+                        if (source_fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(source_fd, "Failed to open '%s': %m", p->copy_blocks_path);
+
+                        if (fstat(source_fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat block copy file '%s': %m", opened);
+
+                        if (!S_ISREG(st.st_mode) && restrict_devno != (dev_t) -1)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EPERM),
+                                                       "Copying from block device node is not permitted in --image=/--root= mode, refusing.");
+
+                } else if (p->copy_blocks_auto) {
+                        dev_t devno = 0;  /* Fake initialization to appease gcc. */
+
+                        r = resolve_copy_blocks_auto(p->type, p->copy_blocks_root, restrict_devno, &devno, &uuid);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        assert(devno != 0);
+
+                        source_fd = r = device_open_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devno, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK, &opened);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open automatically determined source block copy device " DEVNUM_FORMAT_STR ": %m",
+                                                       DEVNUM_FORMAT_VAL(devno));
+
+                        if (fstat(source_fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat block copy file '%s': %m", opened);
+                } else
+                        continue;
+
+                if (S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)) {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *bdev = NULL;
+                        dev_t devt;
+
+                        /* If the file is a directory, automatically find the backing block device */
+
+                        if (major(st.st_dev) != 0)
+                                devt = st.st_dev;
+                        else {
+                                /* Special support for btrfs */
+                                r = btrfs_get_block_device_fd(source_fd, &devt);
+                                if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                                        return btrfs_log_dev_root(LOG_ERR, r, opened);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Unable to determine backing block device of '%s': %m", opened);
+                        }
+
+                        safe_close(source_fd);
+
+                        source_fd = r = device_open_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devt, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK, &bdev);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open block device backing '%s': %m", opened);
+
+                        if (fstat(source_fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat block device '%s': %m", bdev);
+                }
+
+                if (S_ISREG(st.st_mode))
+                        size = st.st_size;
+                else if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                        if (ioctl(source_fd, BLKGETSIZE64, &size) != 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to determine size of block device to copy from: %m");
+                } else
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Specified path to copy blocks from '%s' is not a regular file, block device or directory, refusing: %m", opened);
+
+                if (size <= 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "File to copy bytes from '%s' has zero size, refusing.", opened);
+                if (size % 512 != 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "File to copy bytes from '%s' has size that is not multiple of 512, refusing.", opened);
+
+                p->copy_blocks_fd = TAKE_FD(source_fd);
+                p->copy_blocks_size = size;
+
+                free_and_replace(p->copy_blocks_path, opened);
+
+                /* When copying from an existing partition copy that partitions UUID if none is configured explicitly */
+                if (!p->new_uuid_is_set && !sd_id128_is_null(uuid)) {
+                        p->new_uuid = uuid;
+                        p->new_uuid_is_set = true;
+                }
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int fd_apparent_size(int fd, uint64_t *ret) {
+        off_t initial = 0;
+        uint64_t size = 0;
+
+        assert(fd >= 0);
+        assert(ret);
+
+        initial = lseek(fd, 0, SEEK_CUR);
+        if (initial < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to get file offset: %m");
+
+        for (off_t off = 0;;) {
+                off_t r;
+
+                r = lseek(fd, off, SEEK_DATA);
+                if (r < 0 && errno == ENXIO)
+                        /* If errno == ENXIO, that means we've reached the final hole of the file and
+                         * that hole isn't followed by more data. */
+                        break;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek data in file from offset %"PRIi64": %m", off);
+
+                off = r; /* Set the offset to the start of the data segment. */
+
+                /* After copying a potential hole, find the end of the data segment by looking for
+                 * the next hole. If we get ENXIO, we're at EOF. */
+                r = lseek(fd, off, SEEK_HOLE);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (errno == ENXIO)
+                                break;
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to seek hole in file from offset %"PRIi64": %m", off);
+                }
+
+                size += r - off;
+                off = r;
+        }
+
+        if (lseek(fd, initial, SEEK_SET) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to reset file offset: %m");
+
+        *ret = size;
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int context_minimize(Context *context) {
+        const char *vt = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_(rm_rf_physical_and_freep) char *root = NULL;
+                _cleanup_(unlink_and_freep) char *temp = NULL;
+                _cleanup_(loop_device_unrefp) LoopDevice *d = NULL;
+                _cleanup_strv_free_ char **extra_mkfs_options = NULL;
+                _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *hint = NULL;
+                sd_id128_t fs_uuid;
+                struct stat st;
+                uint64_t fsz;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never format existing partitions */
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!p->format)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->copy_blocks_fd >= 0)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->minimize == MINIMIZE_OFF)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (!partition_needs_populate(p))
+                        continue;
+
+                assert(!p->copy_blocks_path);
+
+                (void) partition_hint(p, context->node, &hint);
+
+                log_info("Pre-populating %s filesystem of partition %s twice to calculate minimal partition size",
+                         p->format, strna(hint));
+
+                if (!vt) {
+                        r = var_tmp_dir(&vt);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not determine temporary directory: %m");
+                }
+
+                r = tempfn_random_child(vt, "repart", &temp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate temporary file path: %m");
+
+                if (fstype_is_ro(p->format))
+                        fs_uuid = p->fs_uuid;
+                else {
+                        fd = open(temp, O_CREAT|O_EXCL|O_CLOEXEC|O_RDWR|O_NOCTTY, 0600);
+                        if (fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open temporary file %s: %m", temp);
+
+                        /* This may seem huge but it will be created sparse so it doesn't take up any space
+                         * on disk until written to. */
+                        if (ftruncate(fd, 1024ULL * 1024ULL * 1024ULL * 1024ULL) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to truncate temporary file to %s: %m",
+                                                       FORMAT_BYTES(1024ULL * 1024ULL * 1024ULL * 1024ULL));
+
+                        if (arg_offline <= 0) {
+                                r = loop_device_make(fd, O_RDWR, 0, UINT64_MAX, context->sector_size, 0, LOCK_EX, &d);
+                                if (r < 0 && (arg_offline == 0 || (r != -ENOENT && !ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r)) || !strv_isempty(p->subvolumes)))
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to make loopback device of %s: %m", temp);
+                        }
+
+                        /* We're going to populate this filesystem twice so use a random UUID the first time
+                         * to avoid UUID conflicts. */
+                        r = sd_id128_randomize(&fs_uuid);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (!d || fstype_is_ro(p->format)) {
+                        if (!mkfs_supports_root_option(p->format))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENODEV),
+                                                       "Loop device access is required to populate %s filesystems",
+                                                       p->format);
+
+                        r = partition_populate_directory(context, p, &root);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                r = mkfs_options_from_env("REPART", p->format, &extra_mkfs_options);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r,
+                                               "Failed to determine mkfs command line options for '%s': %m",
+                                               p->format);
+
+                r = make_filesystem(d ? d->node : temp,
+                                    p->format,
+                                    strempty(p->new_label),
+                                    root,
+                                    fs_uuid,
+                                    arg_discard, /* quiet = */ false,
+                                    context->fs_sector_size,
+                                    extra_mkfs_options);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                /* Read-only filesystems are minimal from the first try because they create and size the
+                 * loopback file for us. */
+                if (fstype_is_ro(p->format)) {
+                        assert(fd < 0);
+
+                        fd = open(temp, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK);
+                        if (fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open temporary file %s: %m", temp);
+
+                        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat temporary file: %m");
+
+                        log_info("Minimal partition size of %s filesystem of partition %s is %s",
+                                 p->format, strna(hint), FORMAT_BYTES(st.st_size));
+
+                        p->copy_blocks_path = TAKE_PTR(temp);
+                        p->copy_blocks_path_is_our_file = true;
+                        p->copy_blocks_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+                        p->copy_blocks_size = st.st_size;
+                        continue;
+                }
+
+                if (!root) {
+                        assert(d);
+
+                        r = partition_populate_filesystem(context, p, d->node);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                /* Other filesystems need to be provided with a pre-sized loopback file and will adapt to
+                 * fully occupy it. Because we gave the filesystem a 1T sparse file, we need to shrink the
+                 * filesystem down to a reasonable size again to fit it in the disk image. While there are
+                 * some filesystems that support shrinking, it doesn't always work properly (e.g. shrinking
+                 * btrfs gives us a 2.0G filesystem regardless of what we put in it). Instead, let's populate
+                 * the filesystem again, but this time, instead of providing the filesystem with a 1T sparse
+                 * loopback file, let's size the loopback file based on the actual data used by the
+                 * filesystem in the sparse file after the first attempt. This should be a good guess of the
+                 * minimal amount of space needed in the filesystem to fit all the required data.
+                 */
+                r = fd_apparent_size(fd, &fsz);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                /* Massage the size a bit because just going by actual data used in the sparse file isn't
+                 * fool-proof. */
+                uint64_t heuristic = streq(p->format, "xfs") ? fsz : fsz / 2;
+                fsz = round_up_size(fsz + heuristic, context->grain_size);
+                if (minimal_size_by_fs_name(p->format) != UINT64_MAX)
+                        fsz = MAX(minimal_size_by_fs_name(p->format), fsz);
+
+                log_info("Minimal partition size of %s filesystem of partition %s is %s",
+                         p->format, strna(hint), FORMAT_BYTES(fsz));
+
+                d = loop_device_unref(d);
+
+                /* Erase the previous filesystem first. */
+                if (ftruncate(fd, 0))
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to erase temporary file: %m");
+
+                if (ftruncate(fd, fsz))
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to truncate temporary file to %s: %m", FORMAT_BYTES(fsz));
+
+                if (arg_offline <= 0) {
+                        r = loop_device_make(fd, O_RDWR, 0, UINT64_MAX, context->sector_size, 0, LOCK_EX, &d);
+                        if (r < 0 && (arg_offline == 0 || (r != -ENOENT && !ERRNO_IS_PRIVILEGE(r)) || !strv_isempty(p->subvolumes)))
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to make loopback device of %s: %m", temp);
+                }
+
+                r = make_filesystem(d ? d->node : temp,
+                                    p->format,
+                                    strempty(p->new_label),
+                                    root,
+                                    p->fs_uuid,
+                                    arg_discard,
+                                    /* quiet = */ false,
+                                    context->fs_sector_size,
+                                    extra_mkfs_options);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                if (!root) {
+                        assert(d);
+
+                        r = partition_populate_filesystem(context, p, d->node);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+
+                if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat temporary file: %m");
+
+                p->copy_blocks_path = TAKE_PTR(temp);
+                p->copy_blocks_path_is_our_file = true;
+                p->copy_blocks_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+                p->copy_blocks_size = st.st_size;
+        }
+
+        /* Now that we've done the data partitions, do the verity hash partitions. We do these in a separate
+         * step because they might depend on data generated in the previous step. */
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions) {
+                _cleanup_(unlink_and_freep) char *temp = NULL;
+                _cleanup_free_ char *hint = NULL;
+                _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+                struct stat st;
+                Partition *dp;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (PARTITION_EXISTS(p)) /* Never format existing partitions */
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->minimize == MINIMIZE_OFF)
+                        continue;
+
+                if (p->verity != VERITY_HASH)
+                        continue;
+
+                assert_se(dp = p->siblings[VERITY_DATA]);
+                assert(!dp->dropped);
+                assert(dp->copy_blocks_path);
+
+                (void) partition_hint(p, context->node, &hint);
+
+                log_info("Pre-populating verity hash data of partition %s to calculate minimal partition size",
+                         strna(hint));
+
+                if (!vt) {
+                        r = var_tmp_dir(&vt);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not determine temporary directory: %m");
+                }
+
+                r = tempfn_random_child(vt, "repart", &temp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to generate temporary file path: %m");
+
+                r = touch(temp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to create temporary file: %m");
+
+                r = partition_format_verity_hash(context, p, temp, dp->copy_blocks_path);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                fd = open(temp, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK);
+                if (fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open temporary file %s: %m", temp);
+
+                if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat temporary file: %m");
+
+                log_info("Minimal partition size of verity hash partition %s is %s",
+                         strna(hint), FORMAT_BYTES(st.st_size));
+
+                p->copy_blocks_path = TAKE_PTR(temp);
+                p->copy_blocks_path_is_our_file = true;
+                p->copy_blocks_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+                p->copy_blocks_size = st.st_size;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_partition_types(const char *p, GptPartitionType **partitions, size_t *n_partitions) {
+        int r;
+
+        assert(partitions);
+        assert(n_partitions);
+
+        for (;;) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *name = NULL;
+                GptPartitionType type;
+
+                r = extract_first_word(&p, &name, ",", EXTRACT_CUNESCAPE|EXTRACT_DONT_COALESCE_SEPARATORS);
+                if (r == 0)
+                        break;
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to extract partition type identifier or GUID: %s", p);
+
+                r = gpt_partition_type_from_string(name, &type);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "'%s' is not a valid partition type identifier or GUID", name);
+
+                if (!GREEDY_REALLOC(*partitions, *n_partitions + 1))
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                (*partitions)[(*n_partitions)++] = type;
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int help(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *link = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        r = terminal_urlify_man("systemd-repart", "8", &link);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        printf("%s [OPTIONS...] [DEVICE]\n"
+               "\n%sGrow and add partitions to partition table.%s\n\n"
+               "  -h --help               Show this help\n"
+               "     --version            Show package version\n"
+               "     --no-pager           Do not pipe output into a pager\n"
+               "     --no-legend          Do not show the headers and footers\n"
+               "     --dry-run=BOOL       Whether to run dry-run operation\n"
+               "     --empty=MODE         One of refuse, allow, require, force, create; controls\n"
+               "                          how to handle empty disks lacking partition tables\n"
+               "     --discard=BOOL       Whether to discard backing blocks for new partitions\n"
+               "     --pretty=BOOL        Whether to show pretty summary before doing changes\n"
+               "     --factory-reset=BOOL Whether to remove data partitions before recreating\n"
+               "                          them\n"
+               "     --can-factory-reset  Test whether factory reset is defined\n"
+               "     --root=PATH          Operate relative to root path\n"
+               "     --image=PATH         Operate relative to image file\n"
+               "     --image-policy=POLICY\n"
+               "                          Specify disk image dissection policy\n"
+               "     --definitions=DIR    Find partition definitions in specified directory\n"
+               "     --key-file=PATH      Key to use when encrypting partitions\n"
+               "     --private-key=PATH   Private key to use when generating verity roothash\n"
+               "                          signatures\n"
+               "     --certificate=PATH   PEM certificate to use when generating verity\n"
+               "                          roothash signatures\n"
+               "     --tpm2-device=PATH   Path to TPM2 device node to use\n"
+               "     --tpm2-device-key=PATH\n"
+               "                          Enroll a TPM2 device using its public key\n"
+               "     --tpm2-seal-key-handle=HANDLE\n"
+               "                          Specify handle of key to use for sealing\n"
+               "     --tpm2-pcrs=PCR1+PCR2+PCR3+…\n"
+               "                          TPM2 PCR indexes to use for TPM2 enrollment\n"
+               "     --tpm2-public-key=PATH\n"
+               "                          Enroll signed TPM2 PCR policy against PEM public key\n"
+               "     --tpm2-public-key-pcrs=PCR1+PCR2+PCR3+…\n"
+               "                          Enroll signed TPM2 PCR policy for specified TPM2 PCRs\n"
+               "     --tpm2-pcrlock=PATH\n"
+               "                          Specify pcrlock policy to lock against\n"
+               "     --seed=UUID          128-bit seed UUID to derive all UUIDs from\n"
+               "     --size=BYTES         Grow loopback file to specified size\n"
+               "     --json=pretty|short|off\n"
+               "                          Generate JSON output\n"
+               "     --split=BOOL         Whether to generate split artifacts\n"
+               "     --include-partitions=PARTITION1,PARTITION2,PARTITION3,…\n"
+               "                          Ignore partitions not of the specified types\n"
+               "     --exclude-partitions=PARTITION1,PARTITION2,PARTITION3,…\n"
+               "                          Ignore partitions of the specified types\n"
+               "     --defer-partitions=PARTITION1,PARTITION2,PARTITION3,…\n"
+               "                          Take partitions of the specified types into account\n"
+               "                          but don't populate them yet\n"
+               "     --sector-size=SIZE   Set the logical sector size for the image\n"
+               "     --architecture=ARCH  Set the generic architecture for the image\n"
+               "     --offline=BOOL       Whether to build the image offline\n"
+               "  -s --copy-source=PATH   Specify the primary source tree to copy files from\n"
+               "     --copy-from=IMAGE    Copy partitions from the given image(s)\n"
+               "  -S --make-ddi=sysext    Make a system extension DDI\n"
+               "  -C --make-ddi=confext   Make a configuration extension DDI\n"
+               "  -P --make-ddi=portable  Make a portable service DDI\n"
+               "\nSee the %s for details.\n",
+               program_invocation_short_name,
+               ansi_highlight(),
+               ansi_normal(),
+               link);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_argv(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+
+        enum {
+                ARG_VERSION = 0x100,
+                ARG_NO_PAGER,
+                ARG_NO_LEGEND,
+                ARG_DRY_RUN,
+                ARG_EMPTY,
+                ARG_DISCARD,
+                ARG_FACTORY_RESET,
+                ARG_CAN_FACTORY_RESET,
+                ARG_ROOT,
+                ARG_IMAGE,
+                ARG_IMAGE_POLICY,
+                ARG_SEED,
+                ARG_PRETTY,
+                ARG_DEFINITIONS,
+                ARG_SIZE,
+                ARG_JSON,
+                ARG_KEY_FILE,
+                ARG_PRIVATE_KEY,
+                ARG_CERTIFICATE,
+                ARG_TPM2_DEVICE,
+                ARG_TPM2_DEVICE_KEY,
+                ARG_TPM2_SEAL_KEY_HANDLE,
+                ARG_TPM2_PCRS,
+                ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY,
+                ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY_PCRS,
+                ARG_TPM2_PCRLOCK,
+                ARG_SPLIT,
+                ARG_INCLUDE_PARTITIONS,
+                ARG_EXCLUDE_PARTITIONS,
+                ARG_DEFER_PARTITIONS,
+                ARG_SECTOR_SIZE,
+                ARG_SKIP_PARTITIONS,
+                ARG_ARCHITECTURE,
+                ARG_OFFLINE,
+                ARG_COPY_FROM,
+                ARG_MAKE_DDI,
+        };
+
+        static const struct option options[] = {
+                { "help",                 no_argument,       NULL, 'h'                      },
+                { "version",              no_argument,       NULL, ARG_VERSION              },
+                { "no-pager",             no_argument,       NULL, ARG_NO_PAGER             },
+                { "no-legend",            no_argument,       NULL, ARG_NO_LEGEND            },
+                { "dry-run",              required_argument, NULL, ARG_DRY_RUN              },
+                { "empty",                required_argument, NULL, ARG_EMPTY                },
+                { "discard",              required_argument, NULL, ARG_DISCARD              },
+                { "factory-reset",        required_argument, NULL, ARG_FACTORY_RESET        },
+                { "can-factory-reset",    no_argument,       NULL, ARG_CAN_FACTORY_RESET    },
+                { "root",                 required_argument, NULL, ARG_ROOT                 },
+                { "image",                required_argument, NULL, ARG_IMAGE                },
+                { "image-policy",         required_argument, NULL, ARG_IMAGE_POLICY         },
+                { "seed",                 required_argument, NULL, ARG_SEED                 },
+                { "pretty",               required_argument, NULL, ARG_PRETTY               },
+                { "definitions",          required_argument, NULL, ARG_DEFINITIONS          },
+                { "size",                 required_argument, NULL, ARG_SIZE                 },
+                { "json",                 required_argument, NULL, ARG_JSON                 },
+                { "key-file",             required_argument, NULL, ARG_KEY_FILE             },
+                { "private-key",          required_argument, NULL, ARG_PRIVATE_KEY          },
+                { "certificate",          required_argument, NULL, ARG_CERTIFICATE          },
+                { "tpm2-device",          required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_DEVICE          },
+                { "tpm2-device-key",      required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_DEVICE_KEY      },
+                { "tpm2-seal-key-handle", required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_SEAL_KEY_HANDLE },
+                { "tpm2-pcrs",            required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_PCRS            },
+                { "tpm2-public-key",      required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY      },
+                { "tpm2-public-key-pcrs", required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY_PCRS },
+                { "tpm2-pcrlock",         required_argument, NULL, ARG_TPM2_PCRLOCK         },
+                { "split",                required_argument, NULL, ARG_SPLIT                },
+                { "include-partitions",   required_argument, NULL, ARG_INCLUDE_PARTITIONS   },
+                { "exclude-partitions",   required_argument, NULL, ARG_EXCLUDE_PARTITIONS   },
+                { "defer-partitions",     required_argument, NULL, ARG_DEFER_PARTITIONS     },
+                { "sector-size",          required_argument, NULL, ARG_SECTOR_SIZE          },
+                { "architecture",         required_argument, NULL, ARG_ARCHITECTURE         },
+                { "offline",              required_argument, NULL, ARG_OFFLINE              },
+                { "copy-from",            required_argument, NULL, ARG_COPY_FROM            },
+                { "copy-source",          required_argument, NULL, 's'                      },
+                { "make-ddi",             required_argument, NULL, ARG_MAKE_DDI             },
+                {}
+        };
+
+        bool auto_hash_pcr_values = true, auto_public_key_pcr_mask = true, auto_pcrlock = true;
+        int c, r;
+
+        assert(argc >= 0);
+        assert(argv);
+
+        while ((c = getopt_long(argc, argv, "hs:SCP", options, NULL)) >= 0)
+
+                switch (c) {
+
+                case 'h':
+                        return help();
+
+                case ARG_VERSION:
+                        return version();
+
+                case ARG_NO_PAGER:
+                        arg_pager_flags |= PAGER_DISABLE;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_NO_LEGEND:
+                        arg_legend = false;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_DRY_RUN:
+                        r = parse_boolean_argument("--dry-run=", optarg, &arg_dry_run);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_EMPTY:
+                        if (isempty(optarg)) {
+                                arg_empty = EMPTY_UNSET;
+                                break;
+                        }
+
+                        arg_empty = empty_mode_from_string(optarg);
+                        if (arg_empty < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(arg_empty, "Failed to parse --empty= parameter: %s", optarg);
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_DISCARD:
+                        r = parse_boolean_argument("--discard=", optarg, &arg_discard);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_FACTORY_RESET:
+                        r = parse_boolean_argument("--factory-reset=", optarg, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        arg_factory_reset = r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_CAN_FACTORY_RESET:
+                        arg_can_factory_reset = true;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_ROOT:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_root);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_IMAGE:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_image);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_IMAGE_POLICY:
+                        r = parse_image_policy_argument(optarg, &arg_image_policy);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_SEED:
+                        if (isempty(optarg)) {
+                                arg_seed = SD_ID128_NULL;
+                                arg_randomize = false;
+                        } else if (streq(optarg, "random"))
+                                arg_randomize = true;
+                        else {
+                                r = sd_id128_from_string(optarg, &arg_seed);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse seed: %s", optarg);
+
+                                arg_randomize = false;
+                        }
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_PRETTY:
+                        r = parse_boolean_argument("--pretty=", optarg, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        arg_pretty = r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_DEFINITIONS: {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *path = NULL;
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, false, &path);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        if (strv_consume(&arg_definitions, TAKE_PTR(path)) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_SIZE: {
+                        uint64_t parsed, rounded;
+
+                        if (streq(optarg, "auto")) {
+                                arg_size = UINT64_MAX;
+                                arg_size_auto = true;
+                                break;
+                        }
+
+                        r = parse_size(optarg, 1024, &parsed);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse --size= parameter: %s", optarg);
+
+                        rounded = round_up_size(parsed, 4096);
+                        if (rounded == 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ERANGE), "Specified image size too small, refusing.");
+                        if (rounded == UINT64_MAX)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ERANGE), "Specified image size too large, refusing.");
+
+                        if (rounded != parsed)
+                                log_warning("Specified size is not a multiple of 4096, rounding up automatically. (%" PRIu64 " %s %" PRIu64 ")",
+                                            parsed, special_glyph(SPECIAL_GLYPH_ARROW_RIGHT), rounded);
+
+                        arg_size = rounded;
+                        arg_size_auto = false;
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_JSON:
+                        r = parse_json_argument(optarg, &arg_json_format_flags);
+                        if (r <= 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_KEY_FILE: {
+                        _cleanup_(erase_and_freep) char *k = NULL;
+                        size_t n = 0;
+
+                        r = read_full_file_full(
+                                        AT_FDCWD, optarg, UINT64_MAX, SIZE_MAX,
+                                        READ_FULL_FILE_SECURE|READ_FULL_FILE_WARN_WORLD_READABLE|READ_FULL_FILE_CONNECT_SOCKET,
+                                        NULL,
+                                        &k, &n);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read key file '%s': %m", optarg);
+
+                        erase_and_free(arg_key);
+                        arg_key = TAKE_PTR(k);
+                        arg_key_size = n;
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_PRIVATE_KEY: {
+                        _cleanup_(erase_and_freep) char *k = NULL;
+                        size_t n = 0;
+
+                        r = read_full_file_full(
+                                        AT_FDCWD, optarg, UINT64_MAX, SIZE_MAX,
+                                        READ_FULL_FILE_SECURE|READ_FULL_FILE_WARN_WORLD_READABLE|READ_FULL_FILE_CONNECT_SOCKET,
+                                        NULL,
+                                        &k, &n);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read key file '%s': %m", optarg);
+
+                        EVP_PKEY_free(arg_private_key);
+                        arg_private_key = NULL;
+                        r = parse_private_key(k, n, &arg_private_key);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_CERTIFICATE: {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *cert = NULL;
+                        size_t n = 0;
+
+                        r = read_full_file_full(
+                                        AT_FDCWD, optarg, UINT64_MAX, SIZE_MAX,
+                                        READ_FULL_FILE_CONNECT_SOCKET,
+                                        NULL,
+                                        &cert, &n);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read certificate file '%s': %m", optarg);
+
+                        X509_free(arg_certificate);
+                        arg_certificate = NULL;
+                        r = parse_x509_certificate(cert, n, &arg_certificate);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_DEVICE: {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *device = NULL;
+
+                        if (streq(optarg, "list"))
+                                return tpm2_list_devices();
+
+                        if (!streq(optarg, "auto")) {
+                                device = strdup(optarg);
+                                if (!device)
+                                        return log_oom();
+                        }
+
+                        free(arg_tpm2_device);
+                        arg_tpm2_device = TAKE_PTR(device);
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_DEVICE_KEY:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_tpm2_device_key);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_SEAL_KEY_HANDLE:
+                        r = safe_atou32_full(optarg, 16, &arg_tpm2_seal_key_handle);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(r, "Could not parse TPM2 seal key handle index '%s': %m", optarg);
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_PCRS:
+                        auto_hash_pcr_values = false;
+                        r = tpm2_parse_pcr_argument_append(optarg, &arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values, &arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_tpm2_public_key);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_PUBLIC_KEY_PCRS:
+                        auto_public_key_pcr_mask = false;
+                        r = tpm2_parse_pcr_argument_to_mask(optarg, &arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_TPM2_PCRLOCK:
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_tpm2_pcrlock);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        auto_pcrlock = false;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_SPLIT:
+                        r = parse_boolean_argument("--split=", optarg, NULL);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        arg_split = r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_INCLUDE_PARTITIONS:
+                        if (arg_filter_partitions_type == FILTER_PARTITIONS_EXCLUDE)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                       "Combination of --include-partitions= and --exclude-partitions= is invalid.");
+
+                        r = parse_partition_types(optarg, &arg_filter_partitions, &arg_n_filter_partitions);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        arg_filter_partitions_type = FILTER_PARTITIONS_INCLUDE;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_EXCLUDE_PARTITIONS:
+                        if (arg_filter_partitions_type == FILTER_PARTITIONS_INCLUDE)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                                       "Combination of --include-partitions= and --exclude-partitions= is invalid.");
+
+                        r = parse_partition_types(optarg, &arg_filter_partitions, &arg_n_filter_partitions);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        arg_filter_partitions_type = FILTER_PARTITIONS_EXCLUDE;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_DEFER_PARTITIONS:
+                        r = parse_partition_types(optarg, &arg_defer_partitions, &arg_n_defer_partitions);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_SECTOR_SIZE:
+                        r = parse_sector_size(optarg, &arg_sector_size);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_ARCHITECTURE:
+                        r = architecture_from_string(optarg);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Invalid architecture '%s'", optarg);
+
+                        arg_architecture = r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_OFFLINE:
+                        if (streq(optarg, "auto"))
+                                arg_offline = -1;
+                        else {
+                                r = parse_boolean_argument("--offline=", optarg, NULL);
+                                if (r < 0)
+                                        return r;
+
+                                arg_offline = r;
+                        }
+
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_COPY_FROM: {
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *p = NULL;
+
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &p);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+
+                        if (strv_consume(&arg_copy_from, TAKE_PTR(p)) < 0)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        break;
+                }
+
+                case 's':
+                        r = parse_path_argument(optarg, /* suppress_root= */ false, &arg_copy_source);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case ARG_MAKE_DDI:
+                        if (!filename_is_valid(optarg))
+                                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Invalid DDI type: %s", optarg);
+
+                        r = free_and_strdup_warn(&arg_make_ddi, optarg);
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case 'S':
+                        r = free_and_strdup_warn(&arg_make_ddi, "sysext");
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case 'C':
+                        r = free_and_strdup_warn(&arg_make_ddi, "confext");
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case 'P':
+                        r = free_and_strdup_warn(&arg_make_ddi, "portable");
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                        break;
+
+                case '?':
+                        return -EINVAL;
+
+                default:
+                        assert_not_reached();
+                }
+
+        if (argc - optind > 1)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Expected at most one argument, the path to the block device or image file.");
+
+        if (arg_make_ddi) {
+                if (arg_definitions)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Combination of --make-ddi= and --definitions= is not supported.");
+                if (!IN_SET(arg_empty, EMPTY_UNSET, EMPTY_CREATE))
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Combination of --make-ddi= and --empty=%s is not supported.", empty_mode_to_string(arg_empty));
+
+                /* Imply automatic sizing in DDI mode */
+                if (arg_size == UINT64_MAX)
+                        arg_size_auto = true;
+
+                if (!arg_copy_source)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "No --copy-source= specified, refusing.");
+
+                r = dir_is_empty(arg_copy_source, /* ignore_hidden_or_backup= */ false);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine if '%s' is empty: %m", arg_copy_source);
+                if (r > 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOENT), "Source directory '%s' is empty, refusing to create empty image.", arg_copy_source);
+
+                if (sd_id128_is_null(arg_seed) && !arg_randomize) {
+                        /* We don't want that /etc/machine-id leaks into any image built this way, hence
+                         * let's randomize the seed if not specified explicitly */
+                        log_notice("No seed value specified, randomizing generated UUIDs, resulting image will not be reproducible.");
+                        arg_randomize = true;
+                }
+
+                arg_empty = EMPTY_CREATE;
+        }
+
+        if (arg_empty == EMPTY_UNSET) /* default to refuse mode, if not otherwise specified */
+                arg_empty = EMPTY_REFUSE;
+
+        if (arg_factory_reset > 0 && IN_SET(arg_empty, EMPTY_FORCE, EMPTY_REQUIRE, EMPTY_CREATE))
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "Combination of --factory-reset=yes and --empty=force/--empty=require/--empty=create is invalid.");
+
+        if (arg_can_factory_reset)
+                arg_dry_run = true; /* When --can-factory-reset is specified we don't make changes, hence
+                                     * non-dry-run mode makes no sense. Thus, imply dry run mode so that we
+                                     * open things strictly read-only. */
+        else if (arg_empty == EMPTY_CREATE)
+                arg_dry_run = false; /* Imply --dry-run=no if we create the loopback file anew. After all we
+                                      * cannot really break anyone's partition tables that way. */
+
+        /* Disable pager once we are not just reviewing, but doing things. */
+        if (!arg_dry_run)
+                arg_pager_flags |= PAGER_DISABLE;
+
+        if (arg_empty == EMPTY_CREATE && arg_size == UINT64_MAX && !arg_size_auto)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "If --empty=create is specified, --size= must be specified, too.");
+
+        if (arg_image && arg_root)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL), "Please specify either --root= or --image=, the combination of both is not supported.");
+        else if (!arg_image && !arg_root && in_initrd()) {
+
+                /* By default operate on /sysusr/ or /sysroot/ when invoked in the initrd. We prefer the
+                 * former, if it is mounted, so that we have deterministic behaviour on systems where /usr/
+                 * is vendor-supplied but the root fs formatted on first boot. */
+                r = path_is_mount_point("/sysusr/usr", NULL, 0);
+                if (r <= 0) {
+                        if (r < 0 && r != -ENOENT)
+                                log_debug_errno(r, "Unable to determine whether /sysusr/usr is a mount point, assuming it is not: %m");
+
+                        arg_root = strdup("/sysroot");
+                } else
+                        arg_root = strdup("/sysusr");
+                if (!arg_root)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        arg_node = argc > optind ? argv[optind] : NULL;
+
+        if (IN_SET(arg_empty, EMPTY_FORCE, EMPTY_REQUIRE, EMPTY_CREATE) && !arg_node && !arg_image)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "A path to a device node or image file must be specified when --make-ddi=, --empty=force, --empty=require or --empty=create are used.");
+
+        if (arg_split && !arg_node)
+                return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                       "A path to an image file must be specified when --split is used.");
+
+        if (auto_pcrlock) {
+                assert(!arg_tpm2_pcrlock);
+
+                r = tpm2_pcrlock_search_file(NULL, NULL, &arg_tpm2_pcrlock);
+                if (r < 0) {
+                        if (r != -ENOENT)
+                                log_warning_errno(r, "Search for pcrlock.json failed, assuming it does not exist: %m");
+                } else
+                        log_debug("Automatically using pcrlock policy '%s'.", arg_tpm2_pcrlock);
+        }
+
+        if (auto_public_key_pcr_mask) {
+                assert(arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask == 0);
+                arg_tpm2_public_key_pcr_mask = INDEX_TO_MASK(uint32_t, TPM2_PCR_KERNEL_BOOT);
+        }
+
+        if (auto_hash_pcr_values && !arg_tpm2_pcrlock) { /* Only lock to PCR 7 if no pcr policy is specified. */
+                assert(arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values == 0);
+
+                if (!GREEDY_REALLOC_APPEND(
+                                    arg_tpm2_hash_pcr_values,
+                                    arg_tpm2_n_hash_pcr_values,
+                                    &TPM2_PCR_VALUE_MAKE(TPM2_PCR_INDEX_DEFAULT, /* hash= */ 0, /* value= */ {}),
+                                    1))
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        if (arg_pretty < 0 && isatty(STDOUT_FILENO))
+                arg_pretty = true;
+
+        if (arg_architecture >= 0) {
+                FOREACH_ARRAY(p, arg_filter_partitions, arg_n_filter_partitions)
+                        *p = gpt_partition_type_override_architecture(*p, arg_architecture);
+
+                FOREACH_ARRAY(p, arg_defer_partitions, arg_n_defer_partitions)
+                        *p = gpt_partition_type_override_architecture(*p, arg_architecture);
+        }
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int parse_proc_cmdline_factory_reset(void) {
+        bool b;
+        int r;
+
+        if (arg_factory_reset >= 0) /* Never override what is specified on the process command line */
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!in_initrd()) /* Never honour kernel command line factory reset request outside of the initrd */
+                return 0;
+
+        r = proc_cmdline_get_bool("systemd.factory_reset", /* flags = */ 0, &b);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse systemd.factory_reset kernel command line argument: %m");
+        if (r > 0) {
+                arg_factory_reset = b;
+
+                if (b)
+                        log_notice("Honouring factory reset requested via kernel command line.");
+        }
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int parse_efi_variable_factory_reset(void) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *value = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        if (arg_factory_reset >= 0) /* Never override what is specified on the process command line */
+                return 0;
+
+        if (!in_initrd()) /* Never honour EFI variable factory reset request outside of the initrd */
+                return 0;
+
+        r = efi_get_variable_string(EFI_SYSTEMD_VARIABLE(FactoryReset), &value);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (r == -ENOENT || ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(r))
+                        return 0;
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read EFI variable FactoryReset: %m");
+        }
+
+        r = parse_boolean(value);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to parse EFI variable FactoryReset: %m");
+
+        arg_factory_reset = r;
+        if (r)
+                log_notice("Factory reset requested via EFI variable FactoryReset.");
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int remove_efi_variable_factory_reset(void) {
+        int r;
+
+        r = efi_set_variable(EFI_SYSTEMD_VARIABLE(FactoryReset), NULL, 0);
+        if (r < 0) {
+                if (r == -ENOENT || ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(r))
+                        return 0;
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to remove EFI variable FactoryReset: %m");
+        }
+
+        log_info("Successfully unset EFI variable FactoryReset.");
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int acquire_root_devno(
+                const char *p,
+                const char *root,
+                int mode,
+                char **ret,
+                int *ret_fd) {
+
+        _cleanup_free_ char *found_path = NULL, *node = NULL;
+        dev_t devno, fd_devno = MODE_INVALID;
+        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(p);
+        assert(ret);
+        assert(ret_fd);
+
+        fd = chase_and_open(p, root, CHASE_PREFIX_ROOT, mode, &found_path);
+        if (fd < 0)
+                return fd;
+
+        if (fstat(fd, &st) < 0)
+                return -errno;
+
+        if (S_ISREG(st.st_mode)) {
+                *ret = TAKE_PTR(found_path);
+                *ret_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                /* Refuse referencing explicit block devices if a root dir is specified, after all we should
+                 * not be able to leave the image the root path constrains us to. */
+                if (root)
+                        return -EPERM;
+
+                fd_devno = devno = st.st_rdev;
+        } else if (S_ISDIR(st.st_mode)) {
+
+                devno = st.st_dev;
+                if (major(devno) == 0) {
+                        r = btrfs_get_block_device_fd(fd, &devno);
+                        if (r == -ENOTTY) /* not btrfs */
+                                return -ENODEV;
+                        if (r < 0)
+                                return r;
+                }
+        } else
+                return -ENOTBLK;
+
+        /* From dm-crypt to backing partition */
+        r = block_get_originating(devno, &devno);
+        if (r == -ENOENT)
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Device '%s' has no dm-crypt/dm-verity device, no need to look for underlying block device.", p);
+        else if (r < 0)
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to find underlying block device for '%s', ignoring: %m", p);
+
+        /* From partition to whole disk containing it */
+        r = block_get_whole_disk(devno, &devno);
+        if (r < 0)
+                log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to find whole disk block device for '%s', ignoring: %m", p);
+
+        r = devname_from_devnum(S_IFBLK, devno, &node);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_debug_errno(r, "Failed to determine canonical path for '%s': %m", p);
+
+        /* Only if we still look at the same block device we can reuse the fd. Otherwise return an
+         * invalidated fd. */
+        if (fd_devno != MODE_INVALID && fd_devno == devno) {
+                /* Tell udev not to interfere while we are processing the device */
+                if (flock(fd, arg_dry_run ? LOCK_SH : LOCK_EX) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to lock device '%s': %m", node);
+
+                *ret_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+        } else
+                *ret_fd = -EBADF;
+
+        *ret = TAKE_PTR(node);
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int find_root(Context *context) {
+        _cleanup_free_ char *device = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(context);
+
+        if (arg_node) {
+                if (arg_empty == EMPTY_CREATE) {
+                        _cleanup_close_ int fd = -EBADF;
+                        _cleanup_free_ char *s = NULL;
+
+                        s = strdup(arg_node);
+                        if (!s)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        fd = open(arg_node, O_RDONLY|O_CREAT|O_EXCL|O_CLOEXEC|O_NOFOLLOW, 0666);
+                        if (fd < 0)
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to create '%s': %m", arg_node);
+
+                        context->node = TAKE_PTR(s);
+                        context->node_is_our_file = true;
+                        context->backing_fd = TAKE_FD(fd);
+                        return 0;
+                }
+
+                /* Note that we don't specify a root argument here: if the user explicitly configured a node
+                 * we'll take it relative to the host, not the image */
+                r = acquire_root_devno(arg_node, NULL, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC, &context->node, &context->backing_fd);
+                if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                        return btrfs_log_dev_root(LOG_ERR, r, arg_node);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open file or determine backing device of %s: %m", arg_node);
+
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        assert(IN_SET(arg_empty, EMPTY_REFUSE, EMPTY_ALLOW));
+
+        /* If the root mount has been replaced by some form of volatile file system (overlayfs), the
+         * original root block device node is symlinked in /run/systemd/volatile-root. Let's read that
+         * here. */
+        r = readlink_malloc("/run/systemd/volatile-root", &device);
+        if (r == -ENOENT) { /* volatile-root not found */
+                /* Let's search for the root device. We look for two cases here: first in /, and then in /usr. The
+                * latter we check for cases where / is a tmpfs and only /usr is an actual persistent block device
+                * (think: volatile setups) */
+
+                FOREACH_STRING(p, "/", "/usr") {
+
+                        r = acquire_root_devno(p, arg_root, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC, &context->node,
+                                               &context->backing_fd);
+                        if (r < 0) {
+                                if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                                        return btrfs_log_dev_root(LOG_ERR, r, p);
+                                if (r != -ENODEV)
+                                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine backing device of %s: %m", p);
+                        } else
+                                return 0;
+                }
+        } else if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to read symlink /run/systemd/volatile-root: %m");
+        else {
+                r = acquire_root_devno(device, NULL, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC, &context->node, &context->backing_fd);
+                if (r == -EUCLEAN)
+                        return btrfs_log_dev_root(LOG_ERR, r, device);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open file or determine backing device of %s: %m", device);
+
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENODEV), "Failed to discover root block device.");
+}
+
+static int resize_pt(int fd, uint64_t sector_size) {
+        _cleanup_(fdisk_unref_contextp) struct fdisk_context *c = NULL;
+        int r;
+
+        /* After resizing the backing file we need to resize the partition table itself too, so that it takes
+         * possession of the enlarged backing file. For this it suffices to open the device with libfdisk and
+         * immediately write it again, with no changes. */
+
+        r = fdisk_new_context_at(fd, /* path= */ NULL, /* read_only= */ false, sector_size, &c);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to open device '%s': %m", FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd));
+
+        r = fdisk_has_label(c);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to determine whether disk '%s' has a disk label: %m", FORMAT_PROC_FD_PATH(fd));
+        if (r == 0) {
+                log_debug("Not resizing partition table, as there currently is none.");
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = fdisk_write_disklabel(c);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to write resized partition table: %m");
+
+        log_info("Resized partition table.");
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int resize_backing_fd(
+                const char *node,           /* The primary way we access the disk image to operate on */
+                int *fd,                    /* An O_RDONLY fd referring to that inode */
+                const char *backing_file,   /* If the above refers to a loopback device, the backing regular file for that, which we can grow */
+                LoopDevice *loop_device,
+                uint64_t sector_size) {
+
+        _cleanup_close_ int writable_fd = -EBADF;
+        uint64_t current_size;
+        struct stat st;
+        int r;
+
+        assert(node);
+        assert(fd);
+
+        if (arg_size == UINT64_MAX) /* Nothing to do */
+                return 0;
+
+        if (*fd < 0) {
+                /* Open the file if we haven't opened it yet. Note that we open it read-only here, just to
+                 * keep a reference to the file we can pass around. */
+                *fd = open(node, O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC);
+                if (*fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open '%s' in order to adjust size: %m", node);
+        }
+
+        if (fstat(*fd, &st) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat '%s': %m", node);
+
+        if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                if (!backing_file)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EBADF), "Cannot resize block device '%s'.", node);
+
+                assert(loop_device);
+
+                if (ioctl(*fd, BLKGETSIZE64, &current_size) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to determine size of block device %s: %m", node);
+        } else {
+                r = stat_verify_regular(&st);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Specified path '%s' is not a regular file or loopback block device, cannot resize: %m", node);
+
+                assert(!backing_file);
+                assert(!loop_device);
+                current_size = st.st_size;
+        }
+
+        if (current_size >= arg_size) {
+                log_info("File '%s' already is of requested size or larger, not growing. (%s >= %s)",
+                         node, FORMAT_BYTES(current_size), FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        if (S_ISBLK(st.st_mode)) {
+                assert(backing_file);
+
+                /* This is a loopback device. We can't really grow those directly, but we can grow the
+                 * backing file, hence let's do that. */
+
+                writable_fd = open(backing_file, O_WRONLY|O_CLOEXEC|O_NONBLOCK);
+                if (writable_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to open backing file '%s': %m", backing_file);
+
+                if (fstat(writable_fd, &st) < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to stat() backing file '%s': %m", backing_file);
+
+                r = stat_verify_regular(&st);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Backing file '%s' of block device is not a regular file: %m", backing_file);
+
+                if ((uint64_t) st.st_size != current_size)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EINVAL),
+                                               "Size of backing file '%s' of loopback block device '%s' don't match, refusing.",
+                                               node, backing_file);
+        } else {
+                assert(S_ISREG(st.st_mode));
+                assert(!backing_file);
+
+                /* The file descriptor is read-only. In order to grow the file we need to have a writable fd. We
+                 * reopen the file for that temporarily. We keep the writable fd only open for this operation though,
+                 * as fdisk can't accept it anyway. */
+
+                writable_fd = fd_reopen(*fd, O_WRONLY|O_CLOEXEC);
+                if (writable_fd < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(writable_fd, "Failed to reopen backing file '%s' writable: %m", node);
+        }
+
+        if (!arg_discard) {
+                if (fallocate(writable_fd, 0, 0, arg_size) < 0) {
+                        if (!ERRNO_IS_NOT_SUPPORTED(errno))
+                                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to grow '%s' from %s to %s by allocation: %m",
+                                                       node, FORMAT_BYTES(current_size), FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+
+                        /* Fallback to truncation, if fallocate() is not supported. */
+                        log_debug("Backing file system does not support fallocate(), falling back to ftruncate().");
+                } else {
+                        if (current_size == 0) /* Likely regular file just created by us */
+                                log_info("Allocated %s for '%s'.", FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size), node);
+                        else
+                                log_info("File '%s' grown from %s to %s by allocation.",
+                                         node, FORMAT_BYTES(current_size), FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+
+                        goto done;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (ftruncate(writable_fd, arg_size) < 0)
+                return log_error_errno(errno, "Failed to grow '%s' from %s to %s by truncation: %m",
+                                       node, FORMAT_BYTES(current_size), FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+
+        if (current_size == 0) /* Likely regular file just created by us */
+                log_info("Sized '%s' to %s.", node, FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+        else
+                log_info("File '%s' grown from %s to %s by truncation.",
+                         node, FORMAT_BYTES(current_size), FORMAT_BYTES(arg_size));
+
+done:
+        r = resize_pt(writable_fd, sector_size);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (loop_device) {
+                r = loop_device_refresh_size(loop_device, UINT64_MAX, arg_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "Failed to update loop device size: %m");
+        }
+
+        return 1;
+}
+
+static int determine_auto_size(Context *c) {
+        uint64_t sum;
+
+        assert(c);
+
+        sum = round_up_size(GPT_METADATA_SIZE, 4096);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, c->partitions) {
+                uint64_t m;
+
+                if (p->dropped)
+                        continue;
+
+                m = partition_min_size_with_padding(c, p);
+                if (m > UINT64_MAX - sum)
+                        return log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(EOVERFLOW), "Image would grow too large, refusing.");
+
+                sum += m;
+        }
+
+        if (c->total != UINT64_MAX)
+                /* Image already allocated? Then show its size. */
+                log_info("Automatically determined minimal disk image size as %s, current image size is %s.",
+                         FORMAT_BYTES(sum), FORMAT_BYTES(c->total));
+        else
+                /* If the image is being created right now, then it has no previous size, suppress any comment about it hence. */
+                log_info("Automatically determined minimal disk image size as %s.",
+                         FORMAT_BYTES(sum));
+
+        arg_size = sum;
+        return 0;
+}
+
+static int run(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+        _cleanup_(loop_device_unrefp) LoopDevice *loop_device = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(umount_and_freep) char *mounted_dir = NULL;
+        _cleanup_(context_freep) Context* context = NULL;
+        bool node_is_our_loop = false;
+        int r;
+
+        log_show_color(true);
+        log_parse_environment();
+        log_open();
+
+        r = parse_argv(argc, argv);
+        if (r <= 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = parse_proc_cmdline_factory_reset();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = parse_efi_variable_factory_reset();
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+#if HAVE_LIBCRYPTSETUP
+        cryptsetup_enable_logging(NULL);
+#endif
+
+        if (arg_image) {
+                assert(!arg_root);
+
+                /* Mount this strictly read-only: we shall modify the partition table, not the file
+                 * systems */
+                r = mount_image_privately_interactively(
+                                arg_image,
+                                arg_image_policy,
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_MOUNT_READ_ONLY |
+                                (arg_node ? DISSECT_IMAGE_DEVICE_READ_ONLY : 0) | /* If a different node to make changes to is specified let's open the device in read-only mode) */
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_GPT_ONLY |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_RELAX_VAR_CHECK |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_USR_NO_ROOT |
+                                DISSECT_IMAGE_REQUIRE_ROOT,
+                                &mounted_dir,
+                                /* ret_dir_fd= */ NULL,
+                                &loop_device);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                arg_root = strdup(mounted_dir);
+                if (!arg_root)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                if (!arg_node) {
+                        arg_node = strdup(loop_device->node);
+                        if (!arg_node)
+                                return log_oom();
+
+                        /* Remember that the device we are about to manipulate is actually the one we
+                         * allocated here, and thus to increase its backing file we know what to do */
+                        node_is_our_loop = true;
+                }
+        }
+
+        if (!arg_copy_source && arg_root) {
+                /* If no explicit copy source is specified, then use --root=/--image= */
+                arg_copy_source = strdup(arg_root);
+                if (!arg_copy_source)
+                        return log_oom();
+        }
+
+        context = context_new(arg_seed);
+        if (!context)
+                return log_oom();
+
+        r = context_copy_from(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (arg_make_ddi) {
+                _cleanup_free_ char *d = NULL, *dp = NULL;
+                assert(!arg_definitions);
+
+                d = strjoin(arg_make_ddi, ".repart.d/");
+                if (!d)
+                        return log_oom();
+
+                r = search_and_access(d, F_OK, arg_root, CONF_PATHS_USR_STRV("systemd/repart/definitions"), &dp);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return log_error_errno(r, "DDI type '%s' is not defined: %m", arg_make_ddi);
+
+                if (strv_consume(&arg_definitions, TAKE_PTR(dp)) < 0)
+                        return log_oom();
+        } else
+                strv_uniq(arg_definitions);
+
+        r = context_read_definitions(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = find_root(context);
+        if (r == -ENODEV)
+                return 76; /* Special return value which means "Root block device not found, so not doing
+                            * anything". This isn't really an error when called at boot. */
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (arg_size != UINT64_MAX) {
+                r = resize_backing_fd(
+                                context->node,
+                                &context->backing_fd,
+                                node_is_our_loop ? arg_image : NULL,
+                                node_is_our_loop ? loop_device : NULL,
+                                context->sector_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        r = context_load_partition_table(context);
+        if (r == -EHWPOISON)
+                return 77; /* Special return value which means "Not GPT, so not doing anything". This isn't
+                            * really an error when called at boot. */
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        context->from_scratch = r > 0; /* Starting from scratch */
+
+        if (arg_can_factory_reset) {
+                r = context_can_factory_reset(context);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+                if (r == 0)
+                        return EXIT_FAILURE;
+
+                return 0;
+        }
+
+        r = context_factory_reset(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+        if (r > 0) {
+                /* We actually did a factory reset! */
+                r = remove_efi_variable_factory_reset();
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                /* Reload the reduced partition table */
+                context_unload_partition_table(context);
+                r = context_load_partition_table(context);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        r = context_read_seed(context, arg_root);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Make sure each partition has a unique UUID and unique label */
+        r = context_acquire_partition_uuids_and_labels(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Open all files to copy blocks from now, since we want to take their size into consideration */
+        r = context_open_copy_block_paths(
+                        context,
+                        loop_device ? loop_device->devno :         /* if --image= is specified, only allow partitions on the loopback device */
+                                      arg_root && !arg_image ? 0 : /* if --root= is specified, don't accept any block device */
+                                      (dev_t) -1);                 /* if neither is specified, make no restrictions */
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = context_minimize(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        if (arg_size_auto) {
+                r = determine_auto_size(context);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                /* Flush out everything again, and let's grow the file first, then start fresh */
+                context_unload_partition_table(context);
+
+                assert(arg_size != UINT64_MAX);
+                r = resize_backing_fd(
+                                context->node,
+                                &context->backing_fd,
+                                node_is_our_loop ? arg_image : NULL,
+                                node_is_our_loop ? loop_device : NULL,
+                                context->sector_size);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+
+                r = context_load_partition_table(context);
+                if (r < 0)
+                        return r;
+        }
+
+        /* First try to fit new partitions in, dropping by priority until it fits */
+        for (;;) {
+                uint64_t largest_free_area;
+
+                if (context_allocate_partitions(context, &largest_free_area))
+                        break; /* Success! */
+
+                if (!context_drop_or_foreignize_one_priority(context)) {
+                        r = log_error_errno(SYNTHETIC_ERRNO(ENOSPC),
+                                            "Can't fit requested partitions into available free space (%s), refusing.",
+                                            FORMAT_BYTES(largest_free_area));
+                        determine_auto_size(context);
+                        return r;
+                }
+        }
+
+        /* Now assign free space according to the weight logic */
+        r = context_grow_partitions(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        /* Now calculate where each new partition gets placed */
+        context_place_partitions(context);
+
+        (void) context_dump(context, /*late=*/ false);
+
+        r = context_write_partition_table(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        r = context_split(context);
+        if (r < 0)
+                return r;
+
+        (void) context_dump(context, /*late=*/ true);
+
+        context->node = mfree(context->node);
+
+        LIST_FOREACH(partitions, p, context->partitions)
+                p->split_path = mfree(p->split_path);
+
+        return 0;
+}
+
+DEFINE_MAIN_FUNCTION_WITH_POSITIVE_FAILURE(run);