sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  82        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  83        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  84        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  88        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  89        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  90        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  91        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  92        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  93        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  94        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  95        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  97        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  98        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  99        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100    }
 101
 102    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 103    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 104
 105    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 106    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 107
 108    # Always do union distinct or union all
 109    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 110
 111    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 112    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 115    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 118    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 121    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 122
 123    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 124    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 127    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 130    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 131
 132    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 133    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 134
 135    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 136    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 137
 138    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 139    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 140
 141    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 142    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 143
 144    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 145    JOIN_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 148    TABLE_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 151    QUERY_HINTS = True
 152
 153    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 154    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 155
 156    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 157    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 160    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 163    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 166    RETURNING_END = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 169    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 172    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 175    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 178    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 179
 180    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 181    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 182
 183    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 184    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 185    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 186    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 187
 188    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 189    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 190
 191    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 192        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 198        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 199        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 200        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 201    }
 202
 203    STAR_MAPPING = {
 204        "except": "EXCEPT",
 205        "replace": "REPLACE",
 206    }
 207
 208    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 209        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 210        "seconds": "second",
 211        "minutes": "minute",
 212        "hours": "hour",
 213        "days": "day",
 214        "weeks": "week",
 215        "months": "month",
 216        "quarters": "quarter",
 217        "years": "year",
 218    }
 219
 220    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 221
 222    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 223
 224    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 225
 226    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 227        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 245        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 247        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 249        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 255        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 256        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 258        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 259        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 261        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 263        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 265        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 280        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 283        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284    }
 285
 286    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 287    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 288
 289    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 290    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 291        exp.Create,
 292        exp.Delete,
 293        exp.Drop,
 294        exp.From,
 295        exp.Insert,
 296        exp.Join,
 297        exp.Select,
 298        exp.Update,
 299        exp.Where,
 300        exp.With,
 301    )
 302
 303    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 304    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 305        exp.Column,
 306        exp.Literal,
 307        exp.Neg,
 308        exp.Paren,
 309    )
 310
 311    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 312
 313    # Autofilled
 314    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 315    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 316    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 317    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 318    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 319    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 320    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 321    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 322    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 323    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 324
 325    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 326
 327    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 328    QUOTE_START = "'"
 329    QUOTE_END = "'"
 330    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 331    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 332    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 333
 334    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 335    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 338    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 339    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 340    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 341
 342    __slots__ = (
 343        "pretty",
 344        "identify",
 345        "normalize",
 346        "pad",
 347        "_indent",
 348        "normalize_functions",
 349        "unsupported_level",
 350        "max_unsupported",
 351        "leading_comma",
 352        "max_text_width",
 353        "comments",
 354        "unsupported_messages",
 355        "_escaped_quote_end",
 356        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 357        "_cache",
 358    )
 359
 360    def __init__(
 361        self,
 362        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 363        identify: str | bool = False,
 364        normalize: bool = False,
 365        pad: int = 2,
 366        indent: int = 2,
 367        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 368        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 369        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 370        leading_comma: bool = False,
 371        max_text_width: int = 80,
 372        comments: bool = True,
 373    ):
 374        import sqlglot
 375
 376        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 377        self.identify = identify
 378        self.normalize = normalize
 379        self.pad = pad
 380        self._indent = indent
 381        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 382        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 383        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 384        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 385        self.comments = comments
 386
 387        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 388        self.normalize_functions = (
 389            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 390        )
 391
 392        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 393        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 394        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 395            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 396        )
 397        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 398
 399    def generate(
 400        self,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 402        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        """
 405        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 406
 407        Args:
 408            expression: The syntax tree.
 409            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 410                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 411
 412        Returns:
 413            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 414        """
 415        if cache is not None:
 416            self._cache = cache
 417
 418        self.unsupported_messages = []
 419        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 420        self._cache = None
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 423            return sql
 424
 425        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 426            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 427                logger.warning(msg)
 428        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 429            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 430
 431        if self.pretty:
 432            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 433        return sql
 434
 435    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 436        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 437            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 438        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 439
 440    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 442
 443    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 444        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 445
 446    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 447        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 448        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 449        return comment
 450
 451    def maybe_comment(
 452        self,
 453        sql: str,
 454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 455        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 456    ) -> str:
 457        comments = (
 458            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 459            if self.comments
 460            else None
 461        )
 462
 463        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 464            return sql
 465
 466        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 467        comments_sql = sep.join(
 468            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 469        )
 470
 471        if not comments_sql:
 472            return sql
 473
 474        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 475            return (
 476                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 477                if sql[0].isspace()
 478                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 479            )
 480
 481        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 482
 483    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 484        this_sql = self.indent(
 485            self.sql(expression)
 486            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 487            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 488            level=1,
 489            pad=0,
 490        )
 491        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 492
 493    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 494        original = self.identify
 495        self.identify = False
 496        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 497        self.identify = original
 498        return result
 499
 500    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 501        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 502            return name.upper()
 503        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 504            return name.lower()
 505        return name
 506
 507    def indent(
 508        self,
 509        sql: str,
 510        level: int = 0,
 511        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 512        skip_first: bool = False,
 513        skip_last: bool = False,
 514    ) -> str:
 515        if not self.pretty:
 516            return sql
 517
 518        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 519        lines = sql.split("\n")
 520
 521        return "\n".join(
 522            line
 523            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 524            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 525            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 526        )
 527
 528    def sql(
 529        self,
 530        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 531        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 532        comment: bool = True,
 533    ) -> str:
 534        if not expression:
 535            return ""
 536
 537        if isinstance(expression, str):
 538            return expression
 539
 540        if key:
 541            value = expression.args.get(key)
 542            if value:
 543                return self.sql(value)
 544            return ""
 545
 546        if self._cache is not None:
 547            expression_id = hash(expression)
 548
 549            if expression_id in self._cache:
 550                return self._cache[expression_id]
 551
 552        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 553
 554        if callable(transform):
 555            sql = transform(self, expression)
 556        elif transform:
 557            sql = transform
 558        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 559            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 560
 561            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 562                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 563            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 564                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 565            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 566                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 567            else:
 568                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 569        else:
 570            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 571
 572        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 573
 574        if self._cache is not None:
 575            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 576        return sql
 577
 578    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 579        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 580        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 581        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 582
 583    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 584        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 585        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586        options = expression.args.get("options")
 587        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 588        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 589        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 590        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 591        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 592
 593    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 594        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 595            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 596        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 597        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 598
 599    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 600        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 601
 602        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 603            join_mark = ""
 604            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 605
 606        column = ".".join(
 607            self.sql(part)
 608            for part in (
 609                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 610                expression.args.get("db"),
 611                expression.args.get("table"),
 612                expression.args.get("this"),
 613            )
 614            if part
 615        )
 616
 617        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 618
 619    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 622        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 623        return f"{position}{this}"
 624
 625    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 628        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 629        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 630        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 631        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 632        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 633        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 634
 635        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 636
 637    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 640        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 641
 642    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 645            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 646        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 647            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 648        else:
 649            persisted = ""
 650        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 651
 652    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 653        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 654
 655    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 656        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 657            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 658        else:
 659            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660
 661        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 662
 663    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 664        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 665    ) -> str:
 666        this = ""
 667        if expression.this is not None:
 668            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 669            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 670
 671        start = expression.args.get("start")
 672        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 673        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 674        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 675        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 676        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 677        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 678        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 679        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 680        cycle_sql = ""
 681
 682        if cycle is not None:
 683            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 684            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 685
 686        sequence_opts = ""
 687        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 688            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 689            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 690
 691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 692        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 693
 694        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 695
 696    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 698
 699    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 700        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 701        if desc is not None:
 702            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 703        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 704
 705    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 707        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 708        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 709        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 710        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 711
 712    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 713        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 714
 715    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 716        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 717        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 718        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 719
 720        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 721
 722        properties_sql = ""
 723        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 724            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 725        ):
 726            properties_sql = self.sql(
 727                exp.Properties(
 728                    expressions=[
 729                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 730                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 731                    ]
 732                )
 733            )
 734
 735        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 736        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 737        if expression_sql:
 738            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 739
 740            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 741                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 742                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 743                        exp.Properties(
 744                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 745                        ),
 746                        wrapped=False,
 747                    )
 748                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 749                else:
 750                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 751
 752        postindex_props_sql = ""
 753        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 754            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 755                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 756                wrapped=False,
 757                prefix=" ",
 758            )
 759
 760        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 761        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 762        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 763
 764        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 765        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 766
 767        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 768        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 769            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 770                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 771                sep=" ",
 772                prefix=" ",
 773                wrapped=False,
 774            )
 775
 776        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 777
 778        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 779        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 780            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 781                exp.Properties(
 782                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 783                ),
 784                sep=" ",
 785                prefix=" ",
 786                wrapped=False,
 787            )
 788
 789        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 790        no_schema_binding = (
 791            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 792        )
 793
 794        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 795        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 796
 797        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 798        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 799
 800    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 803        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 804        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 805
 806        if when:
 807            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 808            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 809            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 810
 811        return this
 812
 813    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 814        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 815
 816    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 817        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 818        if with_:
 819            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 820        return sql
 821
 822    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 823        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 824        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 825
 826        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 827
 828    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 829        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 830        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 831
 832    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 833        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 835        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 836        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 837
 838    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        if self.BIT_START:
 841            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 842        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 843
 844    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846        if self.HEX_START:
 847            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 848        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 849
 850    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 852        if self.BYTE_START:
 853            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 854        return this
 855
 856    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 857        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 858        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 859
 860    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 863        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 864        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 865
 866    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 867        type_value = expression.this
 868
 869        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 870            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 871        else:
 872            type_sql = (
 873                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 874                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 875                else type_value
 876            )
 877
 878        nested = ""
 879        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 880        values = ""
 881
 882        if interior:
 883            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 884                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 885                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 886                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 887                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 888                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 889            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 890                nested = f" {interior}"
 891            else:
 892                nested = f"({interior})"
 893
 894        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 895        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 896            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 897            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 898        ):
 899            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 900
 901        return type_sql
 902
 903    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 904        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 905        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 906        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 907        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 908
 909    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 911        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 912        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 913        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 914        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 915        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 916        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 917        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 918        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 919        if self.RETURNING_END:
 920            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 921        else:
 922            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 923        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 924
 925    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 928        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 929        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 930        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 931        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 932        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 933        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 934        return (
 935            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 936        )
 937
 938    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 939        return self.prepend_ctes(
 940            expression,
 941            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 942        )
 943
 944    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 945        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 946
 947    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 948        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 949        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 950        count = expression.args.get("count")
 951        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 952        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 953            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 954        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 955        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 956
 957    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 960        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 961
 962    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 963        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 964            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 965            return ""
 966
 967        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 968
 969    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 970        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 971        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 972        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 973        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 974        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 975        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 976        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 977        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 978        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 979        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 980        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 981        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 982        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 983        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 984        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 985
 986    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 987        text = expression.name
 988        lower = text.lower()
 989        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 990        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 991        if (
 992            expression.quoted
 993            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 994            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 995            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 996        ):
 997            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 998        return text
 999
1000    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1001        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1002        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1003        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1004        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1005        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1006
1007    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1008        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1009        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1010
1011    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1012        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1013
1014    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1015        root_properties = []
1016        with_properties = []
1017
1018        for p in expression.expressions:
1019            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1020            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1021                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1022            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1023                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1024
1025        return self.root_properties(
1026            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1027        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1028
1029    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1030        if properties.expressions:
1031            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1032        return ""
1033
1034    def properties(
1035        self,
1036        properties: exp.Properties,
1037        prefix: str = "",
1038        sep: str = ", ",
1039        suffix: str = "",
1040        wrapped: bool = True,
1041    ) -> str:
1042        if properties.expressions:
1043            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1044            if expressions:
1045                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1046                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1047        return ""
1048
1049    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1050        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1051
1052    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1053        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1054        for p in properties.expressions:
1055            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1056            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1057                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1058            else:
1059                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1060
1061        return properties_locs
1062
1063    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1064        property_cls = expression.__class__
1065        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1066            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1067
1068        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1069        if not property_name:
1070            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1071
1072        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1073
1074    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1075        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1076        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1077        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1078
1079    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1080        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1081        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1082        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1083
1084    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1085        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1086        local = expression.args.get("local")
1087        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1088        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1089        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1090        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1091        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1092
1093    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1094        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1096        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1097
1098    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1099        if expression.args.get("default"):
1100            property = "DEFAULT"
1101        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1102            property = "ON"
1103        else:
1104            property = "OFF"
1105        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1106
1107    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1108        if expression.args.get("no"):
1109            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1110        if expression.args.get("default"):
1111            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1112
1113        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1114        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1115
1116    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1117        default = expression.args.get("default")
1118        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1119        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1120        if default or minimum or maximum:
1121            if default:
1122                prop = "DEFAULT"
1123            elif minimum:
1124                prop = "MINIMUM"
1125            else:
1126                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1127            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1128        units = expression.args.get("units")
1129        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1130        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1131
1132    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1133        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1134        always = expression.args.get("always")
1135        default = expression.args.get("default")
1136        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1137        never = expression.args.get("never")
1138
1139        if autotemp is not None:
1140            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1141        elif always:
1142            prop = "ALWAYS"
1143        elif default:
1144            prop = "DEFAULT"
1145        elif manual:
1146            prop = "MANUAL"
1147        elif never:
1148            prop = "NEVER"
1149        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1150
1151    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1152        no = expression.args.get("no")
1153        no = " NO" if no else ""
1154        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1155        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1156
1157        for_ = ""
1158        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1159            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1160        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1161            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1162        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1163            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1164        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1165
1166    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1167        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1168        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1169        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1170        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1171        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1172        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1173
1174    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1175        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1176        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1177        statistics_sql = ""
1178        if statistics is not None:
1179            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1180        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1181
1182    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1183        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1184
1185        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1186            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1187        else:
1188            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1189
1190        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1191        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1192        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1193
1194        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1195
1196        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1197        partition_sql = (
1198            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1199        )
1200        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1201        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1202        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1203        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1204        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1205        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1206
1207        if self.RETURNING_END:
1208            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1209        else:
1210            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1211
1212        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1213        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1214
1215    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1216        return self.prepend_ctes(
1217            expression,
1218            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1219        )
1220
1221    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1222        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1223
1224    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1225        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1226
1227    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1228        return expression.name.upper()
1229
1230    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1231        return expression.name.upper()
1232
1233    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1234        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1235        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1236        if constraint:
1237            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1238        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1239        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1240        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1241        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1242        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1243        if expressions:
1244            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1245        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1246
1247    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1248        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1249
1250    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1251        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1252        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1253        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1254        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1255        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1256        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1257        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1258        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1259        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1260        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1261        null = expression.args.get("null")
1262        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1263        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1264
1265    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1266        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1267
1268    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1269        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1270        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1271        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1272        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1273
1274    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1275        table = ".".join(
1276            part
1277            for part in [
1278                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1279                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1280                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1281            ]
1282            if part
1283        )
1284
1285        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1286        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1287        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1288        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1289        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1290        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1291        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1292        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1293        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1294        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1295
1296        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1297
1298    def tablesample_sql(
1299        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1300    ) -> str:
1301        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1302            table = expression.this.copy()
1303            table.set("alias", None)
1304            this = self.sql(table)
1305            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1306        else:
1307            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308            alias = ""
1309        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1310        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1311        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1312        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1313        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1314        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1315        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1316        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1317        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1318        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1319        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1320        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1321        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1322            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1323        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1324        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1325        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1326        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1327
1328    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1329        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1330
1331        if expression.this:
1332            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1334            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1335            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1336            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1337            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1338
1339        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1340        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1341        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1342        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1343        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1344        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1345        if include_nulls is not None:
1346            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1347        else:
1348            nulls = ""
1349        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1350
1351    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1352        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1353        kind = expression.text("kind")
1354        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1355        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1356
1357    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1358        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1359
1360    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1362        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1363        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1364        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1365        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1366        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1367        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1368        if self.RETURNING_END:
1369            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1370        else:
1371            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1372        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1373        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1374
1375    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1376        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1377        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1378            args = self.expressions(expression)
1379            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1380            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1381            values = (
1382                f"({values})"
1383                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1384                else values
1385            )
1386            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1387
1388        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1389        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1390        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1391        # very slow.
1392        expression = expression.copy()
1393        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1394
1395        selects = []
1396
1397        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1398            row = tup.expressions
1399
1400            if i == 0 and column_names:
1401                row = [
1402                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1403                ]
1404
1405            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1406
1407        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1408        if len(selects) > 1:
1409            for select in selects[1:]:
1410                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1411                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1412                )
1413
1414        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1415
1416    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1417        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1418
1419    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1420        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1421        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1422        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1423
1424    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1425        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1426
1427    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1428        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1429
1430        if expression.args.get("all"):
1431            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1432
1433        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1434        grouping_sets = (
1435            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1436        )
1437
1438        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1439        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1440            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1441        else:
1442            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1443            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1444
1445        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1446        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1447            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1448        else:
1449            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1450            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1451
1452        groupings = csv(
1453            grouping_sets,
1454            cube_sql,
1455            rollup_sql,
1456            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1457            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1458        )
1459
1460        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1461            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1462
1463        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1464
1465    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1466        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1467        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1468
1469    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1470        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1471        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1472        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1473        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1474        return start + connect
1475
1476    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1477        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1478
1479    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1480        op_sql = " ".join(
1481            op
1482            for op in (
1483                expression.method,
1484                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1485                expression.side,
1486                expression.kind,
1487                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1488            )
1489            if op
1490        )
1491        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1492        using = expression.args.get("using")
1493
1494        if not on_sql and using:
1495            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1496
1497        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498
1499        if on_sql:
1500            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1501            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1502            if using:
1503                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1504            else:
1505                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1506        elif not op_sql:
1507            return f", {this_sql}"
1508
1509        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1510        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1511
1512    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1513        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1514        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1515        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1516
1517    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519
1520        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1521            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1522
1523        if expression.args.get("view"):
1524            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1525            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1526            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1527            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1528            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1529            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1530
1531        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1532        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1533        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1534
1535    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1537        args = ", ".join(
1538            sql
1539            for sql in (
1540                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1541                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1542            )
1543            if sql
1544        )
1545        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1546
1547    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1549        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1550
1551    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1552        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1553        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1555        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1556        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1557        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1558        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1559        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1560
1561    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1562        expressions = (
1563            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1564        )
1565        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1566        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1567
1568    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1569        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1570
1571    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1572        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1573            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1574            return ""
1575
1576        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1577        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1578        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1579        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1580
1581        if wait is not None:
1582            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1583                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1584            else:
1585                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1586
1587        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1588
1589    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1590        text = expression.this or ""
1591        if expression.is_string:
1592            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1593        return text
1594
1595    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1596        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1597        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1598            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1599        elif self.pretty:
1600            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1601        return text
1602
1603    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1604        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1605        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1606        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1607        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1608        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1609        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1610        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1611        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1612        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1613        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1614        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1615
1616    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1617        return "NULL"
1618
1619    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1620        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1621
1622    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1624        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1625        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1626
1627    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1628        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1629
1630    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1631        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1632
1633    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1634        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1635
1636    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1637        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1638        asc = not desc
1639
1640        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1641        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1642        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1643        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1644        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1645
1646        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1647        nulls_sort_change = ""
1648        if nulls_first and (
1649            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1650        ):
1651            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1652        elif (
1653            nulls_last
1654            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1655            and not nulls_are_last
1656        ):
1657            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1658
1659        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1660            self.unsupported(
1661                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1662            )
1663            nulls_sort_change = ""
1664
1665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1666
1667    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1668        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1669        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1670        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1671        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1672        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1673        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1674        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1675        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1676        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1677        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1678        definition_sqls = [
1679            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1680            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1681        ]
1682        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1683        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1684        body = "".join(
1685            (
1686                partition,
1687                order,
1688                measures,
1689                rows,
1690                after,
1691                pattern,
1692                define,
1693            )
1694        )
1695        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1696        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1697        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1698
1699    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1700        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1701
1702        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1703        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1704
1705        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1706            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1707        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1708            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1709
1710        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1711
1712        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1713            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1714            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1715            else []
1716        )
1717
1718        return csv(
1719            *sqls,
1720            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1721            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1722            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1723            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1724            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1725            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1726            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1727            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1728            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1729            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1730            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1731            sep="",
1732        )
1733
1734    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1735        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1736    ) -> t.List[str]:
1737        return [
1738            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1739            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1740        ]
1741
1742    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1743        return [
1744            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1745            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1746            if expression.args.get("windows")
1747            else "",
1748            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1749            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1750            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1751        ]
1752
1753    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1754        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1755        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1756        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1757
1758    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1759        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1760        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1761        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1762        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1763        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1764        top = (
1765            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1766            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1767            else ""
1768        )
1769
1770        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1771
1772        if kind:
1773            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1774                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1775            else:
1776                if kind == "STRUCT":
1777                    expressions = self.expressions(
1778                        sqls=[
1779                            self.sql(
1780                                exp.Struct(
1781                                    expressions=[
1782                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1783                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1784                                        )
1785                                        for e in expression.expressions
1786                                    ]
1787                                )
1788                            )
1789                        ]
1790                    )
1791                kind = ""
1792
1793        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1794        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1795            expression,
1796            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1797            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1798            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1799        )
1800        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1801
1802    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1805        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1806        return f"{this}{sql}"
1807
1808    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1809        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1810
1811    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1812        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1813        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1814        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1815        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1816        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1817
1818    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1820        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1821        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1822
1823    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1825        kind = expression.text("kind")
1826        if kind:
1827            kind = f"{kind}."
1828        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1829
1830    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1831        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1832
1833    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1835        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1836
1837        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1838        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1839
1840        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1841        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1842
1843    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1844        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1845        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1846
1847    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1848        return self.prepend_ctes(
1849            expression,
1850            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1851        )
1852
1853    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1854        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1855        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1856        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1857        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1858
1859    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1860        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1862        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1863            columns = alias.columns
1864            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1865        else:
1866            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1867        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1868        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1869        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1870        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1871        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1872
1873    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1874        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1875        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1876
1877    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1880        order = expression.args.get("order")
1881        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1882        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1883        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1884        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1885
1886        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1887
1888        first = expression.args.get("first")
1889        if first is None:
1890            first = ""
1891        else:
1892            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1893
1894        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1895            return f"{this} {alias}"
1896
1897        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1898        return f"{this} ({args})"
1899
1900    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1901        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1902        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1903
1904    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1906        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1907        end = (
1908            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1909            or "CURRENT ROW"
1910        )
1911        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1912
1913    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1916        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1917
1918    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1921        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1922        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1923
1924    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1925        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1926        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1927
1928        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1929
1930    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1931        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1932
1933    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1934        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1935
1936    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1939            this = self.wrap(this)
1940        return f"ANY {this}"
1941
1942    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1943        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1944
1945    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1948
1949        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1950            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1951            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1952
1953        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1954
1955        if default:
1956            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1957
1958        statements.append("END")
1959
1960        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1961            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1962
1963        return " ".join(statements)
1964
1965    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1968        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1969
1970    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1971        order = expression.args.get("order")
1972        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1973        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1974
1975    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1977        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1978        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1979
1980    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1981        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1982
1983        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1984            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1985        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1986            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1987        else:
1988            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1989
1990    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1991        expressions = expression.expressions
1992        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1993            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1994        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1995
1996    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1997        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1998        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1999
2000    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2003        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2004        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2005        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2006        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2007        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2008        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2009
2010    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2011        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2012        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2013        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2014        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2015
2016    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2017        expression = expression.copy()
2018        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2019
2020    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2021        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2022        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2023        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2024
2025    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2026        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2027
2028    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2030
2031    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2032        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2033        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2034        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2035        if unique_keys is not None:
2036            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2037        else:
2038            unique_keys = ""
2039        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2040        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2041        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2042        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2043        return self.func(
2044            "JSON_OBJECT",
2045            *expression.expressions,
2046            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2047        )
2048
2049    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2050        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2051        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2052        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2053        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2054        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2055        return self.func(
2056            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2057        )
2058
2059    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2062        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2063        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2064        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2065        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2066        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2067        return self.func(
2068            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2069            this,
2070            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2071        )
2072
2073    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2076        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2077        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2078        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2079        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2080
2081    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2084        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2085        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2086        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2087        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2088        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2089        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2090        return self.func(
2091            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2092        )
2093
2094    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2097        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2098        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2099        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2100        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2101
2102    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2105        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2107        with_ = (
2108            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2109            if expressions
2110            else ""
2111        )
2112        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2113
2114    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2115        query = expression.args.get("query")
2116        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2117        field = expression.args.get("field")
2118        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2119
2120        if query:
2121            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2122        elif unnest:
2123            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2124        elif field:
2125            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2126        else:
2127            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2128
2129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2130
2131    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2132        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2133
2134    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2135        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2136        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2137            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2138        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2139
2140        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2141            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2142            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2143
2144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2145        if this:
2146            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2147            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2148
2149        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2150
2151    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2152        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2153
2154    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2156        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2157        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2158        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2159        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2160        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2161
2162    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2163        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2164
2165    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2166        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2167            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2168        else:
2169            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2170            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2171
2172        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2173
2174    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2175        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2176        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2178        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2179
2180    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2181        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2182
2183    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2184        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2185        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2186        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2187
2188    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2190
2191    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2193        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2194        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2195
2196    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2197        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2198
2199    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2200        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2201
2202    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2203        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2204
2205    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2206        if not self.pretty:
2207            return self.binary(expression, op)
2208
2209        sqls = tuple(
2210            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2211            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2212        )
2213
2214        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2215        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2216
2217    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2218        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2219
2220    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2221        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2222
2223    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2224        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2225
2226    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2227        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2228
2229    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2230        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2231
2232    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2233        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2234
2235    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2236        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2237        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2238        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2239
2240    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2241        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2242        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2243
2244    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2246
2247    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2248        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2249
2250    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2252        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2253        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2254        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2255        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2256
2257    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2260        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2261        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2262        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2263        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2264        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2265        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2266        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2267
2268    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2270        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2271        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2272        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2273
2274        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2275            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2276
2277        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2278
2279    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2280        return "BEGIN"
2281
2282    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2283        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2284        if chain is not None:
2285            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2286
2287        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2288
2289    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2290        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2291        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2292        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2293
2294    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2296
2297        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2298        if dtype:
2299            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2300            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2301            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2302            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2303            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2304
2305        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2306        if default:
2307            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2308
2309        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2310            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2311
2312        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2313
2314    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2315        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2316            # Remove db from tables
2317            expression = expression.transform(
2318                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2319            )
2320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2321        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2322
2323    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2324        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2325
2326        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2327            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2328                actions = self.expressions(
2329                    expression,
2330                    key="actions",
2331                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2332                )
2333            else:
2334                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2335        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2336            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2337        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2338            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2339        else:
2340            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2341
2342        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2343        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2344        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2345
2346    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2347        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2348        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2349        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2350
2351    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2354        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2355
2356        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2357        if enforced is not None:
2358            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2359
2360        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2361
2362    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2363        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2364        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2365
2366        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2367        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2368        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2369
2370    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2371        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2372
2373    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2374        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2375
2376    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2377        return self.sql(
2378            exp.Cast(
2379                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2380                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2381            )
2382        )
2383
2384    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2385        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2386
2387    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2388        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2389            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2390        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2391
2392    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2393        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2394
2395    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2397
2398    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2400
2401    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2402        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2403
2404    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2405        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2406
2407    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2409
2410    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2411        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2412
2413    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2414        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2415
2416    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2417        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2418
2419    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2420        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2421
2422    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2423        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2424
2425    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2426        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2427            return self.sql(
2428                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2429            )
2430        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2431
2432    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2433        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2434
2435    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2436        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2437
2438    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2439        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2440
2441    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2442        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2443
2444    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2445        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2446
2447    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2448        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2449
2450    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2451        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2452
2453    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2454        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2455
2456    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2457        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2458
2459    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2460        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2461
2462    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2463        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2464
2465    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2466        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2467
2468    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2469        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2470
2471    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2472        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2473
2474    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2475        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2476        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2479        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2480
2481    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2482        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2483        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2484
2485    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2486        args = []
2487
2488        for key in expression.arg_types:
2489            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2490
2491            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2492                for value in arg_value:
2493                    args.append(value)
2494            elif arg_value is not None:
2495                args.append(arg_value)
2496
2497        if self.normalize_functions:
2498            name = expression.sql_name()
2499        else:
2500            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2501
2502        return self.func(name, *args)
2503
2504    def func(
2505        self,
2506        name: str,
2507        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2508        prefix: str = "(",
2509        suffix: str = ")",
2510    ) -> str:
2511        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2512
2513    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2514        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2515        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2516            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2517        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2518
2519    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2520        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2521
2522    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2523        return format_time(
2524            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2525        )
2526
2527    def expressions(
2528        self,
2529        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2530        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2531        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2532        flat: bool = False,
2533        indent: bool = True,
2534        skip_first: bool = False,
2535        sep: str = ", ",
2536        prefix: str = "",
2537    ) -> str:
2538        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2539
2540        if not expressions:
2541            return ""
2542
2543        if flat:
2544            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2545
2546        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2547
2548        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2549        pad = " " * self.pad
2550        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2551
2552        result_sqls = []
2553        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2554            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2555            if not sql:
2556                continue
2557
2558            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2559
2560            if self.pretty:
2561                if self.leading_comma:
2562                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2563                else:
2564                    result_sqls.append(
2565                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2566                    )
2567            else:
2568                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2569
2570        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2571        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2572
2573    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2574        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2575        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2576        if flat:
2577            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2578        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2579
2580    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2581        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2582        if not property_name:
2583            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2584        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2585
2586    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2588        op = self.seg(op)
2589        return self.query_modifiers(
2590            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2591        )
2592
2593    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2594        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2595
2596    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2597        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2598
2599    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2602        expressions = (
2603            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2604        )
2605        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2606
2607    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2610        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2611
2612    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2613        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2614
2615    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2616        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2617        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2618        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2619        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2620
2621        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2622        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2623            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2624            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2625                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2626        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2627            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2628                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2629            else:
2630                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2631        else:
2632            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2633        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2634
2635    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2636        table = expression.this
2637        table_alias = ""
2638
2639        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2640        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2641            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2642            table = table.copy()
2643            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2644
2645        this = self.sql(table)
2646        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2647        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2648        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2649
2650        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2651
2652    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2653        if expression.args.get("format"):
2654            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2655
2656        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2657
2658    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2661        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2662        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2663        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2664
2665    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2668        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2669        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2670
2671    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2672        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2673
2674    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2675        return ""
2676
2677    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2678        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2679        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2680        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2681        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2682        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2683
2684    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2686        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2687
2688        if having:
2689            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2690
2691        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2692
2693    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2694        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2695        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2696        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2697        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2698        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2699        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2700        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2701        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2702        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2703        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2704        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2705        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2706        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2707
2708    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2709        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2710        if key_block_size:
2711            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2712
2713        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2714        if using:
2715            return f"USING {using}"
2716
2717        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2718        if parser:
2719            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2720
2721        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2722        if comment:
2723            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2724
2725        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2726        if visible is not None:
2727            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2728
2729        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2730        if engine_attr:
2731            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2732
2733        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2734        if secondary_engine_attr:
2735            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2736
2737        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2738        return ""
2739
2740    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2741        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2742        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2744        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2745        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2746        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2747        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2748        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2749        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2750        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2751        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2752
2753    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2754        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2755            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2756
2757        case = exp.Case().when(
2758            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2759            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2760            copy=False,
2761        )
2762        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2763        if else_cond:
2764            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2765
2766        return self.sql(case)
2767
2768    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2770        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2771        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2772        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2773        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2774        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2775
2776    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2777        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2778
2779
2780def cached_generator(
2781    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2782) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2783    """Returns a cached generator."""
2784    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2785    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2786    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)