sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 159    RETURNING_END = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 162    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 165    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 166
 167    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 168        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 169        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 170        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 171        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 172        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 173        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 174        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 175    }
 176
 177    STAR_MAPPING = {
 178        "except": "EXCEPT",
 179        "replace": "REPLACE",
 180    }
 181
 182    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 183        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 184        "seconds": "second",
 185        "minutes": "minute",
 186        "hours": "hour",
 187        "days": "day",
 188        "weeks": "week",
 189        "months": "month",
 190        "quarters": "quarter",
 191        "years": "year",
 192    }
 193
 194    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 195
 196    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 197
 198    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 199
 200    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 201        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 202        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 220        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 221        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 222        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 224        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 228        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 231        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 232        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 233        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 235        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 237        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 246        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 248        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 250        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 252        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 256    }
 257
 258    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 259    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 260
 261    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 262    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 263        exp.Drop,
 264        exp.From,
 265        exp.Select,
 266        exp.Where,
 267        exp.With,
 268    )
 269
 270    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 271    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 272        exp.Column,
 273        exp.Literal,
 274        exp.Neg,
 275        exp.Paren,
 276    )
 277
 278    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 279
 280    # Autofilled
 281    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 282    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 283    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 284    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 285    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 286    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 287    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 288    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 289    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 290    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 291
 292    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 293
 294    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 295    QUOTE_START = "'"
 296    QUOTE_END = "'"
 297    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 298    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 299    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 300    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 301
 302    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 303    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 304    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 305    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 306    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 307    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 308    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 309
 310    __slots__ = (
 311        "pretty",
 312        "identify",
 313        "normalize",
 314        "pad",
 315        "_indent",
 316        "normalize_functions",
 317        "unsupported_level",
 318        "max_unsupported",
 319        "leading_comma",
 320        "max_text_width",
 321        "comments",
 322        "unsupported_messages",
 323        "_escaped_quote_end",
 324        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 325        "_cache",
 326    )
 327
 328    def __init__(
 329        self,
 330        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 331        identify: str | bool = False,
 332        normalize: bool = False,
 333        pad: int = 2,
 334        indent: int = 2,
 335        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 336        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 337        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 338        leading_comma: bool = False,
 339        max_text_width: int = 80,
 340        comments: bool = True,
 341    ):
 342        import sqlglot
 343
 344        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 345        self.identify = identify
 346        self.normalize = normalize
 347        self.pad = pad
 348        self._indent = indent
 349        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 350        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 351        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 352        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 353        self.comments = comments
 354
 355        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 356        self.normalize_functions = (
 357            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 358        )
 359
 360        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 361        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 362        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 363        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 364
 365    def generate(
 366        self,
 367        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 368        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 369    ) -> str:
 370        """
 371        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 372
 373        Args:
 374            expression: The syntax tree.
 375            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 376                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 377
 378        Returns:
 379            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 380        """
 381        if cache is not None:
 382            self._cache = cache
 383
 384        self.unsupported_messages = []
 385        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 386        self._cache = None
 387
 388        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 389            return sql
 390
 391        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 392            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 393                logger.warning(msg)
 394        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 395            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 396
 397        if self.pretty:
 398            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 399        return sql
 400
 401    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 402        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 403            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 404        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 405
 406    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 407        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 408
 409    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 410        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 411
 412    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 413        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 414        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 415        return comment
 416
 417    def maybe_comment(
 418        self,
 419        sql: str,
 420        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 421        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 422    ) -> str:
 423        comments = (
 424            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 425            if self.comments
 426            else None
 427        )
 428
 429        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 430            return sql
 431
 432        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 433        comments_sql = sep.join(
 434            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 435        )
 436
 437        if not comments_sql:
 438            return sql
 439
 440        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 441            return (
 442                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 443                if sql[0].isspace()
 444                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 445            )
 446
 447        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 448
 449    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 450        this_sql = self.indent(
 451            self.sql(expression)
 452            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 453            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 454            level=1,
 455            pad=0,
 456        )
 457        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 458
 459    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 460        original = self.identify
 461        self.identify = False
 462        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 463        self.identify = original
 464        return result
 465
 466    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 467        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 468            return name.upper()
 469        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 470            return name.lower()
 471        return name
 472
 473    def indent(
 474        self,
 475        sql: str,
 476        level: int = 0,
 477        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 478        skip_first: bool = False,
 479        skip_last: bool = False,
 480    ) -> str:
 481        if not self.pretty:
 482            return sql
 483
 484        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 485        lines = sql.split("\n")
 486
 487        return "\n".join(
 488            line
 489            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 490            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 491            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 492        )
 493
 494    def sql(
 495        self,
 496        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 497        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 498        comment: bool = True,
 499    ) -> str:
 500        if not expression:
 501            return ""
 502
 503        if isinstance(expression, str):
 504            return expression
 505
 506        if key:
 507            value = expression.args.get(key)
 508            if value:
 509                return self.sql(value)
 510            return ""
 511
 512        if self._cache is not None:
 513            expression_id = hash(expression)
 514
 515            if expression_id in self._cache:
 516                return self._cache[expression_id]
 517
 518        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 519
 520        if callable(transform):
 521            sql = transform(self, expression)
 522        elif transform:
 523            sql = transform
 524        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 525            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 526
 527            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 528                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 529            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 530                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 531            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 532                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 533            else:
 534                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 535        else:
 536            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 537
 538        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 539
 540        if self._cache is not None:
 541            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 542        return sql
 543
 544    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 545        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 546        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 547        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 548
 549    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 550        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 551        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 552        options = expression.args.get("options")
 553        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 554        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 555        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 556        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 557        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 558
 559    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 560        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 561            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 562        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 563        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 564
 565    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 566        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 567
 568        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 569            join_mark = ""
 570            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 571
 572        column = ".".join(
 573            self.sql(part)
 574            for part in (
 575                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 576                expression.args.get("db"),
 577                expression.args.get("table"),
 578                expression.args.get("this"),
 579            )
 580            if part
 581        )
 582
 583        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 584
 585    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 587        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 588        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 589        return f"{position}{this}"
 590
 591    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 592        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 593        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 594        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 595        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 596        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 597        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 598        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 599        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 600
 601        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 602
 603    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 605        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 606        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 607
 608    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 609        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 610
 611    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 612        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 613            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 614        else:
 615            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 616
 617        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 618
 619    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 620        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 621    ) -> str:
 622        this = ""
 623        if expression.this is not None:
 624            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 625            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 626
 627        start = expression.args.get("start")
 628        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 629        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 630        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 631        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 632        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 633        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 634        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 635        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 636        cycle_sql = ""
 637
 638        if cycle is not None:
 639            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 640            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 641
 642        sequence_opts = ""
 643        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 644            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 645            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 646
 647        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 648        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 649
 650        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 651
 652    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 653        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 654
 655    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 656        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 657        if desc is not None:
 658            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 659        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 660
 661    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 663        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 664        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 665
 666    def createable_sql(
 667        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 668    ) -> str:
 669        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 670
 671    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 673        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 674        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 675
 676        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 677
 678        properties_sql = ""
 679        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 680            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 681        ):
 682            properties_sql = self.sql(
 683                exp.Properties(
 684                    expressions=[
 685                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 686                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 687                    ]
 688                )
 689            )
 690
 691        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 692        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 693        if expression_sql:
 694            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 695
 696            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 697                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 698                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 699                        exp.Properties(
 700                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 701                        ),
 702                        wrapped=False,
 703                    )
 704                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 705                else:
 706                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 707
 708        postindex_props_sql = ""
 709        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 710            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 711                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 712                wrapped=False,
 713                prefix=" ",
 714            )
 715
 716        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 717        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 718        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 719
 720        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 721        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 722
 723        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 724        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 725            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 726                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 727                sep=" ",
 728                prefix=" ",
 729                wrapped=False,
 730            )
 731
 732        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 733
 734        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 735        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 736            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                exp.Properties(
 738                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 739                ),
 740                sep=" ",
 741                prefix=" ",
 742                wrapped=False,
 743            )
 744
 745        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 746        no_schema_binding = (
 747            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 748        )
 749
 750        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 751        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 752
 753        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 754        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 755
 756    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 759
 760        if when:
 761            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 762            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 763            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 764
 765        return f"CLONE {this}"
 766
 767    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 768        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 769
 770    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 771        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 772        if with_:
 773            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 774        return sql
 775
 776    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 777        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 778        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 779
 780        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 781
 782    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 783        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 784        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 785
 786    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 787        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 789        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 790        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 791
 792    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        if self.BIT_START:
 795            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 796        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 797
 798    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        if self.HEX_START:
 801            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 802        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 803
 804    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 806        if self.BYTE_START:
 807            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 808        return this
 809
 810    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 811        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 812        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 813
 814    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 817        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 818        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 819
 820    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 821        type_value = expression.this
 822        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 823        nested = ""
 824        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 825        values = ""
 826        if interior:
 827            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 828                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 829                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 830                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 831                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 832                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 833            else:
 834                nested = f"({interior})"
 835
 836        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 837
 838    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 839        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 840        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 841        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 842        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 843
 844    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 847        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 848        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 849        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 850        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 851        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 852        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 853        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 854        if self.RETURNING_END:
 855            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 856        else:
 857            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 858        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 859
 860    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 863        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 864        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 865        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 866        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 867        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 868        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 869        return (
 870            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 871        )
 872
 873    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 874        return self.prepend_ctes(
 875            expression,
 876            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 877        )
 878
 879    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 880        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 881
 882    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 883        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 884        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 885        count = expression.args.get("count")
 886        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 887        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 888            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 889        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 890        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 891
 892    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 894        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 895        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 896
 897    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 898        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 899            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 900            return ""
 901
 902        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 903
 904    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 905        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 906        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 907        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 908        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 910        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 911        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 912        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 913        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 914        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 915        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 916        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 917        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 918        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 919        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 920
 921    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 922        text = expression.name
 923        lower = text.lower()
 924        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 925        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 926        if (
 927            expression.quoted
 928            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 929            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 930            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 931        ):
 932            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 933        return text
 934
 935    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 936        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 937        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 938        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 939        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 940        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 941
 942    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 943        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 944        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 945
 946    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 947        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 948
 949    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 950        root_properties = []
 951        with_properties = []
 952
 953        for p in expression.expressions:
 954            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 955            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 956                with_properties.append(p)
 957            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 958                root_properties.append(p)
 959
 960        return self.root_properties(
 961            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 962        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 963
 964    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 965        if properties.expressions:
 966            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 967        return ""
 968
 969    def properties(
 970        self,
 971        properties: exp.Properties,
 972        prefix: str = "",
 973        sep: str = ", ",
 974        suffix: str = "",
 975        wrapped: bool = True,
 976    ) -> str:
 977        if properties.expressions:
 978            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 979            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 980            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 981        return ""
 982
 983    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 984        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 985
 986    def locate_properties(
 987        self, properties: exp.Properties
 988    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 989        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 990            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 991        }
 992
 993        for p in properties.expressions:
 994            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 995            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 996                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 997            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 998                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 999            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1000                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1001            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1002                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1003            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1004                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1005            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1006                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1007            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1008                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1009            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1010                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1011
1012        return properties_locs
1013
1014    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1015        property_cls = expression.__class__
1016        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1017            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1018
1019        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1020        if not property_name:
1021            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1022
1023        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1024
1025    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1026        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1027        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1028        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1029
1030    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1031        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1032        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1033        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1034
1035    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1036        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1037        local = expression.args.get("local")
1038        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1039        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1040        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1041        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1042        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1043
1044    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1045        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1046        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1047        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1048
1049    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1050        if expression.args.get("default"):
1051            property = "DEFAULT"
1052        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1053            property = "ON"
1054        else:
1055            property = "OFF"
1056        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1057
1058    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1059        if expression.args.get("no"):
1060            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1061        if expression.args.get("default"):
1062            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1063
1064        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1065        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1066
1067    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1068        default = expression.args.get("default")
1069        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1070        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1071        if default or minimum or maximum:
1072            if default:
1073                prop = "DEFAULT"
1074            elif minimum:
1075                prop = "MINIMUM"
1076            else:
1077                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1078            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1079        units = expression.args.get("units")
1080        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1081        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1082
1083    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1084        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1085        always = expression.args.get("always")
1086        default = expression.args.get("default")
1087        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1088        never = expression.args.get("never")
1089
1090        if autotemp is not None:
1091            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1092        elif always:
1093            prop = "ALWAYS"
1094        elif default:
1095            prop = "DEFAULT"
1096        elif manual:
1097            prop = "MANUAL"
1098        elif never:
1099            prop = "NEVER"
1100        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1101
1102    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1103        no = expression.args.get("no")
1104        no = " NO" if no else ""
1105        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1106        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1107
1108        for_ = ""
1109        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1110            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1111        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1112            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1113        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1114            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1115        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1116
1117    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1118        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1119        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1120        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1121        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1122        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1123        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1124
1125    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1126        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1127        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1128        statistics_sql = ""
1129        if statistics is not None:
1130            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1131        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1132
1133    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1134        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1135
1136        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1137            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1138        else:
1139            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1140
1141        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1142        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1143        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1144
1145        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1146
1147        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1148        partition_sql = (
1149            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1150        )
1151        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1152        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1153        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1154        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1155        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1156
1157        if self.RETURNING_END:
1158            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1159        else:
1160            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1161
1162        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1163        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1164
1165    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1166        return self.prepend_ctes(
1167            expression,
1168            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1169        )
1170
1171    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1172        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1173
1174    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1175        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1176
1177    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1178        return expression.name.upper()
1179
1180    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1181        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1182        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1183        if constraint:
1184            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1185        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1186        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1187        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1188        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1189        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1190        if expressions:
1191            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1192        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1193
1194    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1195        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1196
1197    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1198        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1199        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1200        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1201        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1202        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1203        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1204        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1205        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1206        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1207        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1208        null = expression.args.get("null")
1209        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1210        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1211
1212    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1213        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1214
1215    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1216        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1217        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1218        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1219        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1220
1221    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1222        table = ".".join(
1223            part
1224            for part in [
1225                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1226                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1227                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1228            ]
1229            if part
1230        )
1231
1232        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1233        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1234        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1235        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1236        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1237        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1238        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1239        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1240        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1241        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1242
1243        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1244
1245    def tablesample_sql(
1246        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1247    ) -> str:
1248        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1249            table = expression.this.copy()
1250            table.set("alias", None)
1251            this = self.sql(table)
1252            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1253        else:
1254            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            alias = ""
1256        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1257        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1258        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1259        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1260        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1261        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1262        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1263        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1264        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1265        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1266        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1267        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1268        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1269            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1270        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1271        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1272        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1273        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1274
1275    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1276        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1277
1278        if expression.this:
1279            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1281            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1282            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1283            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1284            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1285
1286        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1287        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1288        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1289        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1290        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1291        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1292
1293    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1294        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1295
1296    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1299        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1300        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1301        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1302        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1303        if self.RETURNING_END:
1304            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1305        else:
1306            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1307        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1308        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1309
1310    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1311        args = self.expressions(expression)
1312        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1313        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1314        values = (
1315            f"({values})"
1316            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1317            else values
1318        )
1319        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1320
1321    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1322        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1323
1324    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1325        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1326        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1327        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1328
1329    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1330        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1331
1332    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1333        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1334
1335        if expression.args.get("all"):
1336            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1337
1338        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1339        grouping_sets = (
1340            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1341        )
1342
1343        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1344        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1345            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1346        else:
1347            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1348            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1349
1350        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1351        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1352            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1353        else:
1354            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1355            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1356
1357        groupings = csv(
1358            grouping_sets,
1359            cube_sql,
1360            rollup_sql,
1361            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1362            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1363        )
1364
1365        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1366            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1367
1368        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1369
1370    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1371        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1372        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1373
1374    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1375        op_sql = " ".join(
1376            op
1377            for op in (
1378                expression.method,
1379                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1380                expression.side,
1381                expression.kind,
1382                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1383            )
1384            if op
1385        )
1386        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1387        using = expression.args.get("using")
1388
1389        if not on_sql and using:
1390            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1391
1392        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1393
1394        if on_sql:
1395            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1396            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1397            if using:
1398                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1399            else:
1400                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1401        elif not op_sql:
1402            return f", {this_sql}"
1403
1404        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1405        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1406
1407    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1408        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1409        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1410        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1411
1412    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1414
1415        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1416            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1417
1418        if expression.args.get("view"):
1419            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1420            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1421            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1422            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1423            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1424            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1425
1426        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1427        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1428        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1429
1430    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432        args = ", ".join(
1433            sql
1434            for sql in (
1435                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1436                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1437            )
1438            if sql
1439        )
1440        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1441
1442    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1444        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1445
1446    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1447        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1448        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1450        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1451        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1452        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1453        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1454        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1455
1456    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1457        expressions = (
1458            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1459        )
1460        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1461        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1462
1463    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1464        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1465
1466    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1467        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1468            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1469            return ""
1470
1471        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1472        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1473        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1474        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1475
1476        if wait is not None:
1477            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1478                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1479            else:
1480                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1481
1482        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1483
1484    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1485        text = expression.this or ""
1486        if expression.is_string:
1487            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1488        return text
1489
1490    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1491        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1492        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1493            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1494        elif self.pretty:
1495            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1496        return text
1497
1498    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1499        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1500        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1501        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1502        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1503        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1504        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1505        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1506        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1507        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1508        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1509        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1510
1511    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1512        return "NULL"
1513
1514    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1515        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1516
1517    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1520        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1521
1522    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1523        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1524
1525    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1526        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1527
1528    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1529        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1530
1531    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1532        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1533        asc = not desc
1534
1535        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1536        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1537        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1538        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1539        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1540
1541        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1542        nulls_sort_change = ""
1543        if nulls_first and (
1544            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1545        ):
1546            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1547        elif (
1548            nulls_last
1549            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1550            and not nulls_are_last
1551        ):
1552            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1553
1554        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1555            self.unsupported(
1556                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1557            )
1558            nulls_sort_change = ""
1559
1560        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1561
1562    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1563        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1564        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1565        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1566        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1567        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1568        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1569        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1570        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1571        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1572        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1573        definition_sqls = [
1574            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1575            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1576        ]
1577        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1578        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1579        body = "".join(
1580            (
1581                partition,
1582                order,
1583                measures,
1584                rows,
1585                after,
1586                pattern,
1587                define,
1588            )
1589        )
1590        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1591        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1592        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1593
1594    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1595        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1596
1597        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1598        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1599
1600        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1601            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1602        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1603            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1604
1605        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1606
1607        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1608            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1609            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1610            else []
1611        )
1612
1613        return csv(
1614            *sqls,
1615            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1616            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1617            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1618            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1619            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1620            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1621            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1622            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1623            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1624            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1625            sep="",
1626        )
1627
1628    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1629        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1630    ) -> t.List[str]:
1631        return [
1632            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1633            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1634        ]
1635
1636    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1637        return [
1638            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1639            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1640            if expression.args.get("windows")
1641            else "",
1642            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1643            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1644            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1645        ]
1646
1647    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1648        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1649        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1650        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1651
1652    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1653        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1654        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1655        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1656        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1657        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1658        top = (
1659            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1660            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1661            else ""
1662        )
1663
1664        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1665
1666        if kind:
1667            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1668                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1669            else:
1670                if kind == "STRUCT":
1671                    expressions = self.expressions(
1672                        sqls=[
1673                            self.sql(
1674                                exp.Struct(
1675                                    expressions=[
1676                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1677                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1678                                        )
1679                                        for e in expression.expressions
1680                                    ]
1681                                )
1682                            )
1683                        ]
1684                    )
1685                kind = ""
1686
1687        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1688        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1689            expression,
1690            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1691            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1692            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1693        )
1694        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1695
1696    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1699        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1700        return f"{this}{sql}"
1701
1702    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1703        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1704
1705    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1706        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1707        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1708        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1709        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1710        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1711
1712    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1715        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1716
1717    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719        kind = expression.text("kind")
1720        if kind:
1721            kind = f"{kind}."
1722        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1723
1724    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1725        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1726
1727    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1729        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1730
1731        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1732        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1733
1734        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1735        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1736
1737    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1738        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1739        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1740
1741    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1742        return self.prepend_ctes(
1743            expression,
1744            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1745        )
1746
1747    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1748        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1749        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1750        return f"UNION{kind}"
1751
1752    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1753        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1754        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1755        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1756            columns = alias.columns
1757            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1758        else:
1759            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1760        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1761        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1762        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1763        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1764        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1765
1766    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1767        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1768        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1769
1770    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1773        order = expression.args.get("order")
1774        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1775        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1776        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1777        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1778
1779        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1780
1781        first = expression.args.get("first")
1782        if first is None:
1783            first = ""
1784        else:
1785            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1786
1787        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1788            return f"{this} {alias}"
1789
1790        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1791        return f"{this} ({args})"
1792
1793    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1794        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1795        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1796
1797    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1799        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1800        end = (
1801            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1802            or "CURRENT ROW"
1803        )
1804        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1805
1806    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1809        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1810
1811    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1813        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1814        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1815        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1816
1817    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1818        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1819        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1820
1821        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1822
1823    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1824        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1825
1826    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1827        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1828
1829    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1832            this = self.wrap(this)
1833        return f"ANY {this}"
1834
1835    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1836        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1837
1838    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1840        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1841
1842        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1843            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1844            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1845
1846        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1847
1848        if default:
1849            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1850
1851        statements.append("END")
1852
1853        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1854            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1855
1856        return " ".join(statements)
1857
1858    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1862
1863    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1864        order = expression.args.get("order")
1865        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1866        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1867
1868    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1871        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1872
1873    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1874        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1875
1876        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1877            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1878        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1879            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1880        else:
1881            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1882
1883    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1884        expressions = expression.expressions
1885        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1886            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1887        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1888
1889    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1890        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1891        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1892
1893    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1894        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1895        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1896        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1897        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1898        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1899        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1900        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1901        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1902
1903    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1904        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1906        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1907        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1908
1909    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1910        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1911
1912    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1913        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1914        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1915        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1916
1917    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1918        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1919
1920    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1921        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1922        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1923        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1924        if unique_keys is not None:
1925            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1926        else:
1927            unique_keys = ""
1928        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1929        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1930        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1931        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1932        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1933        return self.func(
1934            "JSON_OBJECT",
1935            *expression.expressions,
1936            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1937        )
1938
1939    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1941        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1942        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1943        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1944        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1945        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1946
1947    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1949        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1950        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1952        with_ = (
1953            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1954            if expressions
1955            else ""
1956        )
1957        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1958
1959    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1960        query = expression.args.get("query")
1961        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1962        field = expression.args.get("field")
1963        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1964
1965        if query:
1966            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1967        elif unnest:
1968            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1969        elif field:
1970            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1971        else:
1972            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1973
1974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1975
1976    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1977        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1978
1979    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1980        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1981        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1982            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1983        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1984
1985        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1986            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1987            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1988
1989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1990        if this:
1991            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1992            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1993
1994        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1995
1996    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1997        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1998
1999    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2003        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2004        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2005        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2006
2007    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2008        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2009
2010    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2011        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2012            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2013        else:
2014            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2015            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2016
2017        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2018
2019    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2020        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2021        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2023        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2024
2025    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2026        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2027
2028    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2029        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2030        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2031        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2032
2033    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2035
2036    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2039        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2040
2041    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2042        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2043
2044    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2045        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2046
2047    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2048        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2049
2050    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2051        if not self.pretty:
2052            return self.binary(expression, op)
2053
2054        sqls = tuple(
2055            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2056            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2057        )
2058
2059        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2060        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2061
2062    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2063        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2064
2065    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2066        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2067
2068    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2069        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2070
2071    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2072        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2073
2074    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2075        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2076
2077    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2078        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2079
2080    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2081        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2082        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2083        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2084
2085    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2086        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2087        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2088
2089    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2090        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2091
2092    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2093        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2094
2095    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2098        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2099        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2100        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2101
2102    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2105        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2106        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2107        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2108        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2109        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2110        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2111        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2112
2113    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2114        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2115        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2116        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2117        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2118
2119        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2120            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2121
2122        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2123
2124    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2125        return "BEGIN"
2126
2127    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2128        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2129        if chain is not None:
2130            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2131
2132        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2133
2134    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2135        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2136        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2137        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2138
2139    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2141
2142        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2143        if dtype:
2144            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2145            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2146            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2147            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2148            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2149
2150        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2151        if default:
2152            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2153
2154        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2155            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2156
2157        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2158
2159    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2160        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2161            # Remove db from tables
2162            expression = expression.transform(
2163                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2164            )
2165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2166        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2167
2168    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2169        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2170
2171        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2172            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2173        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2174            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2175        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2176            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2177        else:
2178            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2179
2180        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2181        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2182
2183    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2184        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2185        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2186        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2187
2188    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2191        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2192
2193        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2194        if enforced is not None:
2195            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2196
2197        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2198
2199    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2200        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2201        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2202
2203        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2204        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2205        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2206
2207    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2209
2210    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2211        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2212
2213    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2214        return self.sql(
2215            exp.Cast(
2216                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2217                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2218            )
2219        )
2220
2221    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2223
2224    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2225        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2226            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2227        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2228
2229    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2230        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2231
2232    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2233        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2234
2235    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2236        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2237
2238    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2239        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2240
2241    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2242        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2243
2244    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2246
2247    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2248        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2249
2250    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2251        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2252
2253    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2254        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2255
2256    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2258
2259    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2260        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2261
2262    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2263        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2264            return self.sql(
2265                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2266            )
2267        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2268
2269    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2270        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2271
2272    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2273        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2274
2275    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2277
2278    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2279        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2280
2281    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2282        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2283
2284    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2285        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2286
2287    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2289
2290    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2292
2293    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2295
2296    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2298
2299    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2300        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2301
2302    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2304
2305    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2307
2308    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2309        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2310
2311    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2312        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2313        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2316        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2317
2318    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2319        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2320        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2321
2322    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2323        args = []
2324
2325        for key in expression.arg_types:
2326            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2327
2328            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2329                for value in arg_value:
2330                    args.append(value)
2331            elif arg_value is not None:
2332                args.append(arg_value)
2333
2334        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2335
2336    def func(
2337        self,
2338        name: str,
2339        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2340        prefix: str = "(",
2341        suffix: str = ")",
2342    ) -> str:
2343        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2344
2345    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2346        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2347        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2348            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2349        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2350
2351    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2352        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2353
2354    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2355        return format_time(
2356            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2357        )
2358
2359    def expressions(
2360        self,
2361        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2362        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2363        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2364        flat: bool = False,
2365        indent: bool = True,
2366        skip_first: bool = False,
2367        sep: str = ", ",
2368        prefix: str = "",
2369    ) -> str:
2370        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2371
2372        if not expressions:
2373            return ""
2374
2375        if flat:
2376            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2377
2378        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2379
2380        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2381        pad = " " * self.pad
2382        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2383
2384        result_sqls = []
2385        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2386            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2387            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2388
2389            if self.pretty:
2390                if self.leading_comma:
2391                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2392                else:
2393                    result_sqls.append(
2394                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2395                    )
2396            else:
2397                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2398
2399        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2400        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2401
2402    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2403        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2404        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2405        if flat:
2406            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2407        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2408
2409    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2410        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2411        if not property_name:
2412            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2413        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2414
2415    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        op = self.seg(op)
2418        return self.query_modifiers(
2419            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2420        )
2421
2422    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2423        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2424
2425    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2426        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2427
2428    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2431        expressions = (
2432            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2433        )
2434        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2435
2436    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2438        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2439        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2440
2441    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2442        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2443
2444    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2445        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2446        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2447        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2448        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2449
2450        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2451        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2452            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2453            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2454                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2455        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2456            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2457                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2458            else:
2459                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2460        else:
2461            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2462        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2463
2464    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2467        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2468        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2469
2470    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2471        if expression.args.get("format"):
2472            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2473
2474        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2475
2476    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2479        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2480        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2481        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2482
2483    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2485        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2486        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2487        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2488
2489    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2490        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2491
2492    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2493        return ""
2494
2495    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2496        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2497        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2498        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2499        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2500        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2501
2502    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2504        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2505
2506        if having:
2507            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2508
2509        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2510
2511    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2512        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2513        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2514        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2515        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2516        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2517        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2518        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2519        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2520        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2521        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2522        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2523        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2524        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2525
2526
2527def cached_generator(
2528    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2529) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2530    """Returns a cached generator."""
2531    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2532    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2533    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)