sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  50            Default: 2.
  51        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  54            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  55            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  56            False: Disables function name normalization.
  57        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  58            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  59        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  60            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  61            Default: 3
  62        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  63            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  64            Default: False
  65        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  66            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  67            line length.
  68            Default: 80
  69        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  70            Default: True
  71    """
  72
  73    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  74        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  75        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  77        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  78        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  80        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  82        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  83        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  87        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  88            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  89        ),
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  94        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  95        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  96        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
  97        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 100        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 103        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
 104        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 105        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 106        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 107        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 108        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self,
 109        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 110        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 111        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 112        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 113        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 114        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 115        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 116        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 117        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 118        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 119        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 120        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 121        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 122        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 124        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 125        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: "TEMPORARY",
 126        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 128        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 129        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 130        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 131        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "UPPERCASE",
 132        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 133        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 134        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135    }
 136
 137    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 138    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 139    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 142    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 143    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 146    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 147
 148    # Always do union distinct or union all
 149    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 150
 151    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 152    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 153
 154    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 155    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 158    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 161    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 162
 163    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 164    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 167    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 168
 169    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 170    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 173    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 174
 175    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 176    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 177
 178    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 179    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 180
 181    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 182    JOIN_HINTS = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 185    TABLE_HINTS = True
 186
 187    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 188    QUERY_HINTS = True
 189
 190    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 191    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 192
 193    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 194    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 195
 196    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 197    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 200    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 201
 202    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 203    RETURNING_END = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 206    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 207
 208    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 209    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 212    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 213
 214    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 215    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 216
 217    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 218    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 219
 220    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 221    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 222    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 223    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 226    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 227
 228    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 229    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 230
 231    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 232    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 233
 234    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 235    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 236
 237    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 238    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 239
 240    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 241    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 242
 243    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 244    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 245
 246    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 247    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 248
 249    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 250    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 251
 252    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 253    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 254
 255    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 256    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 257
 258    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 259    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 260
 261    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 262    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 263
 264    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 265    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 266
 267    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 268    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 269
 270    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 271    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 272
 273    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 274    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 275
 276    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 277    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 278
 279    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 280    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 281
 282    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 283    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 284
 285    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 286    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 287
 288    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 289    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 290
 291    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
 292    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 293
 294    # Whether or not the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 295    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 296
 297    # Whether or not the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 298    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 299
 300    # Whether or not DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 301    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 302    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 303
 304    # Whether or not the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 305    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 306
 307    # Whether or not bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 308    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 309
 310    # Whether or not to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 311    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 312
 313    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 314    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 315
 316    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 317        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 318        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 319        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 320        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 321        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 322        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 323        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 324        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 325        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 326    }
 327
 328    STAR_MAPPING = {
 329        "except": "EXCEPT",
 330        "replace": "REPLACE",
 331    }
 332
 333    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 334        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 335        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 336        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 337        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 338        "DAYS": "DAY",
 339        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 340        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 341        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 342        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 343    }
 344
 345    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 346
 347    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 348
 349    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 350
 351    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 352        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 353        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 354        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 355        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 356        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 357        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 358        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 359        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 360        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 361        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 362        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 363        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 364        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 365        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 366        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 367        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 368        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 369        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 370        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 371        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 372        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 373        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 374        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 375        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 376        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 377        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 378        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 379        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 380        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 381        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 382        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 383        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 384        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 385        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 386        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 387        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 389        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 392        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 395        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 406        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 410        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 414        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 417        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 418        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 419        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420    }
 421
 422    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 423    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 424
 425    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 426    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 427        exp.Create,
 428        exp.Delete,
 429        exp.Drop,
 430        exp.From,
 431        exp.Insert,
 432        exp.Join,
 433        exp.Select,
 434        exp.Update,
 435        exp.Where,
 436        exp.With,
 437    )
 438
 439    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 440    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 441        exp.Binary,
 442        exp.Union,
 443    )
 444
 445    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 446    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 447        exp.Column,
 448        exp.Literal,
 449        exp.Neg,
 450        exp.Paren,
 451    )
 452
 453    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 454    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 455
 456    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 457
 458    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 459
 460    __slots__ = (
 461        "pretty",
 462        "identify",
 463        "normalize",
 464        "pad",
 465        "_indent",
 466        "normalize_functions",
 467        "unsupported_level",
 468        "max_unsupported",
 469        "leading_comma",
 470        "max_text_width",
 471        "comments",
 472        "dialect",
 473        "unsupported_messages",
 474        "_escaped_quote_end",
 475        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 476    )
 477
 478    def __init__(
 479        self,
 480        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 481        identify: str | bool = False,
 482        normalize: bool = False,
 483        pad: int = 2,
 484        indent: int = 2,
 485        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 486        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 487        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 488        leading_comma: bool = False,
 489        max_text_width: int = 80,
 490        comments: bool = True,
 491        dialect: DialectType = None,
 492    ):
 493        import sqlglot
 494        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 495
 496        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 497        self.identify = identify
 498        self.normalize = normalize
 499        self.pad = pad
 500        self._indent = indent
 501        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 502        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 503        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 504        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 505        self.comments = comments
 506        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 507
 508        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 509        self.normalize_functions = (
 510            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 511        )
 512
 513        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 514        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 515            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 516        )
 517        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 518            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 519        )
 520
 521    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 522        """
 523        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 524
 525        Args:
 526            expression: The syntax tree.
 527            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 528                it is safer to copy.
 529
 530        Returns:
 531            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 532        """
 533        if copy:
 534            expression = expression.copy()
 535
 536        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 537
 538        self.unsupported_messages = []
 539        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 540
 541        if self.pretty:
 542            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 543
 544        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 545            return sql
 546
 547        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 548            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 549                logger.warning(msg)
 550        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 551            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 552
 553        return sql
 554
 555    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 556        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 557        if (
 558            not expression.parent
 559            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 560            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 561        ):
 562            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 563
 564            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 565
 566        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 567            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 568
 569            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 570
 571        return expression
 572
 573    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 574        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 575            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 576        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 577
 578    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 579        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 580
 581    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 582        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 583
 584    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 585        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 586        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 587        return comment
 588
 589    def maybe_comment(
 590        self,
 591        sql: str,
 592        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 593        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 594    ) -> str:
 595        comments = (
 596            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 597            if self.comments
 598            else None
 599        )
 600
 601        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 602            return sql
 603
 604        comments_sql = " ".join(
 605            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 606        )
 607
 608        if not comments_sql:
 609            return sql
 610
 611        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 612            return (
 613                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 614                if sql[0].isspace()
 615                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 616            )
 617
 618        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 619
 620    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 621        this_sql = self.indent(
 622            (
 623                self.sql(expression)
 624                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 625                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 626            ),
 627            level=1,
 628            pad=0,
 629        )
 630        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 631
 632    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 633        original = self.identify
 634        self.identify = False
 635        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 636        self.identify = original
 637        return result
 638
 639    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 640        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 641            return name.upper()
 642        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 643            return name.lower()
 644        return name
 645
 646    def indent(
 647        self,
 648        sql: str,
 649        level: int = 0,
 650        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 651        skip_first: bool = False,
 652        skip_last: bool = False,
 653    ) -> str:
 654        if not self.pretty:
 655            return sql
 656
 657        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 658        lines = sql.split("\n")
 659
 660        return "\n".join(
 661            (
 662                line
 663                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 664                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 665            )
 666            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 667        )
 668
 669    def sql(
 670        self,
 671        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 672        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 673        comment: bool = True,
 674    ) -> str:
 675        if not expression:
 676            return ""
 677
 678        if isinstance(expression, str):
 679            return expression
 680
 681        if key:
 682            value = expression.args.get(key)
 683            if value:
 684                return self.sql(value)
 685            return ""
 686
 687        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 688
 689        if callable(transform):
 690            sql = transform(self, expression)
 691        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 692            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 693
 694            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 695                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 696            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 697                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 698            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 699                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 700            else:
 701                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 702        else:
 703            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 704
 705        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 706
 707    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 708        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 709        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 710        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 711
 712    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 713        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 714        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 715        options = expression.args.get("options")
 716        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 717        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 718        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 719        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 720        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 721
 722    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 723        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 724            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 725        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 726        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 727
 728    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 729        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 730
 731        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 732            join_mark = ""
 733            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 734
 735        column = ".".join(
 736            self.sql(part)
 737            for part in (
 738                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 739                expression.args.get("db"),
 740                expression.args.get("table"),
 741                expression.args.get("this"),
 742            )
 743            if part
 744        )
 745
 746        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 747
 748    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 750        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 751        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 752        return f"{position}{this}"
 753
 754    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 755        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 757        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 758        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 759        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 760        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 761        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 762        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 763
 764        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 765            kind = ""
 766
 767        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 768
 769    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 772        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 773
 774    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 777            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 778        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 779            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 780        else:
 781            persisted = ""
 782        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 783
 784    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 785        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 786
 787    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 788        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 789            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 790        else:
 791            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792
 793        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 794
 795    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 796        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 797    ) -> str:
 798        this = ""
 799        if expression.this is not None:
 800            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 801            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 802
 803        start = expression.args.get("start")
 804        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 805        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 806        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 807        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 808        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 809        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 810        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 811        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 812        cycle_sql = ""
 813
 814        if cycle is not None:
 815            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 816            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 817
 818        sequence_opts = ""
 819        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 820            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 821            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 822
 823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 824        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 825
 826        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 827
 828    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 829        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 830    ) -> str:
 831        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 832        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 833        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 834
 835    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 836        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 837    ) -> str:
 838        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 839
 840    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 841        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 842
 843    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 844        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 845
 846    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 847        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 848        if desc is not None:
 849            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 850        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 851
 852    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 855        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 856        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 857        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 858
 859    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 860        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 861
 862    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 864        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 865        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 866
 867        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 868
 869        properties_sql = ""
 870        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 871            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 872        ):
 873            properties_sql = self.sql(
 874                exp.Properties(
 875                    expressions=[
 876                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 877                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 878                    ]
 879                )
 880            )
 881
 882        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 883        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 884
 885        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 886        if expression_sql:
 887            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 888
 889            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 890                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 891                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 892                        exp.Properties(
 893                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 894                        ),
 895                        wrapped=False,
 896                    )
 897                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 898                else:
 899                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 900
 901        postindex_props_sql = ""
 902        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 903            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 904                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 905                wrapped=False,
 906                prefix=" ",
 907            )
 908
 909        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 910        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 911        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 912
 913        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 914        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 915
 916        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 918            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 919                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 920                sep=" ",
 921                prefix=" ",
 922                wrapped=False,
 923            )
 924
 925        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 926
 927        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 928        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 929            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 930                exp.Properties(
 931                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 932                ),
 933                sep=" ",
 934                prefix=" ",
 935                wrapped=False,
 936            )
 937
 938        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 939        no_schema_binding = (
 940            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 941        )
 942
 943        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 944        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 945
 946        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 947        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 948
 949    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 951        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 952        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 953        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 954
 955    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 956        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
 957        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 958
 959    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
 960        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
 961        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
 962
 963    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 964        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 965        if with_:
 966            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 967        return sql
 968
 969    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 970        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 971        recursive = (
 972            "RECURSIVE "
 973            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 974            else ""
 975        )
 976
 977        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 978
 979    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 980        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 981        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 982
 983    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 984        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 985        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 986        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 987
 988        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 989            columns = ""
 990            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 991
 992        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 993            alias = "_t"
 994
 995        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 996
 997    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 999        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1000            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1001        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1002
1003    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1005        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1006            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1007        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1008
1009    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1011        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1012            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1013        return this
1014
1015    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1017        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1018
1019        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1020            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1021            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1022
1023        if escape:
1024            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1025        else:
1026            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1027
1028        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1029        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1030
1031    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1032        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1033        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1034
1035    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1037        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1038        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1039        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1040
1041    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1042        type_value = expression.this
1043
1044        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1045            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1046        else:
1047            type_sql = (
1048                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1049                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1050                else type_value
1051            )
1052
1053        nested = ""
1054        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1055        values = ""
1056
1057        if interior:
1058            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1059                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1060                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1061                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1062                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1063                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1064            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1065                nested = f" {interior}"
1066            else:
1067                nested = f"({interior})"
1068
1069        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1070        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1071            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1072            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1073        ):
1074            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1075
1076        return type_sql
1077
1078    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1079        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1080        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1081        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1082        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1083
1084    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1086        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1087        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1088        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1089        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1090        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1091        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1092        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1093        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1094        if self.RETURNING_END:
1095            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1096        else:
1097            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1098        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1099
1100    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1102        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1103        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1104        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1105        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1106        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1107        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1108        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1109        return (
1110            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1111        )
1112
1113    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1114        return self.prepend_ctes(
1115            expression,
1116            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1117        )
1118
1119    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1120        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1121
1122    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1123        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1124        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1125        count = expression.args.get("count")
1126        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1127        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1128            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1129        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1130        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1131
1132    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1133        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1134            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1136            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1137
1138        agg = expression.this
1139        agg_arg = agg.this
1140        cond = expression.expression.this
1141        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1142        return self.sql(agg)
1143
1144    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1145        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1146            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1147            return ""
1148
1149        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1150
1151    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1152        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1153        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1154        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1155        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1156        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1157        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1158        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1159        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1160        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1161        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1162        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1163        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1164        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1165        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1166        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1167        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1168        if include:
1169            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1170        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
1171
1172    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1173        text = expression.name
1174        lower = text.lower()
1175        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1176        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1177        if (
1178            expression.quoted
1179            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1180            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1181            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1182        ):
1183            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1184        return text
1185
1186    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1187        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1188        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1189        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1190        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1191        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1192
1193    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1194        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1195        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1196
1197    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1198        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1199
1200    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1201        root_properties = []
1202        with_properties = []
1203
1204        for p in expression.expressions:
1205            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1206            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1207                with_properties.append(p)
1208            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1209                root_properties.append(p)
1210
1211        return self.root_properties(
1212            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1213        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1214
1215    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1216        if properties.expressions:
1217            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1218        return ""
1219
1220    def properties(
1221        self,
1222        properties: exp.Properties,
1223        prefix: str = "",
1224        sep: str = ", ",
1225        suffix: str = "",
1226        wrapped: bool = True,
1227    ) -> str:
1228        if properties.expressions:
1229            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1230            if expressions:
1231                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1232                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1233        return ""
1234
1235    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1236        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1237
1238    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1239        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1240        for p in properties.expressions:
1241            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1242            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1243                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1244            else:
1245                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1246
1247        return properties_locs
1248
1249    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1250        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1251            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1252        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1253
1254    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1255        property_cls = expression.__class__
1256        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1257            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1258
1259        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1260        if not property_name:
1261            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1262
1263        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1264
1265    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1266        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1267            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1268            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1269
1270            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1271            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1272                like = f"({like})"
1273
1274            return like
1275
1276        if expression.expressions:
1277            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1278
1279        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1280        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1281
1282    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1283        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1284        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1285        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1286
1287    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1288        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1289        local = expression.args.get("local")
1290        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1291        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1292        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1293        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1294        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1295
1296    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1297        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1299        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1300
1301    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1302        if expression.args.get("default"):
1303            property = "DEFAULT"
1304        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1305            property = "ON"
1306        else:
1307            property = "OFF"
1308        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1309
1310    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1311        if expression.args.get("no"):
1312            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1313        if expression.args.get("default"):
1314            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1315
1316        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1317        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1318
1319    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1320        default = expression.args.get("default")
1321        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1322        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1323        if default or minimum or maximum:
1324            if default:
1325                prop = "DEFAULT"
1326            elif minimum:
1327                prop = "MINIMUM"
1328            else:
1329                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1330            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1331        units = expression.args.get("units")
1332        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1333        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1334
1335    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1336        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1337        always = expression.args.get("always")
1338        default = expression.args.get("default")
1339        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1340        never = expression.args.get("never")
1341
1342        if autotemp is not None:
1343            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1344        elif always:
1345            prop = "ALWAYS"
1346        elif default:
1347            prop = "DEFAULT"
1348        elif manual:
1349            prop = "MANUAL"
1350        elif never:
1351            prop = "NEVER"
1352        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1353
1354    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1355        no = expression.args.get("no")
1356        no = " NO" if no else ""
1357        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1358        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1359
1360        for_ = ""
1361        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1362            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1363        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1364            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1365        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1366            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1367        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1368
1369    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1370        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1371            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1372        if expression.this:
1373            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1374            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1375            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1376
1377        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1378        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1379        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1380
1381    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383
1384        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1385        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1386            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1387        else:
1388            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1389
1390        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1391
1392    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1393        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1394        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1395        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1396        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1397        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1398        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1399        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1400
1401    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1402        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1403        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1404        statistics_sql = ""
1405        if statistics is not None:
1406            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1407        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1408
1409    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1410        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1411
1412        if expression.this:
1413            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1414            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1415
1416            if expression.expression:
1417                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1418                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1419
1420            sql = f"{sql})"
1421
1422        return f"{sql})"
1423
1424    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1425        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1426
1427        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1428            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1429        else:
1430            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1431
1432        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1433        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1434        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1435
1436        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1437
1438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1439        partition_sql = (
1440            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1441        )
1442        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1443        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1444        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1445        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1446        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1447        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1448
1449        if self.RETURNING_END:
1450            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1451        else:
1452            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1453
1454        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1455        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1456
1457    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1458        return self.prepend_ctes(
1459            expression,
1460            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1461        )
1462
1463    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1464        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1465
1466    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1468
1469    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1471        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1473        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1474        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1475
1476    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1477        return expression.name
1478
1479    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1480        return expression.name
1481
1482    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1483        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1484        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1485        if constraint:
1486            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1487        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1488        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1489        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1490        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1491        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1492        if expressions:
1493            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1494        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1495
1496    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1497        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1498
1499    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1500        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1501        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1502        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1503        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1504        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1505        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1506        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1507        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1508        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1509        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1510        null = expression.args.get("null")
1511        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1512        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1513
1514    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1515        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1516
1517    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1518        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1519        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1520        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1521        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1522
1523    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1526        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1527        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1528
1529    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1530        table = ".".join(
1531            self.sql(part)
1532            for part in (
1533                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1534                expression.args.get("db"),
1535                expression.args.get("this"),
1536            )
1537            if part is not None
1538        )
1539
1540        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1541        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1543        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1544        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1545        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1546        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1547        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1548        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1549        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1550
1551        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1552        if file_format:
1553            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1554            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1555            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1556
1557        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1558        if ordinality:
1559            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1560            alias = ""
1561
1562        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1563        if when:
1564            table = f"{table} {when}"
1565
1566        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1567
1568    def tablesample_sql(
1569        self,
1570        expression: exp.TableSample,
1571        sep: str = " AS ",
1572        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1573    ) -> str:
1574        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1575            table = expression.this.copy()
1576            table.set("alias", None)
1577            this = self.sql(table)
1578            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1579        else:
1580            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581            alias = ""
1582
1583        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1584        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1585        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1586        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1587        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1588        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1589        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1590        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1591        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1592
1593        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1594        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1595            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1596
1597        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1598        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1599            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1600
1601        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1602        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1603            expr = f"({expr})"
1604
1605        return (
1606            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1607        )
1608
1609    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1611
1612        if expression.this:
1613            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614            if not expressions:
1615                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1616
1617            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1618            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1619            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1620            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1621            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1622
1623        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1624        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1625        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1626        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1627        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1628        if include_nulls is not None:
1629            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1630        else:
1631            nulls = ""
1632        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1633
1634    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1635        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1636        kind = expression.text("kind")
1637        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1638        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1639
1640    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1641        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1642
1643    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1646        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1647        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1648        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1649        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1650        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1651        if self.RETURNING_END:
1652            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1653        else:
1654            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1655        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1656        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1657
1658    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1659        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1660        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1661            args = self.expressions(expression)
1662            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1664            values = (
1665                f"({values})"
1666                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1667                else values
1668            )
1669            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1670
1671        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1672        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1673        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1674
1675        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1676
1677        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1678            row = tup.expressions
1679
1680            if i == 0 and column_names:
1681                row = [
1682                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1683                ]
1684
1685            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1686
1687        if self.pretty:
1688            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1689            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1690            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1691            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1692            return self.subquery_sql(
1693                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1694            )
1695
1696        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1697        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1698        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1699
1700    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1701        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1702
1703    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1704        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1705        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1706        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1707
1708    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1709        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1710
1711    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1712        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1713
1714        if expression.args.get("all"):
1715            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1716
1717        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1718        grouping_sets = (
1719            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1720        )
1721
1722        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1723        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1724            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1725        else:
1726            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1727            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1728
1729        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1730        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1731            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1732        else:
1733            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1734            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1735
1736        groupings = csv(
1737            grouping_sets,
1738            cube_sql,
1739            rollup_sql,
1740            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1741            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1742        )
1743
1744        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1745            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1746
1747        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1748
1749    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1750        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1751        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1752
1753    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1754        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1755        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1756        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1757        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1758        return start + connect
1759
1760    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1761        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1762
1763    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1764        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1765            side = None
1766        else:
1767            side = expression.side
1768
1769        op_sql = " ".join(
1770            op
1771            for op in (
1772                expression.method,
1773                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1774                side,
1775                expression.kind,
1776                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1777            )
1778            if op
1779        )
1780        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1781        using = expression.args.get("using")
1782
1783        if not on_sql and using:
1784            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1785
1786        this = expression.this
1787        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1788
1789        if on_sql:
1790            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1791            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1792            if using:
1793                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1794            else:
1795                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1796        elif not op_sql:
1797            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1798                return f" {this_sql}"
1799
1800            return f", {this_sql}"
1801
1802        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1803        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1804
1805    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1806        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1807        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1808        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1809
1810    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1811        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1812
1813        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1814        if cross_apply is True:
1815            op = "INNER JOIN "
1816        elif cross_apply is False:
1817            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1818        else:
1819            op = ""
1820
1821        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1822
1823    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1825
1826        if expression.args.get("view"):
1827            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1828            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1829            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1830            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1831            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1832            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1833
1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1835        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1836        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1837
1838    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1840
1841        args = [
1842            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1843            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1844            if e
1845        ]
1846
1847        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1848        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1849        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1850        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1851
1852        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1853
1854    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1856        value = expression.expression
1857        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1859        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1860        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1861
1862    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1864        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1867        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1868        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1869        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1870        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1871
1872    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1873        expressions = (
1874            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1875        )
1876        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1877        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1878
1879    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1880        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1881
1882    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1883        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1884            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1885            return ""
1886
1887        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1888        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1889        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1890        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1891
1892        if wait is not None:
1893            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1894                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1895            else:
1896                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1897
1898        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1899
1900    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1901        text = expression.this or ""
1902        if expression.is_string:
1903            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1904        return text
1905
1906    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1907        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1908        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1909            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1910        elif self.pretty:
1911            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1912        return text
1913
1914    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1915        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1916        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1917        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1918        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1919        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1920        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1921        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1922        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1923        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1924        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1925        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1926
1927    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1928        return "NULL"
1929
1930    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1931        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1932
1933    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1935        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1936        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
1937        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1938        interpolated_values = [
1939            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1940            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1941        ]
1942        interpolate = (
1943            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1944        )
1945        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1946
1947    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1948        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1949        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1950        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1951        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1952        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1953        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1954        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1955
1956    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1957        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1958
1959    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1960        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1961
1962    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1963        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1964
1965    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1966        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1967        asc = not desc
1968
1969        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1970        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1971        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1972        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1973        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1974
1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976
1977        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1978        nulls_sort_change = ""
1979        if nulls_first and (
1980            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1981        ):
1982            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1983        elif (
1984            nulls_last
1985            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1986            and not nulls_are_last
1987        ):
1988            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1989
1990        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1991        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1992            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1993            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1994                self.unsupported(
1995                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1996                )
1997                nulls_sort_change = ""
1998            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
1999                if expression.this.is_int:
2000                    self.unsupported(
2001                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2002                    )
2003                else:
2004                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2005                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2006                nulls_sort_change = ""
2007
2008        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2009        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2010
2011        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2012
2013    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2014        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2015        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2016        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2017        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2018        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2019        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2020        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2021        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2022        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2023        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2024        definition_sqls = [
2025            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2026            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2027        ]
2028        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2029        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2030        body = "".join(
2031            (
2032                partition,
2033                order,
2034                measures,
2035                rows,
2036                after,
2037                pattern,
2038                define,
2039            )
2040        )
2041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2042        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2043        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2044
2045    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2046        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
2047
2048        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
2049        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2050
2051        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2052            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2053        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2054            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2055
2056        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
2057
2058        offset_limit_modifiers = (
2059            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
2060            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
2061            else []
2062        )
2063
2064        return csv(
2065            *sqls,
2066            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2067            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2068            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2069            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2070            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2071            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2072            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2073            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
2074            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2075            *offset_limit_modifiers,
2076            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2077            sep="",
2078        )
2079
2080    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2081        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2082    ) -> t.List[str]:
2083        return [
2084            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2085            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2086        ]
2087
2088    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2089        return [
2090            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2091            (
2092                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2093                if expression.args.get("windows")
2094                else ""
2095            ),
2096            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2097            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2098            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2099        ]
2100
2101    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2102        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2103        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2104        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2105
2106    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2107        into = expression.args.get("into")
2108        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2109            into.pop()
2110
2111        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2112        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2113        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2114        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2115        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2116        top = (
2117            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2118            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2119            else ""
2120        )
2121
2122        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2123
2124        if kind:
2125            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2126                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2127            else:
2128                if kind == "STRUCT":
2129                    expressions = self.expressions(
2130                        sqls=[
2131                            self.sql(
2132                                exp.Struct(
2133                                    expressions=[
2134                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2135                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2136                                        )
2137                                        for e in expression.expressions
2138                                    ]
2139                                )
2140                            )
2141                        ]
2142                    )
2143                kind = ""
2144
2145        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2146        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2147        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2148        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2149        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2150            expression,
2151            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2152            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2153            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2154        )
2155
2156        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2157
2158        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2159            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2160                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2161            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2162                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2163            else:
2164                table_kind = ""
2165            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2166
2167        return sql
2168
2169    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2172        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2173
2174    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2175        if expression.expressions:
2176            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2177        return ""
2178
2179    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2180        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2181        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2182        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2183        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2184        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2185
2186    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2189
2190    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2192        kind = expression.text("kind")
2193        if kind:
2194            kind = f"{kind}."
2195        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2196
2197    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2198        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2199
2200    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2201        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2202        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2203
2204        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2205        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2206
2207        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2208        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2209
2210    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2211        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2212        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2213
2214    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2215        return self.prepend_ctes(
2216            expression,
2217            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2218        )
2219
2220    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2221        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2222        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2223        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2224        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2225
2226    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2227        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2228
2229        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2230        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2231
2232        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2233            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2234                alias.append("columns", offset)
2235
2236        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2237            columns = alias.columns
2238            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2239        else:
2240            alias = self.sql(alias)
2241
2242        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2243        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2244            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2245        else:
2246            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2247                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2248            elif offset:
2249                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2250            else:
2251                suffix = alias
2252
2253        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2254
2255    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2256        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2257        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2258
2259    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2262        order = expression.args.get("order")
2263        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2264        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2265        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2266        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2267
2268        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2269
2270        first = expression.args.get("first")
2271        if first is None:
2272            first = ""
2273        else:
2274            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2275
2276        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2277            return f"{this} {alias}"
2278
2279        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2280        return f"{this} ({args})"
2281
2282    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2283        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2284        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2285
2286    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2287        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2288        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2289        end = (
2290            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2291            or "CURRENT ROW"
2292        )
2293        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2294
2295    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2298        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2299
2300    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2303        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2304        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2305
2306    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2307        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2308            expression.this,
2309            expression.expressions,
2310            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2311        )
2312        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2313        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2314
2315    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2316        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2317
2318    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2320        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2321            this = self.wrap(this)
2322        return f"ANY {this}"
2323
2324    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2325        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2326
2327    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2329        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2330
2331        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2332            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2333            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2334
2335        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2336
2337        if default:
2338            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2339
2340        statements.append("END")
2341
2342        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2343            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2344
2345        return " ".join(statements)
2346
2347    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2349        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2350        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2351
2352    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2353        order = expression.args.get("order")
2354        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2355        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2356
2357    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2359        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2360        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2361
2362    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2363        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2364
2365        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2366            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2367        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2368            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2369        else:
2370            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2371
2372    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2373        args = expression.expressions
2374        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2375            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2376
2377        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2378            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2379
2380        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2381            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2382
2383        return args
2384
2385    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2386        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2387
2388        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2389        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2390            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2391
2392        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2393
2394    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2395        return self.func(
2396            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2397        )
2398
2399    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2400        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2401        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2402
2403    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2405        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2406        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2407        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2408        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2409        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2410        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2411        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2412
2413    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2414        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2415        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2416        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2417        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2418
2419    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2420        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2421
2422    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2423        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2424        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2425        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2426
2427    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2428        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2429
2430    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2431        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2432        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2433
2434    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2435        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2436            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2437            if not callable(transform):
2438                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2439                return ""
2440
2441            return transform(self, expression)
2442
2443        if isinstance(expression, int):
2444            return str(expression)
2445
2446        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2447            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2448            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2449        else:
2450            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2451            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2452
2453        return escaped
2454
2455    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2456        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2457
2458    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2459        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2460        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2461
2462        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2463        if unique_keys is not None:
2464            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2465        else:
2466            unique_keys = ""
2467
2468        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2469        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2470        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2471        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2472
2473        return self.func(
2474            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2475            *expression.expressions,
2476            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2477        )
2478
2479    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2480        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2481
2482    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2483        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2484        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2485        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2486        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2487        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2488        return self.func(
2489            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2490        )
2491
2492    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2495        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2496        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2497        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2498        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2499        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2500        return self.func(
2501            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2502            this,
2503            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2504        )
2505
2506    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2507        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2508        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2509        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2510
2511        if nested_schema:
2512            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2513
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2516        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2517        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2518
2519    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2520        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2521
2522    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2525        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2526        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2527        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2528        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2529        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2530        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2531        return self.func(
2532            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2533        )
2534
2535    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2538        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2539        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2540        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2541        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2542
2543    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2545        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2546        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2548        with_ = (
2549            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2550            if expressions
2551            else ""
2552        )
2553        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2554
2555    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2556        query = expression.args.get("query")
2557        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2558        field = expression.args.get("field")
2559        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2560
2561        if query:
2562            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2563        elif unnest:
2564            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2565        elif field:
2566            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2567        else:
2568            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2569
2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2571
2572    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2573        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2574
2575    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2576        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2577        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2578            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2579        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2580
2581        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2582            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2583            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2584
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        if this:
2587            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2588            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2589
2590        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2591
2592    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2593        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2594
2595    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2598        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2599        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2600        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2601        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2602
2603    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2604        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2605
2606    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2607        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2608            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2609        else:
2610            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2611            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2612
2613        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2614
2615    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2616        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2617        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2618        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2619        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2620
2621    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2622        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2623
2624    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2625        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2626        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2628
2629    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2630        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2631        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2632
2633        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2634            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2635        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2636            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2637
2638        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2639
2640    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2641        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2642
2643    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2645        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2646        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2647
2648    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2650        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2651        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2652
2653    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2655        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2656        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2657
2658    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2659        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2660
2661    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2662        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2663
2664    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2665        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2666
2667    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2668        if not self.pretty:
2669            return self.binary(expression, op)
2670
2671        sqls = tuple(
2672            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2673            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2674        )
2675
2676        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2677        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2678
2679    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2680        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2681
2682    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2684
2685    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2686        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2687
2688    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2690
2691    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2693
2694    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2695        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2696
2697    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2698        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2699        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2700        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2701        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2702        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2703
2704    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2705        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2706        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2707
2708    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2709        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2710
2711    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2712        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2713            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2714        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2715
2716    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2718
2719    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2722        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2723        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2724        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2725
2726    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2728        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2729        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2730        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2731        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2732        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2733        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2734        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2735        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2736
2737    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2738        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2739        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2740        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2741        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2742
2743        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2744            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2745
2746        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2747
2748    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2749        return "BEGIN"
2750
2751    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2752        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2753        if chain is not None:
2754            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2755
2756        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2757
2758    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2759        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2760        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2761        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2762
2763    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765
2766        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2767        if dtype:
2768            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2769            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2770            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2771            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2772            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2773
2774        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2775        if default:
2776            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2777
2778        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2779        if comment:
2780            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2781
2782        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2783            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2784
2785        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2786
2787    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2788        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2789            # Remove db from tables
2790            expression = expression.transform(
2791                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2792            )
2793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2794        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2795
2796    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2797        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2798        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2800        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2801
2802    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2803        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2804
2805        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2806            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2807        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2808            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2809        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2810            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2811        else:
2812            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2813
2814        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2815        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2816        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2817
2818    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2819        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2820            return self.expressions(
2821                expression,
2822                key="actions",
2823                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2824            )
2825        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2826
2827    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2829        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2830        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2831
2832    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2835        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2836
2837        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2838        if enforced is not None:
2839            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2840
2841        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2842
2843    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2844        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2845
2846        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2847            case = exp.case()
2848            for arg in expression.expressions:
2849                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2850            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2851
2852        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2853
2854        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2855        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2856        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2857
2858    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2859        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2860
2861    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2862        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2863
2864    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2865        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2867        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2868        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2869
2870    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2871        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
2872            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
2873            mods = sorted(
2874                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
2875                key=lambda x: 0
2876                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
2877                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
2878            )
2879
2880            if mods:
2881                mod = mods[0]
2882                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
2883                this.meta["inline"] = True
2884                mod.this.replace(this)
2885                return self.sql(expression.this)
2886
2887            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
2888
2889            if agg_func:
2890                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
2891
2892        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
2893
2894    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2895        return self.sql(
2896            exp.Cast(
2897                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2898                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2899            )
2900        )
2901
2902    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2903        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2904            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2905        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2906
2907    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2908        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2909
2910        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2911            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2912
2913        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2914            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2915                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2916            ):
2917                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2918
2919        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2920            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2921                return self.sql(
2922                    exp.cast(
2923                        l / r,
2924                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2925                    )
2926                )
2927
2928        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2929
2930    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2931        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2932
2933    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2934        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2935
2936    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2937        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2938
2939    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2940        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2941
2942    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2943        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2944
2945    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2946        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2947
2948    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2949        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2950
2951    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2952        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2953
2954    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2955        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2956
2957    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2958        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2959
2960    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2961        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2962
2963    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2964        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2965            return self.sql(
2966                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2967            )
2968        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2969
2970    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2971        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2972
2973    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2974        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2975
2976    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2977        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2978
2979    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2980        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2981
2982    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2983        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2984
2985    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2986        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2987
2988    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2989        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2990
2991    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2992        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2993
2994    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2995        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2996
2997    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2999
3000    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
3001        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
3002
3003    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3004        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3005
3006    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3007        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3008
3009    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3010        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3011
3012    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3013        this = expression.this
3014        expr = expression.expression
3015
3016        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
3017            this, expr = expr, this
3018
3019        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3020
3021    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3022        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3023        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3026        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3027
3028    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3029        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3031
3032    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3033        args = []
3034
3035        for key in expression.arg_types:
3036            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3037
3038            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3039                for value in arg_value:
3040                    args.append(value)
3041            elif arg_value is not None:
3042                args.append(arg_value)
3043
3044        if self.normalize_functions:
3045            name = expression.sql_name()
3046        else:
3047            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3048
3049        return self.func(name, *args)
3050
3051    def func(
3052        self,
3053        name: str,
3054        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3055        prefix: str = "(",
3056        suffix: str = ")",
3057    ) -> str:
3058        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3059
3060    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3061        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3062        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3063            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3064        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3065
3066    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3067        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3068
3069    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3070        return format_time(
3071            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3072            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3073            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3074        )
3075
3076    def expressions(
3077        self,
3078        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3079        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3080        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3081        flat: bool = False,
3082        indent: bool = True,
3083        skip_first: bool = False,
3084        sep: str = ", ",
3085        prefix: str = "",
3086    ) -> str:
3087        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3088
3089        if not expressions:
3090            return ""
3091
3092        if flat:
3093            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3094
3095        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3096
3097        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3098        pad = " " * self.pad
3099        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3100
3101        result_sqls = []
3102        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3103            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3104            if not sql:
3105                continue
3106
3107            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3108
3109            if self.pretty:
3110                if self.leading_comma:
3111                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3112                else:
3113                    result_sqls.append(
3114                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3115                    )
3116            else:
3117                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3118
3119        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3120        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3121
3122    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3123        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3124        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3125        if flat:
3126            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3127        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3128
3129    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3130        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3131        if not property_name:
3132            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3133        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3134
3135    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
3136        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
3137        op = self.seg(op)
3138        return self.query_modifiers(
3139            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3140        )
3141
3142    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3143        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3144
3145    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3146        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3147
3148    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3150        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3151        expressions = (
3152            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3153        )
3154        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3155
3156    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3158        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3159        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3160
3161    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3163
3164    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3165        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3166        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3167        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3168        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3169
3170        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3171        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3172            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3173            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3174                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3175        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3176            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3177                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3178            else:
3179                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3180        else:
3181            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3182        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3183
3184    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3185        table = expression.this
3186        table_alias = ""
3187
3188        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3189        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3190            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3191            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3192
3193        this = self.sql(table)
3194        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3195        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3197
3198        return self.prepend_ctes(
3199            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3200        )
3201
3202    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3203        if expression.args.get("format"):
3204            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3205
3206        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3207
3208    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3211        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3212        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3213        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3214
3215    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3217        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3218        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3219        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3220
3221    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3222        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3223
3224    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3225        return ""
3226
3227    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3228        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3229        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3230        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3231        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3232        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3233
3234    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3236        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3237
3238        if having:
3239            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3240
3241        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3242
3243    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3244        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3245        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3246        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3247        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3248        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3249        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3250        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3251        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3252        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3253        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3254        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3255        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3256        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3257
3258    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3259        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3260        if key_block_size:
3261            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3262
3263        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3264        if using:
3265            return f"USING {using}"
3266
3267        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3268        if parser:
3269            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3270
3271        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3272        if comment:
3273            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3274
3275        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3276        if visible is not None:
3277            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3278
3279        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3280        if engine_attr:
3281            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3282
3283        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3284        if secondary_engine_attr:
3285            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3286
3287        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3288        return ""
3289
3290    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3291        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3292        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3294        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3295        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3296        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3297        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3298        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3299        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3300        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3301        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3302
3303    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3304        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3305            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3306
3307        case = exp.Case().when(
3308            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3309            expression.args["true"],
3310            copy=False,
3311        )
3312        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3313        if else_cond:
3314            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3315
3316        return self.sql(case)
3317
3318    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3320        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3321        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3322        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3323        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3324        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3325
3326    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3327        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3328
3329    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3331
3332    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3333        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3334        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3335        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3336        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3337        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3338        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3339
3340    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3343        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3344
3345    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3347        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3348        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3349
3350    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3352
3353    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3354        arg = expression.this
3355        if not arg.type:
3356            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3357
3358            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3359
3360        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3361            return self.sql(arg)
3362
3363        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3364        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3365
3366    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3367        this = expression.this
3368        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3369            return self.sql(this)
3370
3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3372
3373    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3374        this = expression.this
3375        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3376
3377        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3378            return self.sql(
3379                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3380            )
3381
3382        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3383            return self.sql(this)
3384
3385        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3386
3387    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3388        return self.sql(
3389            exp.func(
3390                "DATEDIFF",
3391                expression.this,
3392                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3393                "day",
3394            )
3395        )
3396
3397    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3398        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3399            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3400
3401        unit = expression.text("unit")
3402        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3403            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3404
3405        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3406
3407    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3408        this = expression.this
3409        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3410            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3411            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3412
3413        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3414            return f".{this}"
3415
3416        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3417        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3418
3419    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3420        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3421        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3422
3423    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3424        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3425            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3426
3427            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3428
3429        return expression
3430
3431    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3432        return [
3433            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3434            for value in values
3435            if value
3436        ]