sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  82        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  83        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  84        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  88        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  89        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  90        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  91        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  92        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  93        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  94        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  95        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  97        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  98        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  99        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100    }
 101
 102    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 103    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 104
 105    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 106    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 107
 108    # Always do union distinct or union all
 109    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 110
 111    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 112    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 115    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 118    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 121    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 122
 123    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 124    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 127    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 130    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 131
 132    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 133    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 134
 135    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 136    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 137
 138    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 139    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 140
 141    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 142    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 143
 144    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 145    JOIN_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 148    TABLE_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 151    QUERY_HINTS = True
 152
 153    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 154    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 155
 156    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 157    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 160    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 163    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 166    RETURNING_END = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 169    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 172    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 175    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 178    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 179
 180    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 181    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 182
 183    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 184    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 185    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 186    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 187
 188    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 189    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 190
 191    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 192        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 198        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 199        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 200        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 201    }
 202
 203    STAR_MAPPING = {
 204        "except": "EXCEPT",
 205        "replace": "REPLACE",
 206    }
 207
 208    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 209        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 210        "seconds": "second",
 211        "minutes": "minute",
 212        "hours": "hour",
 213        "days": "day",
 214        "weeks": "week",
 215        "months": "month",
 216        "quarters": "quarter",
 217        "years": "year",
 218    }
 219
 220    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 221
 222    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 223
 224    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 225
 226    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 227        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 245        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 247        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 249        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 255        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 256        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 258        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 259        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 261        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 263        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 265        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 280        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 283        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284    }
 285
 286    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 287    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 288
 289    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 290    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 291        exp.Create,
 292        exp.Delete,
 293        exp.Drop,
 294        exp.From,
 295        exp.Insert,
 296        exp.Join,
 297        exp.Select,
 298        exp.Update,
 299        exp.Where,
 300        exp.With,
 301    )
 302
 303    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 304    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 305        exp.Column,
 306        exp.Literal,
 307        exp.Neg,
 308        exp.Paren,
 309    )
 310
 311    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 312
 313    # Autofilled
 314    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 315    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 316    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 317    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 318    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 319    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 320    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 321    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 322    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 323    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 324
 325    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 326
 327    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 328    QUOTE_START = "'"
 329    QUOTE_END = "'"
 330    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 331    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 332    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 333
 334    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 335    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 338    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 339    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 340    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 341
 342    __slots__ = (
 343        "pretty",
 344        "identify",
 345        "normalize",
 346        "pad",
 347        "_indent",
 348        "normalize_functions",
 349        "unsupported_level",
 350        "max_unsupported",
 351        "leading_comma",
 352        "max_text_width",
 353        "comments",
 354        "unsupported_messages",
 355        "_escaped_quote_end",
 356        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 357        "_cache",
 358    )
 359
 360    def __init__(
 361        self,
 362        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 363        identify: str | bool = False,
 364        normalize: bool = False,
 365        pad: int = 2,
 366        indent: int = 2,
 367        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 368        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 369        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 370        leading_comma: bool = False,
 371        max_text_width: int = 80,
 372        comments: bool = True,
 373    ):
 374        import sqlglot
 375
 376        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 377        self.identify = identify
 378        self.normalize = normalize
 379        self.pad = pad
 380        self._indent = indent
 381        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 382        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 383        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 384        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 385        self.comments = comments
 386
 387        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 388        self.normalize_functions = (
 389            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 390        )
 391
 392        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 393        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 394        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 395            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 396        )
 397        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 398
 399    def generate(
 400        self,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 402        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        """
 405        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 406
 407        Args:
 408            expression: The syntax tree.
 409            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 410                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 411
 412        Returns:
 413            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 414        """
 415        if cache is not None:
 416            self._cache = cache
 417
 418        self.unsupported_messages = []
 419        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 420        self._cache = None
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 423            return sql
 424
 425        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 426            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 427                logger.warning(msg)
 428        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 429            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 430
 431        if self.pretty:
 432            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 433        return sql
 434
 435    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 436        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 437            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 438        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 439
 440    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 442
 443    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 444        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 445
 446    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 447        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 448        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 449        return comment
 450
 451    def maybe_comment(
 452        self,
 453        sql: str,
 454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 455        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 456    ) -> str:
 457        comments = (
 458            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 459            if self.comments
 460            else None
 461        )
 462
 463        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 464            return sql
 465
 466        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 467        comments_sql = sep.join(
 468            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 469        )
 470
 471        if not comments_sql:
 472            return sql
 473
 474        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 475            return (
 476                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 477                if sql[0].isspace()
 478                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 479            )
 480
 481        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 482
 483    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 484        this_sql = self.indent(
 485            self.sql(expression)
 486            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 487            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 488            level=1,
 489            pad=0,
 490        )
 491        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 492
 493    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 494        original = self.identify
 495        self.identify = False
 496        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 497        self.identify = original
 498        return result
 499
 500    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 501        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 502            return name.upper()
 503        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 504            return name.lower()
 505        return name
 506
 507    def indent(
 508        self,
 509        sql: str,
 510        level: int = 0,
 511        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 512        skip_first: bool = False,
 513        skip_last: bool = False,
 514    ) -> str:
 515        if not self.pretty:
 516            return sql
 517
 518        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 519        lines = sql.split("\n")
 520
 521        return "\n".join(
 522            line
 523            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 524            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 525            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 526        )
 527
 528    def sql(
 529        self,
 530        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 531        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 532        comment: bool = True,
 533    ) -> str:
 534        if not expression:
 535            return ""
 536
 537        if isinstance(expression, str):
 538            return expression
 539
 540        if key:
 541            value = expression.args.get(key)
 542            if value:
 543                return self.sql(value)
 544            return ""
 545
 546        if self._cache is not None:
 547            expression_id = hash(expression)
 548
 549            if expression_id in self._cache:
 550                return self._cache[expression_id]
 551
 552        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 553
 554        if callable(transform):
 555            sql = transform(self, expression)
 556        elif transform:
 557            sql = transform
 558        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 559            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 560
 561            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 562                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 563            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 564                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 565            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 566                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 567            else:
 568                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 569        else:
 570            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 571
 572        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 573
 574        if self._cache is not None:
 575            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 576        return sql
 577
 578    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 579        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 580        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 581        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 582
 583    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 584        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 585        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586        options = expression.args.get("options")
 587        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 588        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 589        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 590        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 591        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 592
 593    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 594        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 595            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 596        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 597        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 598
 599    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 600        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 601
 602        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 603            join_mark = ""
 604            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 605
 606        column = ".".join(
 607            self.sql(part)
 608            for part in (
 609                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 610                expression.args.get("db"),
 611                expression.args.get("table"),
 612                expression.args.get("this"),
 613            )
 614            if part
 615        )
 616
 617        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 618
 619    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 622        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 623        return f"{position}{this}"
 624
 625    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 628        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 629        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 630        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 631        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 632        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 633        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 634
 635        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 636
 637    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 640        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 641
 642    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 645            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 646        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 647            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 648        else:
 649            persisted = ""
 650        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 651
 652    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 653        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 654
 655    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 656        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 657            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 658        else:
 659            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660
 661        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 662
 663    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 664        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 665    ) -> str:
 666        this = ""
 667        if expression.this is not None:
 668            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 669            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 670
 671        start = expression.args.get("start")
 672        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 673        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 674        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 675        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 676        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 677        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 678        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 679        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 680        cycle_sql = ""
 681
 682        if cycle is not None:
 683            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 684            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 685
 686        sequence_opts = ""
 687        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 688            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 689            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 690
 691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 692        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 693
 694        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 695
 696    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 698
 699    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 700        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 701        if desc is not None:
 702            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 703        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 704
 705    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 707        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 708        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 709
 710    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 711        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 712
 713    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 715        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 716        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 717
 718        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 719
 720        properties_sql = ""
 721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 722            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 723        ):
 724            properties_sql = self.sql(
 725                exp.Properties(
 726                    expressions=[
 727                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 728                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 729                    ]
 730                )
 731            )
 732
 733        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 734        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 735        if expression_sql:
 736            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 737
 738            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 739                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 740                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 741                        exp.Properties(
 742                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 743                        ),
 744                        wrapped=False,
 745                    )
 746                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 747                else:
 748                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 749
 750        postindex_props_sql = ""
 751        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 752            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 753                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 754                wrapped=False,
 755                prefix=" ",
 756            )
 757
 758        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 759        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 760        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 761
 762        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 763        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 764
 765        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 766        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 767            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 768                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 769                sep=" ",
 770                prefix=" ",
 771                wrapped=False,
 772            )
 773
 774        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 775
 776        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 777        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 778            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 779                exp.Properties(
 780                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 781                ),
 782                sep=" ",
 783                prefix=" ",
 784                wrapped=False,
 785            )
 786
 787        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 788        no_schema_binding = (
 789            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 790        )
 791
 792        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 793        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 794
 795        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 797
 798    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 801        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 802        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 803
 804        if when:
 805            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 806            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 807            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 808
 809        return this
 810
 811    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 812        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 813
 814    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 815        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 816        if with_:
 817            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 818        return sql
 819
 820    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 821        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 822        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 823
 824        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 825
 826    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 827        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 828        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 829
 830    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 831        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 833        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 834        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 835
 836    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        if self.BIT_START:
 839            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 840        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 841
 842    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if self.HEX_START:
 845            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 846        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 847
 848    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        if self.BYTE_START:
 851            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 852        return this
 853
 854    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 855        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 856        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 857
 858    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 861        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 862        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 863
 864    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 865        type_value = expression.this
 866
 867        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 868            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 869        else:
 870            type_sql = (
 871                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 872                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 873                else type_value
 874            )
 875
 876        nested = ""
 877        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 878        values = ""
 879
 880        if interior:
 881            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 882                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 883                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 884                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 885                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 886                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 887            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 888                nested = f" {interior}"
 889            else:
 890                nested = f"({interior})"
 891
 892        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 893        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 894            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 895            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 896        ):
 897            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 898
 899        return type_sql
 900
 901    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 902        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 903        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 904        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 905        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 906
 907    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 910        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 911        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 912        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 913        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 914        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 915        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 916        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 917        if self.RETURNING_END:
 918            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 919        else:
 920            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 921        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 922
 923    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 925        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 926        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 927        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 928        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 929        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 930        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 931        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 932        return (
 933            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 934        )
 935
 936    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 937        return self.prepend_ctes(
 938            expression,
 939            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 940        )
 941
 942    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 943        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 944
 945    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 946        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 947        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 948        count = expression.args.get("count")
 949        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 950        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 951            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 952        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 953        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 954
 955    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 957        where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 958        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 959
 960    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 961        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 962            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 963            return ""
 964
 965        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 966
 967    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 968        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 969        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 970        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 971        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 973        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 974        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 975        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 976        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 977        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 978        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 979        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 980        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 981        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 982        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 983
 984    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 985        text = expression.name
 986        lower = text.lower()
 987        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 988        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 989        if (
 990            expression.quoted
 991            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 992            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 993            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 994        ):
 995            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 996        return text
 997
 998    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 999        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1000        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1001        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1002        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1003        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1004
1005    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1006        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1007        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1008
1009    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1010        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1011
1012    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1013        root_properties = []
1014        with_properties = []
1015
1016        for p in expression.expressions:
1017            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1018            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1019                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1020            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1021                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1022
1023        return self.root_properties(
1024            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1025        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1026
1027    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1028        if properties.expressions:
1029            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1030        return ""
1031
1032    def properties(
1033        self,
1034        properties: exp.Properties,
1035        prefix: str = "",
1036        sep: str = ", ",
1037        suffix: str = "",
1038        wrapped: bool = True,
1039    ) -> str:
1040        if properties.expressions:
1041            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1042            if expressions:
1043                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1044                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1045        return ""
1046
1047    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1048        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1049
1050    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1051        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1052        for p in properties.expressions:
1053            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1054            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1055                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1056            else:
1057                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1058
1059        return properties_locs
1060
1061    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1062        property_cls = expression.__class__
1063        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1064            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1065
1066        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1067        if not property_name:
1068            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1069
1070        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1071
1072    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1073        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1074        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1075        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1076
1077    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1080        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1081
1082    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1083        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1084        local = expression.args.get("local")
1085        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1086        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1087        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1088        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1089        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1090
1091    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1092        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1094        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1095
1096    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1097        if expression.args.get("default"):
1098            property = "DEFAULT"
1099        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1100            property = "ON"
1101        else:
1102            property = "OFF"
1103        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1104
1105    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1106        if expression.args.get("no"):
1107            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1108        if expression.args.get("default"):
1109            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1110
1111        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1112        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1113
1114    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1115        default = expression.args.get("default")
1116        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1117        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1118        if default or minimum or maximum:
1119            if default:
1120                prop = "DEFAULT"
1121            elif minimum:
1122                prop = "MINIMUM"
1123            else:
1124                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1125            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1126        units = expression.args.get("units")
1127        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1128        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1129
1130    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1131        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1132        always = expression.args.get("always")
1133        default = expression.args.get("default")
1134        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1135        never = expression.args.get("never")
1136
1137        if autotemp is not None:
1138            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1139        elif always:
1140            prop = "ALWAYS"
1141        elif default:
1142            prop = "DEFAULT"
1143        elif manual:
1144            prop = "MANUAL"
1145        elif never:
1146            prop = "NEVER"
1147        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1148
1149    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1150        no = expression.args.get("no")
1151        no = " NO" if no else ""
1152        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1153        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1154
1155        for_ = ""
1156        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1157            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1158        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1159            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1160        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1161            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1162        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1163
1164    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1165        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1166        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1167        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1168        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1169        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1170        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1171
1172    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1173        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1174        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1175        statistics_sql = ""
1176        if statistics is not None:
1177            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1178        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1179
1180    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1181        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1182
1183        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1184            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1185        else:
1186            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1187
1188        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1189        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1190        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1191
1192        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1193
1194        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1195        partition_sql = (
1196            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1197        )
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1200        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1201        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1202        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1204
1205        if self.RETURNING_END:
1206            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1207        else:
1208            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1209
1210        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1212
1213    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return self.prepend_ctes(
1215            expression,
1216            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1217        )
1218
1219    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1220        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1221
1222    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1224
1225    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1226        return expression.name.upper()
1227
1228    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1229        return expression.name.upper()
1230
1231    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1232        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1233        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1234        if constraint:
1235            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1236        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1237        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1238        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1241        if expressions:
1242            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1243        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1244
1245    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1246        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1247
1248    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1249        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1250        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1251        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1252        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1253        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1254        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1255        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1256        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1257        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1258        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1259        null = expression.args.get("null")
1260        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1261        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1262
1263    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1264        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1265
1266    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1267        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1268        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1269        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1270        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1271
1272    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1273        table = ".".join(
1274            part
1275            for part in [
1276                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1277                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1278                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1279            ]
1280            if part
1281        )
1282
1283        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1284        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1285        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1286        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1287        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1288        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1289        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1290        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1291        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1292        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1293
1294        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1295
1296    def tablesample_sql(
1297        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1298    ) -> str:
1299        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1300            table = expression.this.copy()
1301            table.set("alias", None)
1302            this = self.sql(table)
1303            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1304        else:
1305            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1306            alias = ""
1307        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1308        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1309        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1310        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1311        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1312        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1313        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1314        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1315        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1316        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1317        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1318        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1319        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1320            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1321        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1322        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1323        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1324        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1325
1326    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1327        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1328
1329        if expression.this:
1330            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1332            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1333            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1334            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1335            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1336
1337        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1338        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1339        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1340        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1341        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1342        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1343        if include_nulls is not None:
1344            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1345        else:
1346            nulls = ""
1347        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1348
1349    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1350        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1351        kind = expression.text("kind")
1352        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1353        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1354
1355    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1356        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1357
1358    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1362        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1363        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1364        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1365        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1366        if self.RETURNING_END:
1367            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1368        else:
1369            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1370        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1371        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1372
1373    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1374        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1375        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1376            args = self.expressions(expression)
1377            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1378            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1379            values = (
1380                f"({values})"
1381                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1382                else values
1383            )
1384            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1385
1386        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1387        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1388        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1389        # very slow.
1390        expression = expression.copy()
1391        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1392
1393        selects = []
1394
1395        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1396            row = tup.expressions
1397
1398            if i == 0 and column_names:
1399                row = [
1400                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1401                ]
1402
1403            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1404
1405        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1406        if len(selects) > 1:
1407            for select in selects[1:]:
1408                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1409                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1410                )
1411
1412        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1413
1414    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1415        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1416
1417    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1418        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1419        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1420        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1421
1422    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1423        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1424
1425    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1426        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1427
1428        if expression.args.get("all"):
1429            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1430
1431        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1432        grouping_sets = (
1433            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1434        )
1435
1436        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1437        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1438            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1439        else:
1440            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1441            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1442
1443        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1444        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1445            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1446        else:
1447            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1448            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1449
1450        groupings = csv(
1451            grouping_sets,
1452            cube_sql,
1453            rollup_sql,
1454            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1455            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1456        )
1457
1458        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1459            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1460
1461        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1462
1463    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1464        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1465        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1466
1467    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1468        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1469        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1470        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1471        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1472        return start + connect
1473
1474    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1475        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1476
1477    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1478        op_sql = " ".join(
1479            op
1480            for op in (
1481                expression.method,
1482                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1483                expression.side,
1484                expression.kind,
1485                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1486            )
1487            if op
1488        )
1489        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1490        using = expression.args.get("using")
1491
1492        if not on_sql and using:
1493            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1494
1495        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496
1497        if on_sql:
1498            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1499            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1500            if using:
1501                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1502            else:
1503                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1504        elif not op_sql:
1505            return f", {this_sql}"
1506
1507        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1508        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1509
1510    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1511        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1512        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1513        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1514
1515    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1517
1518        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1519            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1520
1521        if expression.args.get("view"):
1522            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1523            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1524            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1525            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1526            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1527            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1528
1529        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1530        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1531        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1532
1533    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1535        args = ", ".join(
1536            sql
1537            for sql in (
1538                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1539                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1540            )
1541            if sql
1542        )
1543        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1544
1545    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1547        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1548
1549    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1550        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1551        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1554        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1555        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1556        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1557        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1558
1559    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1560        expressions = (
1561            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1562        )
1563        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1564        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1565
1566    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1567        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1568
1569    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1570        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1571            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1572            return ""
1573
1574        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1575        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1576        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1577        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1578
1579        if wait is not None:
1580            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1581                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1582            else:
1583                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1584
1585        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1586
1587    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1588        text = expression.this or ""
1589        if expression.is_string:
1590            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1591        return text
1592
1593    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1594        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1595        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1596            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1597        elif self.pretty:
1598            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1599        return text
1600
1601    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1602        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1603        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1604        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1605        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1606        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1607        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1608        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1609        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1610        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1611        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1612        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1613
1614    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1615        return "NULL"
1616
1617    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1618        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1619
1620    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1622        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1623        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1624
1625    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1626        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1627
1628    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1629        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1630
1631    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1632        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1633
1634    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1635        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1636        asc = not desc
1637
1638        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1639        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1640        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1641        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1642        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1643
1644        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1645        nulls_sort_change = ""
1646        if nulls_first and (
1647            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1648        ):
1649            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1650        elif (
1651            nulls_last
1652            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1653            and not nulls_are_last
1654        ):
1655            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1656
1657        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1658            self.unsupported(
1659                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1660            )
1661            nulls_sort_change = ""
1662
1663        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1664
1665    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1666        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1667        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1668        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1669        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1670        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1671        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1672        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1673        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1674        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1675        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1676        definition_sqls = [
1677            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1678            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1679        ]
1680        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1681        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1682        body = "".join(
1683            (
1684                partition,
1685                order,
1686                measures,
1687                rows,
1688                after,
1689                pattern,
1690                define,
1691            )
1692        )
1693        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1694        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1695        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1696
1697    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1698        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1699
1700        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1701        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1702
1703        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1704            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1705        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1706            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1707
1708        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1709
1710        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1711            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1712            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1713            else []
1714        )
1715
1716        return csv(
1717            *sqls,
1718            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1719            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1721            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1722            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1723            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1724            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1725            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1726            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1727            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1728            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1729            sep="",
1730        )
1731
1732    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1733        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1734    ) -> t.List[str]:
1735        return [
1736            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1737            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1738        ]
1739
1740    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1741        return [
1742            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1743            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1744            if expression.args.get("windows")
1745            else "",
1746            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1747            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1748            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1749        ]
1750
1751    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1752        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1753        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1754        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1755
1756    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1757        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1758        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1759        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1760        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1761        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1762        top = (
1763            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1764            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1765            else ""
1766        )
1767
1768        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1769
1770        if kind:
1771            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1772                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1773            else:
1774                if kind == "STRUCT":
1775                    expressions = self.expressions(
1776                        sqls=[
1777                            self.sql(
1778                                exp.Struct(
1779                                    expressions=[
1780                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1781                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1782                                        )
1783                                        for e in expression.expressions
1784                                    ]
1785                                )
1786                            )
1787                        ]
1788                    )
1789                kind = ""
1790
1791        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1792        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1793            expression,
1794            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1795            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1796            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1797        )
1798        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1799
1800    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1803        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1804        return f"{this}{sql}"
1805
1806    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1807        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1808
1809    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1810        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1811        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1812        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1813        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1814        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1815
1816    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1819        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1820
1821    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823        kind = expression.text("kind")
1824        if kind:
1825            kind = f"{kind}."
1826        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1827
1828    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1829        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1830
1831    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1832        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1833        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1834
1835        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1836        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1837
1838        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1839        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1840
1841    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1842        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1843        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1844
1845    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1846        return self.prepend_ctes(
1847            expression,
1848            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1849        )
1850
1851    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1852        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1853        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1854        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1855        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1856
1857    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1858        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1859        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1860        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1861            columns = alias.columns
1862            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1863        else:
1864            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1865        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1866        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1867        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1868        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1869        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1870
1871    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1872        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1873        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1874
1875    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1878        order = expression.args.get("order")
1879        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1880        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1881        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1882        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1883
1884        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1885
1886        first = expression.args.get("first")
1887        if first is None:
1888            first = ""
1889        else:
1890            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1891
1892        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1893            return f"{this} {alias}"
1894
1895        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1896        return f"{this} ({args})"
1897
1898    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1899        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1900        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1901
1902    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1903        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1904        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1905        end = (
1906            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1907            or "CURRENT ROW"
1908        )
1909        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1910
1911    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1914        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1915
1916    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1918        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1919        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1920        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1921
1922    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1923        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1924        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1925
1926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1927
1928    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1929        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1930
1931    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1932        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1933
1934    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1936        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1937            this = self.wrap(this)
1938        return f"ANY {this}"
1939
1940    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1941        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1942
1943    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1946
1947        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1948            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1949            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1950
1951        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1952
1953        if default:
1954            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1955
1956        statements.append("END")
1957
1958        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1959            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1960
1961        return " ".join(statements)
1962
1963    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1966        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1967
1968    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1969        order = expression.args.get("order")
1970        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1971        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1972
1973    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1975        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1976        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1977
1978    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1979        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1980
1981        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1982            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1983        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1984            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1985        else:
1986            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1987
1988    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1989        expressions = expression.expressions
1990        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1991            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1992        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1993
1994    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1996        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1997
1998    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1999        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2000        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2001        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2002        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2003        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2004        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2005        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2006        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2007
2008    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2009        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2010        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2011        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2012        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2013
2014    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2015        expression = expression.copy()
2016        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2017
2018    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2019        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2020        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2021        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2022
2023    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2025
2026    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2028
2029    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2030        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2031        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2032        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2033        if unique_keys is not None:
2034            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2035        else:
2036            unique_keys = ""
2037        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2038        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2039        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2040        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2041        return self.func(
2042            "JSON_OBJECT",
2043            *expression.expressions,
2044            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2045        )
2046
2047    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2048        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2049        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2050        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2051        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2052        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2053        return self.func(
2054            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2055        )
2056
2057    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2060        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2061        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2062        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2063        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2064        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2065        return self.func(
2066            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2067            this,
2068            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2069        )
2070
2071    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2074        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2075        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2076        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2077        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2078
2079    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2082        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2083        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2084        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2085        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2086        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2087        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2088        return self.func(
2089            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2090        )
2091
2092    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2095        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2096        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2097        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2098        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2099
2100    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2103        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2105        with_ = (
2106            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2107            if expressions
2108            else ""
2109        )
2110        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2111
2112    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2113        query = expression.args.get("query")
2114        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2115        field = expression.args.get("field")
2116        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2117
2118        if query:
2119            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2120        elif unnest:
2121            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2122        elif field:
2123            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2124        else:
2125            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2126
2127        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2128
2129    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2130        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2131
2132    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2133        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2134        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2135            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2136        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2137
2138        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2139            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2140            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2141
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        if this:
2144            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2145            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2146
2147        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2148
2149    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2150        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2151
2152    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2155        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2158        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2159
2160    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2161        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2162
2163    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2164        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2165            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2166        else:
2167            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2168            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2169
2170        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2171
2172    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2173        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2174        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2176        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2177
2178    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2179        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2180
2181    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2182        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2183        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2185
2186    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2187        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2188
2189    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2191        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2192        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2193
2194    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2195        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2196
2197    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2198        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2199
2200    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2201        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2202
2203    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2204        if not self.pretty:
2205            return self.binary(expression, op)
2206
2207        sqls = tuple(
2208            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2209            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2210        )
2211
2212        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2213        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2214
2215    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2217
2218    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2220
2221    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2222        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2223
2224    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2225        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2226
2227    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2228        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2229
2230    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2231        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2232
2233    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2234        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2235        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2236        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2237
2238    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2239        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2241
2242    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2243        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2244
2245    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2247
2248    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2250        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2251        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2252        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2253        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2254
2255    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2257        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2258        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2259        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2260        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2261        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2262        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2263        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2264        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2265
2266    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2267        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2268        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2269        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2270        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2271
2272        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2273            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2274
2275        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2276
2277    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2278        return "BEGIN"
2279
2280    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2281        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2282        if chain is not None:
2283            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2284
2285        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2286
2287    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2288        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2289        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2290        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2291
2292    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294
2295        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2296        if dtype:
2297            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2298            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2299            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2300            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2301            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2302
2303        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2304        if default:
2305            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2306
2307        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2308            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2309
2310        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2311
2312    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2313        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2314            # Remove db from tables
2315            expression = expression.transform(
2316                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2317            )
2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2319        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2320
2321    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2322        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2323
2324        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2325            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2326                actions = self.expressions(
2327                    expression,
2328                    key="actions",
2329                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2330                )
2331            else:
2332                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2333        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2334            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2335        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2336            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2337        else:
2338            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2339
2340        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2341        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2342        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2343
2344    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2345        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2346        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2347        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2348
2349    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2351        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2352        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2353
2354        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2355        if enforced is not None:
2356            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2357
2358        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2359
2360    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2361        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2362        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2363
2364        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2365        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2366        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2367
2368    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2369        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2370
2371    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2372        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2373
2374    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2375        return self.sql(
2376            exp.Cast(
2377                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2378                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2379            )
2380        )
2381
2382    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2384
2385    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2386        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2387            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2388        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2389
2390    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2391        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2392
2393    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2394        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2395
2396    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2397        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2398
2399    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2401
2402    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2403        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2404
2405    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2406        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2407
2408    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2409        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2410
2411    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2412        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2413
2414    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2415        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2416
2417    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2418        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2419
2420    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2421        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2422
2423    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2424        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2425            return self.sql(
2426                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2427            )
2428        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2429
2430    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2431        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2432
2433    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2434        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2435
2436    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2437        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2438
2439    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2440        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2441
2442    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2443        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2444
2445    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2446        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2447
2448    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2449        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2450
2451    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2452        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2453
2454    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2455        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2456
2457    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2458        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2459
2460    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2461        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2462
2463    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2464        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2465
2466    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2467        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2468
2469    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2470        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2471
2472    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2473        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2474        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2476        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2477        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2478
2479    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2480        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2481        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2482
2483    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2484        args = []
2485
2486        for key in expression.arg_types:
2487            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2488
2489            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2490                for value in arg_value:
2491                    args.append(value)
2492            elif arg_value is not None:
2493                args.append(arg_value)
2494
2495        if self.normalize_functions:
2496            name = expression.sql_name()
2497        else:
2498            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2499
2500        return self.func(name, *args)
2501
2502    def func(
2503        self,
2504        name: str,
2505        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2506        prefix: str = "(",
2507        suffix: str = ")",
2508    ) -> str:
2509        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2510
2511    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2512        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2513        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2514            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2515        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2516
2517    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2518        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2519
2520    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2521        return format_time(
2522            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2523        )
2524
2525    def expressions(
2526        self,
2527        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2529        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2530        flat: bool = False,
2531        indent: bool = True,
2532        skip_first: bool = False,
2533        sep: str = ", ",
2534        prefix: str = "",
2535    ) -> str:
2536        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2537
2538        if not expressions:
2539            return ""
2540
2541        if flat:
2542            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2543
2544        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2545
2546        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2547        pad = " " * self.pad
2548        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2549
2550        result_sqls = []
2551        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2552            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2553            if not sql:
2554                continue
2555
2556            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2557
2558            if self.pretty:
2559                if self.leading_comma:
2560                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2561                else:
2562                    result_sqls.append(
2563                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2564                    )
2565            else:
2566                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2567
2568        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2569        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2570
2571    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2572        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2573        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2574        if flat:
2575            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2576        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2577
2578    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2579        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2580        if not property_name:
2581            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2582        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2583
2584    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        op = self.seg(op)
2587        return self.query_modifiers(
2588            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2589        )
2590
2591    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2592        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2593
2594    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2595        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2596
2597    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2599        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2600        expressions = (
2601            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2602        )
2603        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2604
2605    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2607        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2608        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2609
2610    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2612
2613    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2614        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2615        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2616        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2617        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2618
2619        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2620        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2621            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2622            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2623                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2624        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2625            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2626                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2627            else:
2628                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2629        else:
2630            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2631        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2632
2633    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2634        table = expression.this
2635        table_alias = ""
2636
2637        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2638        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2639            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2640            table = table.copy()
2641            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2642
2643        this = self.sql(table)
2644        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2645        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2647
2648        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2649
2650    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2651        if expression.args.get("format"):
2652            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2653
2654        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2655
2656    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2659        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2660        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2661        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2662
2663    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2665        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2666        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2667        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2668
2669    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2670        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2671
2672    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2673        return ""
2674
2675    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2676        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2677        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2678        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2679        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2680        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2681
2682    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2685
2686        if having:
2687            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2688
2689        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2690
2691    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2692        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2693        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2694        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2695        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2696        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2697        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2698        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2699        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2700        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2701        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2702        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2703        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2704        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2705
2706    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2707        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2708        if key_block_size:
2709            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2710
2711        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2712        if using:
2713            return f"USING {using}"
2714
2715        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2716        if parser:
2717            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2718
2719        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2720        if comment:
2721            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2722
2723        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2724        if visible is not None:
2725            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2726
2727        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2728        if engine_attr:
2729            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2730
2731        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2732        if secondary_engine_attr:
2733            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2734
2735        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2736        return ""
2737
2738    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2740        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2743        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2744        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2745        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2746        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2747        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2748        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2749        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2750
2751    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2752        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2753            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2754
2755        case = exp.Case().when(
2756            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2757            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2758            copy=False,
2759        )
2760        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2761        if else_cond:
2762            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2763
2764        return self.sql(case)
2765
2766    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2769        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2770        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2771        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2772        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2773
2774    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2776
2777
2778def cached_generator(
2779    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2780) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2781    """Returns a cached generator."""
2782    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2783    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2784    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)