sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 147    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 148
 149    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 157    }
 158
 159    STAR_MAPPING = {
 160        "except": "EXCEPT",
 161        "replace": "REPLACE",
 162    }
 163
 164    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 165        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 166        "seconds": "second",
 167        "minutes": "minute",
 168        "hours": "hour",
 169        "days": "day",
 170        "weeks": "week",
 171        "months": "month",
 172        "quarters": "quarter",
 173        "years": "year",
 174    }
 175
 176    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 177
 178    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 179
 180    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 181
 182    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 183        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 184        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 193        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 200        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 202        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 209        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 211        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 213        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 216        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 236        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237    }
 238
 239    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 240    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 241
 242    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 243    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 244        exp.Select,
 245        exp.From,
 246        exp.Where,
 247        exp.With,
 248    )
 249
 250    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 251    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 252        exp.Column,
 253        exp.Literal,
 254        exp.Neg,
 255        exp.Paren,
 256    )
 257
 258    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 259
 260    # Autofilled
 261    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 262    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 263    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 264    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 265    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 266    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 267    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 268    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 269    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 270
 271    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 272
 273    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 274    QUOTE_START = "'"
 275    QUOTE_END = "'"
 276    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 277    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 278    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 279    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 280
 281    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 282    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 283    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 284    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 290
 291    __slots__ = (
 292        "pretty",
 293        "identify",
 294        "normalize",
 295        "pad",
 296        "_indent",
 297        "normalize_functions",
 298        "unsupported_level",
 299        "max_unsupported",
 300        "leading_comma",
 301        "max_text_width",
 302        "comments",
 303        "unsupported_messages",
 304        "_escaped_quote_end",
 305        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 306        "_cache",
 307    )
 308
 309    def __init__(
 310        self,
 311        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 312        identify: str | bool = False,
 313        normalize: bool = False,
 314        pad: int = 2,
 315        indent: int = 2,
 316        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 317        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 318        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 319        leading_comma: bool = False,
 320        max_text_width: int = 80,
 321        comments: bool = True,
 322    ):
 323        import sqlglot
 324
 325        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 326        self.identify = identify
 327        self.normalize = normalize
 328        self.pad = pad
 329        self._indent = indent
 330        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 331        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 332        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 333        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 334        self.comments = comments
 335
 336        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 337        self.normalize_functions = (
 338            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 339        )
 340
 341        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 342        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 343        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 344        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 345
 346    def generate(
 347        self,
 348        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 349        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 350    ) -> str:
 351        """
 352        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 353
 354        Args:
 355            expression: The syntax tree.
 356            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 357                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 358
 359        Returns:
 360            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 361        """
 362        if cache is not None:
 363            self._cache = cache
 364
 365        self.unsupported_messages = []
 366        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 367        self._cache = None
 368
 369        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 370            return sql
 371
 372        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 373            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 374                logger.warning(msg)
 375        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 376            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 377
 378        if self.pretty:
 379            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 380        return sql
 381
 382    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 383        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 384            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 385        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 386
 387    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 388        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 389
 390    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 391        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 392
 393    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 394        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 395        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 396        return comment
 397
 398    def maybe_comment(
 399        self,
 400        sql: str,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 402        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        comments = (
 405            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 406            if self.comments
 407            else None
 408        )
 409
 410        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 411            return sql
 412
 413        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 414        comments_sql = sep.join(
 415            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 416        )
 417
 418        if not comments_sql:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 422            return (
 423                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 424                if sql[0].isspace()
 425                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 426            )
 427
 428        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 429
 430    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 431        this_sql = self.indent(
 432            self.sql(expression)
 433            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 434            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 435            level=1,
 436            pad=0,
 437        )
 438        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 439
 440    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 441        original = self.identify
 442        self.identify = False
 443        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 444        self.identify = original
 445        return result
 446
 447    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 448        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 449            return name.upper()
 450        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 451            return name.lower()
 452        return name
 453
 454    def indent(
 455        self,
 456        sql: str,
 457        level: int = 0,
 458        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 459        skip_first: bool = False,
 460        skip_last: bool = False,
 461    ) -> str:
 462        if not self.pretty:
 463            return sql
 464
 465        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 466        lines = sql.split("\n")
 467
 468        return "\n".join(
 469            line
 470            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 471            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 472            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 473        )
 474
 475    def sql(
 476        self,
 477        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 478        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 479        comment: bool = True,
 480    ) -> str:
 481        if not expression:
 482            return ""
 483
 484        if isinstance(expression, str):
 485            return expression
 486
 487        if key:
 488            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 489
 490        if self._cache is not None:
 491            expression_id = hash(expression)
 492
 493            if expression_id in self._cache:
 494                return self._cache[expression_id]
 495
 496        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 497
 498        if callable(transform):
 499            sql = transform(self, expression)
 500        elif transform:
 501            sql = transform
 502        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 503            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 504
 505            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 506                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 507            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 508                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 510                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 511            else:
 512                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 513        else:
 514            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 515
 516        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 517
 518        if self._cache is not None:
 519            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 520        return sql
 521
 522    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 523        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 524        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 525        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 526
 527    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 528        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 529        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 530        options = expression.args.get("options")
 531        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 532        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 533        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 534        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 535        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 536
 537    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 538        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 539            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 540        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 541        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 542
 543    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 544        return ".".join(
 545            self.sql(part)
 546            for part in (
 547                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 548                expression.args.get("db"),
 549                expression.args.get("table"),
 550                expression.args.get("this"),
 551            )
 552            if part
 553        )
 554
 555    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 558        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 559        return f"{position}{this}"
 560
 561    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 562        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 563        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 564        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 565        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 566        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 567        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 569        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 570
 571        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 572
 573    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 575        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 576        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 577
 578    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 579        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 580
 581    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 582        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 583            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 584        else:
 585            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586
 587        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 588
 589    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 590        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 591    ) -> str:
 592        this = ""
 593        if expression.this is not None:
 594            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 595            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 596
 597        start = expression.args.get("start")
 598        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 599        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 600        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 601        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 602        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 603        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 604        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 605        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 606        cycle_sql = ""
 607
 608        if cycle is not None:
 609            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 610            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 611
 612        sequence_opts = ""
 613        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 614            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 615            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 616
 617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 618        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 619
 620        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 621
 622    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 623        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 624
 625    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 626        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 627        if desc is not None:
 628            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 629        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 630
 631    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 633        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 634        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 635
 636    def createable_sql(
 637        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 638    ) -> str:
 639        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 640
 641    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 643        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 644        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 645
 646        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 647
 648        properties_sql = ""
 649        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 650            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 651        ):
 652            properties_sql = self.sql(
 653                exp.Properties(
 654                    expressions=[
 655                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 657                    ]
 658                )
 659            )
 660
 661        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 662        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 663        if expression_sql:
 664            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 665
 666            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 667                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 668                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 669                        exp.Properties(
 670                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 671                        ),
 672                        wrapped=False,
 673                    )
 674                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 675                else:
 676                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 677
 678        postindex_props_sql = ""
 679        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 680            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 681                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 682                wrapped=False,
 683                prefix=" ",
 684            )
 685
 686        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 687        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 688        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 689
 690        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 691        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 692
 693        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 694        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 695            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 696                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 697                sep=" ",
 698                prefix=" ",
 699                wrapped=False,
 700            )
 701
 702        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 703
 704        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 705        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 706            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 707                exp.Properties(
 708                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 709                ),
 710                sep=" ",
 711                prefix=" ",
 712                wrapped=False,
 713            )
 714
 715        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 716        no_schema_binding = (
 717            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 718        )
 719
 720        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 721        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 722
 723        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 724        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 725
 726    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 728        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 729
 730        if when:
 731            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 732            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 733            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 734
 735        return f"CLONE {this}"
 736
 737    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 738        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 739
 740    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 741        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 742        if with_:
 743            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 744        return sql
 745
 746    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 747        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 748        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 749
 750        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 751
 752    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 753        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 754        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 755
 756    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 757        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 759        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 760        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 761
 762    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        if self.BIT_START:
 765            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 766        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 767
 768    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        if self.HEX_START:
 771            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 772        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 773
 774    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.BYTE_START:
 777            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 778        return this
 779
 780    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 781        string = expression.this
 782        if self.RAW_START:
 783            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
 784        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 785        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 786
 787    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 790        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 791        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 792
 793    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 794        type_value = expression.this
 795        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 796        nested = ""
 797        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 798        values = ""
 799        if interior:
 800            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 801                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 802                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 803                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 804                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 805                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 806            else:
 807                nested = f"({interior})"
 808
 809        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 810
 811    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 812        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 813        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 814        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 815        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 816
 817    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 820        using_sql = (
 821            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 822            if expression.args.get("using")
 823            else ""
 824        )
 825        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 826        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 827        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 828        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 829        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 830
 831    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 834        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 835        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 836        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 837        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 838        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 839        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 840        return (
 841            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 842        )
 843
 844    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 845        return self.prepend_ctes(
 846            expression,
 847            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 848        )
 849
 850    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 851        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 852
 853    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 854        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 855        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 856        count = expression.args.get("count")
 857        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 858        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 859            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 860        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 861        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 862
 863    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 866        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 867
 868    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 869        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 870            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 871        return ""
 872
 873    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 874        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 875        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 876        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 877        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 879        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 880        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 881        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 882        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 883        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 884        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 885        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 886        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 887        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 888
 889    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 890        text = expression.name
 891        lower = text.lower()
 892        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 893        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 894        if (
 895            expression.quoted
 896            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 897            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 898            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 899        ):
 900            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 901        return text
 902
 903    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 904        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 905        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 906        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 907        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 908        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 909
 910    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 911        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 912        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 913
 914    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 915        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 916
 917    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 918        root_properties = []
 919        with_properties = []
 920
 921        for p in expression.expressions:
 922            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 923            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 924                with_properties.append(p)
 925            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 926                root_properties.append(p)
 927
 928        return self.root_properties(
 929            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 930        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 931
 932    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 933        if properties.expressions:
 934            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 935        return ""
 936
 937    def properties(
 938        self,
 939        properties: exp.Properties,
 940        prefix: str = "",
 941        sep: str = ", ",
 942        suffix: str = "",
 943        wrapped: bool = True,
 944    ) -> str:
 945        if properties.expressions:
 946            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 947            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 948            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 949        return ""
 950
 951    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 952        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 953
 954    def locate_properties(
 955        self, properties: exp.Properties
 956    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 957        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 958            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 959        }
 960
 961        for p in properties.expressions:
 962            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 963            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 978                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 979
 980        return properties_locs
 981
 982    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 983        property_cls = expression.__class__
 984        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 985            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 986
 987        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 988        if not property_name:
 989            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 990
 991        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 992
 993    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 994        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 995        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 996        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 997
 998    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 999        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1000        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1001        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1002
1003    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1004        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1005        local = expression.args.get("local")
1006        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1007        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1008        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1009        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1010        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1011
1012    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1013        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1014        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1015        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1016
1017    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1018        if expression.args.get("default"):
1019            property = "DEFAULT"
1020        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1021            property = "ON"
1022        else:
1023            property = "OFF"
1024        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1025
1026    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1027        if expression.args.get("no"):
1028            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1029        if expression.args.get("default"):
1030            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1031
1032        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1033        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1034
1035    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1036        default = expression.args.get("default")
1037        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1038        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1039        if default or minimum or maximum:
1040            if default:
1041                prop = "DEFAULT"
1042            elif minimum:
1043                prop = "MINIMUM"
1044            else:
1045                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1046            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1047        units = expression.args.get("units")
1048        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1049        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1050
1051    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1052        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1053        always = expression.args.get("always")
1054        default = expression.args.get("default")
1055        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1056        never = expression.args.get("never")
1057
1058        if autotemp is not None:
1059            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1060        elif always:
1061            prop = "ALWAYS"
1062        elif default:
1063            prop = "DEFAULT"
1064        elif manual:
1065            prop = "MANUAL"
1066        elif never:
1067            prop = "NEVER"
1068        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1069
1070    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1071        no = expression.args.get("no")
1072        no = " NO" if no else ""
1073        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1074        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1075
1076        for_ = ""
1077        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1078            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1079        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1080            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1081        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1082            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1083        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1084
1085    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1086        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1087        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1088        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1089        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1090        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1091        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1092
1093    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1094        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1095        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1096        statistics_sql = ""
1097        if statistics is not None:
1098            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1099        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1100
1101    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1102        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1103
1104        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1105            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1106        else:
1107            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1108
1109        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1110        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1111        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1112
1113        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1114        partition_sql = (
1115            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1116        )
1117        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1118        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1119        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1120        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1121        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1122        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1123        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1124
1125    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1126        return self.prepend_ctes(
1127            expression,
1128            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1129        )
1130
1131    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1132        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1133
1134    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1136
1137    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1138        return expression.name.upper()
1139
1140    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1141        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1142        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1143        if constraint:
1144            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1145        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1146        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1147        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1148        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1149        if expressions:
1150            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1151        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1152
1153    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1154        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1155
1156    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1157        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1158        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1159        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1160        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1161        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1162        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1163        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1164        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1165        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1166        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1167        null = expression.args.get("null")
1168        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1169        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1170
1171    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1172        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1173
1174    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1175        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1176        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1177        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1178        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1179
1180    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1181        table = ".".join(
1182            part
1183            for part in [
1184                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1185                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1186                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1187            ]
1188            if part
1189        )
1190
1191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1192        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1193        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1194        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1195        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1196        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1197        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1198        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1199        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1200        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1201
1202        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1203
1204    def tablesample_sql(
1205        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1206    ) -> str:
1207        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1208            table = expression.this.copy()
1209            table.set("alias", None)
1210            this = self.sql(table)
1211            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1212        else:
1213            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214            alias = ""
1215        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1216        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1217        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1218        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1219        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1220        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1221        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1222        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1223        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1224        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1225        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1226        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1227        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1228            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1229        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1230        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1231        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1232        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1233
1234    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236
1237        if expression.this:
1238            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1240            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1241            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1242            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1243            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1244
1245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1246        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1247        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1248        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1249        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1250        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1251
1252    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1253        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1254
1255    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1257        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1258        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1259        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1260        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1261        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1262        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1263        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1264
1265    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1266        args = self.expressions(expression)
1267        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1268        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1269        values = (
1270            f"({values})"
1271            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1272            else values
1273        )
1274        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1275
1276    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1277        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1278
1279    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1280        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1281        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1282        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1283
1284    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1285        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1286
1287    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1288        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1289        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1290        grouping_sets = (
1291            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1292        )
1293
1294        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1295        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1296            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1297        else:
1298            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1299            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1300
1301        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1302        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1303            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1304        else:
1305            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1306            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1307
1308        groupings = csv(
1309            grouping_sets,
1310            cube_sql,
1311            rollup_sql,
1312            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1313            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1314        )
1315
1316        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1317            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1318
1319        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1320
1321    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1323        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1324
1325    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1326        op_sql = " ".join(
1327            op
1328            for op in (
1329                expression.method,
1330                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1331                expression.side,
1332                expression.kind,
1333                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1334            )
1335            if op
1336        )
1337        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1338        using = expression.args.get("using")
1339
1340        if not on_sql and using:
1341            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1342
1343        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1344
1345        if on_sql:
1346            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1347            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1348            if using:
1349                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1350            else:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1352        elif not op_sql:
1353            return f", {this_sql}"
1354
1355        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1356        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1357
1358    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1359        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1360        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1361        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1362
1363    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365
1366        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1367            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1368
1369        if expression.args.get("view"):
1370            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1371            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1372            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1373            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1374            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1375            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1376
1377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1378        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1379        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1380
1381    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        args = ", ".join(
1384            sql
1385            for sql in (
1386                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1387                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1388            )
1389            if sql
1390        )
1391        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1392
1393    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1396
1397    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1398        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1399        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1402        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1403        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1404        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1405        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1406
1407    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1408        expressions = (
1409            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1410        )
1411        return f"SET{expressions}"
1412
1413    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1414        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1415
1416    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1417        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1418            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1419            return ""
1420
1421        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1423        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1424        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1425
1426        if wait is not None:
1427            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1428                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1429            else:
1430                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1431
1432        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1433
1434    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1435        text = expression.this or ""
1436        if expression.is_string:
1437            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1438        return text
1439
1440    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1441        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1442        if self.pretty:
1443            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1444        return text
1445
1446    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1447        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1448        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1449        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1450        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1451        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1452        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1453        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1454        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1455        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1456        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1457        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1458
1459    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1460        return "NULL"
1461
1462    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1463        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1464
1465    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1467        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1468        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1469
1470    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1471        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1472
1473    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1474        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1475
1476    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1477        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1478
1479    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1480        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1481        asc = not desc
1482
1483        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1484        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1485        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1486        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1487        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1488
1489        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1490        nulls_sort_change = ""
1491        if nulls_first and (
1492            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1493        ):
1494            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1495        elif (
1496            nulls_last
1497            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1498            and not nulls_are_last
1499        ):
1500            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1501
1502        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1503            self.unsupported(
1504                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1505            )
1506            nulls_sort_change = ""
1507
1508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1509
1510    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1511        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1512        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1513        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1514        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1515        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1516        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1517        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1518        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1519        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1520        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1521        definition_sqls = [
1522            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1523            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1524        ]
1525        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1526        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1527        body = "".join(
1528            (
1529                partition,
1530                order,
1531                measures,
1532                rows,
1533                after,
1534                pattern,
1535                define,
1536            )
1537        )
1538        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1539        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1540        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1541
1542    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1543        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1544
1545        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1546            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1547        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1548            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1549
1550        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1551
1552        return csv(
1553            *sqls,
1554            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1555            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1556            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1557            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1558            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1559            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1560            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1561            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1562            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1563            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1564            sep="",
1565        )
1566
1567    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1568        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1569    ) -> t.List[str]:
1570        return [
1571            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1572            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1573        ]
1574
1575    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1576        return [
1577            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1578            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1579            if expression.args.get("windows")
1580            else "",
1581        ]
1582
1583    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1584        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1585        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1586        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1587
1588    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1589        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1590        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1591        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1592        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1593        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1594
1595        if kind:
1596            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1597                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1598            else:
1599                if kind == "STRUCT":
1600                    expressions = self.expressions(
1601                        sqls=[
1602                            self.sql(
1603                                exp.Struct(
1604                                    expressions=[
1605                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1606                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1607                                        )
1608                                        for e in expression.expressions
1609                                    ]
1610                                )
1611                            )
1612                        ]
1613                    )
1614                kind = ""
1615
1616        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1617        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1618            expression,
1619            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1620            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1621            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1622        )
1623        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1624
1625    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1627        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1628        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1629        return f"{this}{sql}"
1630
1631    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1632        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1633
1634    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1635        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1636        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1637        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1638        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1639        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1640
1641    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1643        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1644        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1645
1646    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1648        kind = expression.text("kind")
1649        if kind:
1650            kind = f"{kind}."
1651        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1652
1653    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1654        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1655
1656    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1657        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1658        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1659
1660        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1661        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1662
1663        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1664        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1665
1666    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1667        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1668        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1669
1670    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1671        return self.prepend_ctes(
1672            expression,
1673            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1674        )
1675
1676    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1677        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1678        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1679        return f"UNION{kind}"
1680
1681    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1682        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1683        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1684        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1685            columns = alias.columns
1686            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1687        else:
1688            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1689        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1690        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1691        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1692        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1693        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1694
1695    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1696        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1697        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1698
1699    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1702        order = expression.args.get("order")
1703        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1704        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1705        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1706        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1707
1708        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1709
1710        first = expression.args.get("first")
1711        if first is None:
1712            first = ""
1713        else:
1714            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1715
1716        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1717            return f"{this} {alias}"
1718
1719        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1720        return f"{this} ({args})"
1721
1722    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1723        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1724        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1725
1726    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1727        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1728        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1729        end = (
1730            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1731            or "CURRENT ROW"
1732        )
1733        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1734
1735    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1738        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1739
1740    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1743        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1744        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1745
1746    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1747        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1748        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1749
1750        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1751
1752    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1753        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1754
1755    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1758            this = self.wrap(this)
1759        return f"ANY {this}"
1760
1761    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1762        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1763
1764    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1766        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1767
1768        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1769            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1770            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1771
1772        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1773
1774        if default:
1775            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1776
1777        statements.append("END")
1778
1779        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1780            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1781
1782        return " ".join(statements)
1783
1784    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1787        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1788
1789    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1790        order = expression.args.get("order")
1791        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1792        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1793
1794    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1797        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1798
1799    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1800        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1801
1802        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1803            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1804        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1805            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1806        else:
1807            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1808
1809    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1810        expressions = expression.expressions
1811        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1812            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1813        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1814
1815    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1817        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1818
1819    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1820        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1821        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1822        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1823        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1824        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1825        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1826        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1827        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1828
1829    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1830        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1831        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1832        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1833        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1834
1835    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1836        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1837
1838    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1839        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1840        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1841        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1842
1843    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1844        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1845
1846    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1847        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1848        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1849        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1850        if unique_keys is not None:
1851            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1852        else:
1853            unique_keys = ""
1854        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1855        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1856        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1857        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1858        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1859        return self.func(
1860            "JSON_OBJECT",
1861            *expression.expressions,
1862            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1863        )
1864
1865    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1867        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1868        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1869        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1870        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1871        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1872
1873    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1876        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1877        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1878        with_ = (
1879            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1880            if expressions
1881            else ""
1882        )
1883        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1884
1885    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1886        query = expression.args.get("query")
1887        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1888        field = expression.args.get("field")
1889        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1890
1891        if query:
1892            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1893        elif unnest:
1894            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1895        elif field:
1896            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1897        else:
1898            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1899
1900        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1901
1902    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1903        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1904
1905    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1906        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1907        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1908            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1909        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1910
1911        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1912            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1913            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1914
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        if this:
1917            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1918            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1919
1920        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1921
1922    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1923        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1924
1925    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1927        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1928        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1929        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1930        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1931        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1932
1933    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1934        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1935
1936    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1937        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1938            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1939        else:
1940            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1941            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1942
1943        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1944
1945    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1946        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1947        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1949        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1950
1951    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1952        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1953
1954    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1955        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1956        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1957        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1958
1959    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1960        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1961
1962    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1965        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1966
1967    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1968        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1969
1970    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1971        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1972
1973    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1974        if not self.pretty:
1975            return self.binary(expression, op)
1976
1977        sqls = tuple(
1978            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1979            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1980        )
1981
1982        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1983        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1984
1985    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1986        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1987
1988    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1989        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1990
1991    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1992        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1993
1994    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1995        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1996
1997    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1998        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1999
2000    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2001        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2002
2003    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
2004        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2005
2006    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2007        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2008        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2009
2010    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2011        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2012
2013    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2014        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2015
2016    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2019        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2020        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2021        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2022
2023    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2025        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2026        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2027        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2028        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2029        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2030        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2031        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2032        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2033
2034    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2035        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2036        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2037        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2038        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2039
2040        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2041            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2042
2043        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2044
2045    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2046        return "BEGIN"
2047
2048    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2049        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2050        if chain is not None:
2051            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2052
2053        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2054
2055    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2056        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2057        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2058        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2059
2060    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062
2063        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2064        if dtype:
2065            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2066            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2067            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2068            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2069            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2070
2071        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2072        if default:
2073            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2074
2075        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2076            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2077
2078        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2079
2080    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2081        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2082            # Remove db from tables
2083            expression = expression.transform(
2084                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2085            )
2086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2087        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2088
2089    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2090        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2091
2092        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2093            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2094        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2095            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2096        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2097            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2098        else:
2099            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2100
2101        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2102        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2103
2104    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2106        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2107        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2108
2109    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2112        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2113
2114        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2115        if enforced is not None:
2116            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2117
2118        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2119
2120    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2121        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2122        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2123
2124        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2125        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2126        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2127
2128    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2130
2131    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2133
2134    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2135        return self.sql(
2136            exp.Cast(
2137                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2138                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2139            )
2140        )
2141
2142    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2144
2145    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2146        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2147            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2148        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2149
2150    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2152
2153    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2155
2156    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2158
2159    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2160        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2161
2162    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2164
2165    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2167
2168    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2170
2171    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2172        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2173
2174    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2175        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2176
2177    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2178        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2179
2180    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2182
2183    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2184        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2185            return self.sql(
2186                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2187            )
2188        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2189
2190    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2192
2193    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2194        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2195
2196    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2197        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2198
2199    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2200        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2201
2202    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2203        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2204
2205    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2206        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2207
2208    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2209        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2210
2211    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2212        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2213
2214    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2215        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2216
2217    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2218        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2219
2220    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2221        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2222
2223    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2224        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2225
2226    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2227        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2228
2229    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2230        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2231
2232    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2233        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2234        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2237        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2238
2239    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2240        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2241        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2242
2243    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2244        args = []
2245        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2246            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2247                for value in arg_value:
2248                    args.append(value)
2249            else:
2250                args.append(arg_value)
2251
2252        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2253
2254    def func(
2255        self,
2256        name: str,
2257        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2258        prefix: str = "(",
2259        suffix: str = ")",
2260    ) -> str:
2261        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2262
2263    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2264        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2265        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2266            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2267        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2268
2269    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2270        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2271
2272    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2273        return format_time(
2274            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2275        )
2276
2277    def expressions(
2278        self,
2279        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2280        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2281        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2282        flat: bool = False,
2283        indent: bool = True,
2284        sep: str = ", ",
2285        prefix: str = "",
2286    ) -> str:
2287        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2288
2289        if not expressions:
2290            return ""
2291
2292        if flat:
2293            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2294
2295        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2296
2297        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2298        pad = " " * self.pad
2299        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2300
2301        result_sqls = []
2302        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2303            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2304            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2305
2306            if self.pretty:
2307                if self.leading_comma:
2308                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2309                else:
2310                    result_sqls.append(
2311                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2312                    )
2313            else:
2314                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2315
2316        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2317        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2318
2319    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2320        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2321        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2322        if flat:
2323            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2324        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2325
2326    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2327        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2328        if not property_name:
2329            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2330        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2331
2332    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        op = self.seg(op)
2335        return self.query_modifiers(
2336            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2337        )
2338
2339    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2340        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2341
2342    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2343        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2344
2345    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2348        expressions = (
2349            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2350        )
2351        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2352
2353    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2356        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2357
2358    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2360
2361    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2362        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2363        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2364        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2365        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2366
2367        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2368        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2369            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2370            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2371                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2372        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2373            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2374                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2375            else:
2376                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2377        else:
2378            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2379        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2380
2381    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2384        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2385        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2386
2387    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2388        if expression.args.get("format"):
2389            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2390
2391        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2392
2393    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2395        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2396        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2397        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2398        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2399
2400    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2402        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2403        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2404        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2405
2406    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2407        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2408
2409    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2410        return ""
2411
2412
2413def cached_generator(
2414    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2415) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2416    """Returns a cached generator."""
2417    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2418    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2419    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)