sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 159    RETURNING_END = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 162    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 165    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 166
 167    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 168        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 169        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 170        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 171        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 172        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 173        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 174        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 175    }
 176
 177    STAR_MAPPING = {
 178        "except": "EXCEPT",
 179        "replace": "REPLACE",
 180    }
 181
 182    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 183        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 184        "seconds": "second",
 185        "minutes": "minute",
 186        "hours": "hour",
 187        "days": "day",
 188        "weeks": "week",
 189        "months": "month",
 190        "quarters": "quarter",
 191        "years": "year",
 192    }
 193
 194    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 195
 196    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 197
 198    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 199
 200    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 201        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 202        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 220        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 221        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 222        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 224        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 228        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 231        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 232        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 233        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 235        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 237        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 246        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 248        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 250        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 252        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 256    }
 257
 258    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 259    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 260
 261    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 262    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 263        exp.Select,
 264        exp.From,
 265        exp.Where,
 266        exp.With,
 267    )
 268
 269    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 270    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 271        exp.Column,
 272        exp.Literal,
 273        exp.Neg,
 274        exp.Paren,
 275    )
 276
 277    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 278
 279    # Autofilled
 280    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 281    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 282    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 283    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 284    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 285    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 286    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 287    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 288    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 289    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 290
 291    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 292
 293    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 294    QUOTE_START = "'"
 295    QUOTE_END = "'"
 296    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 297    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 298    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 299    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 300
 301    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 302    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 303    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 304    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 305    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 306    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 307    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 308
 309    __slots__ = (
 310        "pretty",
 311        "identify",
 312        "normalize",
 313        "pad",
 314        "_indent",
 315        "normalize_functions",
 316        "unsupported_level",
 317        "max_unsupported",
 318        "leading_comma",
 319        "max_text_width",
 320        "comments",
 321        "unsupported_messages",
 322        "_escaped_quote_end",
 323        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 324        "_cache",
 325    )
 326
 327    def __init__(
 328        self,
 329        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 330        identify: str | bool = False,
 331        normalize: bool = False,
 332        pad: int = 2,
 333        indent: int = 2,
 334        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 335        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 336        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 337        leading_comma: bool = False,
 338        max_text_width: int = 80,
 339        comments: bool = True,
 340    ):
 341        import sqlglot
 342
 343        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 344        self.identify = identify
 345        self.normalize = normalize
 346        self.pad = pad
 347        self._indent = indent
 348        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 349        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 350        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 351        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 352        self.comments = comments
 353
 354        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 355        self.normalize_functions = (
 356            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 357        )
 358
 359        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 360        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 361        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 362        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 363
 364    def generate(
 365        self,
 366        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 367        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 368    ) -> str:
 369        """
 370        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 371
 372        Args:
 373            expression: The syntax tree.
 374            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 375                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 376
 377        Returns:
 378            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 379        """
 380        if cache is not None:
 381            self._cache = cache
 382
 383        self.unsupported_messages = []
 384        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 385        self._cache = None
 386
 387        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 388            return sql
 389
 390        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 391            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 392                logger.warning(msg)
 393        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 394            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 395
 396        if self.pretty:
 397            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 398        return sql
 399
 400    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 401        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 402            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 403        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 404
 405    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 406        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 407
 408    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 409        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 410
 411    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 412        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 413        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 414        return comment
 415
 416    def maybe_comment(
 417        self,
 418        sql: str,
 419        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 420        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 421    ) -> str:
 422        comments = (
 423            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 424            if self.comments
 425            else None
 426        )
 427
 428        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 429            return sql
 430
 431        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 432        comments_sql = sep.join(
 433            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 434        )
 435
 436        if not comments_sql:
 437            return sql
 438
 439        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 440            return (
 441                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 442                if sql[0].isspace()
 443                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 444            )
 445
 446        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 447
 448    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 449        this_sql = self.indent(
 450            self.sql(expression)
 451            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 452            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 453            level=1,
 454            pad=0,
 455        )
 456        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 457
 458    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 459        original = self.identify
 460        self.identify = False
 461        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 462        self.identify = original
 463        return result
 464
 465    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 466        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 467            return name.upper()
 468        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 469            return name.lower()
 470        return name
 471
 472    def indent(
 473        self,
 474        sql: str,
 475        level: int = 0,
 476        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 477        skip_first: bool = False,
 478        skip_last: bool = False,
 479    ) -> str:
 480        if not self.pretty:
 481            return sql
 482
 483        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 484        lines = sql.split("\n")
 485
 486        return "\n".join(
 487            line
 488            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 489            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 490            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 491        )
 492
 493    def sql(
 494        self,
 495        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 496        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 497        comment: bool = True,
 498    ) -> str:
 499        if not expression:
 500            return ""
 501
 502        if isinstance(expression, str):
 503            return expression
 504
 505        if key:
 506            value = expression.args.get(key)
 507            if value:
 508                return self.sql(value)
 509            return ""
 510
 511        if self._cache is not None:
 512            expression_id = hash(expression)
 513
 514            if expression_id in self._cache:
 515                return self._cache[expression_id]
 516
 517        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 518
 519        if callable(transform):
 520            sql = transform(self, expression)
 521        elif transform:
 522            sql = transform
 523        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 524            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 525
 526            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 527                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 528            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 529                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 530            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 531                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 532            else:
 533                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 534        else:
 535            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 536
 537        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 538
 539        if self._cache is not None:
 540            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 541        return sql
 542
 543    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 544        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 545        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 546        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 547
 548    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 549        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 550        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 551        options = expression.args.get("options")
 552        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 553        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 554        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 555        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 556        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 557
 558    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 559        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 560            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 561        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 562        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 563
 564    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 565        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 566
 567        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 568            join_mark = ""
 569            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 570
 571        column = ".".join(
 572            self.sql(part)
 573            for part in (
 574                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 575                expression.args.get("db"),
 576                expression.args.get("table"),
 577                expression.args.get("this"),
 578            )
 579            if part
 580        )
 581
 582        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 583
 584    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 587        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 588        return f"{position}{this}"
 589
 590    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 591        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 592        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 593        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 594        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 595        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 596        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 597        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 598        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 599
 600        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 601
 602    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 603        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 604        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 605        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 606
 607    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 608        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 609
 610    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 611        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 612            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 613        else:
 614            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 615
 616        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 617
 618    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 619        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 620    ) -> str:
 621        this = ""
 622        if expression.this is not None:
 623            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 624            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 625
 626        start = expression.args.get("start")
 627        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 628        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 629        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 630        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 631        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 632        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 633        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 634        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 635        cycle_sql = ""
 636
 637        if cycle is not None:
 638            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 639            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 640
 641        sequence_opts = ""
 642        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 643            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 644            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 645
 646        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 647        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 648
 649        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 650
 651    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 652        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 653
 654    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 655        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 656        if desc is not None:
 657            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 658        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 659
 660    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 662        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 663        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 664
 665    def createable_sql(
 666        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 667    ) -> str:
 668        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 669
 670    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 672        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 673        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 674
 675        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 676
 677        properties_sql = ""
 678        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 679            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 680        ):
 681            properties_sql = self.sql(
 682                exp.Properties(
 683                    expressions=[
 684                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 685                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 686                    ]
 687                )
 688            )
 689
 690        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 692        if expression_sql:
 693            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 694
 695            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 696                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 697                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 698                        exp.Properties(
 699                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 700                        ),
 701                        wrapped=False,
 702                    )
 703                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 704                else:
 705                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 706
 707        postindex_props_sql = ""
 708        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 709            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 710                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 711                wrapped=False,
 712                prefix=" ",
 713            )
 714
 715        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 716        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 717        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 718
 719        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 720        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 721
 722        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 723        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 724            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 725                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 726                sep=" ",
 727                prefix=" ",
 728                wrapped=False,
 729            )
 730
 731        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 732
 733        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 734        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 735            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 736                exp.Properties(
 737                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 738                ),
 739                sep=" ",
 740                prefix=" ",
 741                wrapped=False,
 742            )
 743
 744        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 745        no_schema_binding = (
 746            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 747        )
 748
 749        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 750        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 751
 752        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 753        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 754
 755    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 757        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 758
 759        if when:
 760            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 761            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 762            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 763
 764        return f"CLONE {this}"
 765
 766    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 767        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 768
 769    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 770        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 771        if with_:
 772            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 773        return sql
 774
 775    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 776        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 777        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 778
 779        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 780
 781    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 782        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 783        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 784
 785    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 786        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 787        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 788        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 789        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 790
 791    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 793        if self.BIT_START:
 794            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 795        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 796
 797    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        if self.HEX_START:
 800            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 801        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 802
 803    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        if self.BYTE_START:
 806            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 807        return this
 808
 809    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 810        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 811        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 812
 813    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 816        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 817        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 818
 819    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 820        type_value = expression.this
 821        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 822        nested = ""
 823        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 824        values = ""
 825        if interior:
 826            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 827                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 828                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 829                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 830                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 831                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 832            else:
 833                nested = f"({interior})"
 834
 835        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 836
 837    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 838        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 839        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 840        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 841        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 842
 843    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 846        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 847        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 848        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 849        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 850        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 851        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 852        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 853        if self.RETURNING_END:
 854            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 855        else:
 856            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 857        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 858
 859    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 862        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 863        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 864        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 865        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 866        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 867        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 868        return (
 869            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 870        )
 871
 872    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 873        return self.prepend_ctes(
 874            expression,
 875            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 876        )
 877
 878    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 879        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 880
 881    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 882        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 883        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 884        count = expression.args.get("count")
 885        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 886        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 887            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 888        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 889        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 890
 891    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 894        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 895
 896    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 897        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 898            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 899            return ""
 900
 901        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 902
 903    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 904        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 905        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 906        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 907        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 909        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 910        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 911        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 912        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 913        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 914        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 915        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 916        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 917        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 918        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 919
 920    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 921        text = expression.name
 922        lower = text.lower()
 923        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 924        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 925        if (
 926            expression.quoted
 927            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 928            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 929            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 930        ):
 931            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 932        return text
 933
 934    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 935        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 936        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 937        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 938        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 939        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 940
 941    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 942        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 943        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 944
 945    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 946        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 947
 948    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 949        root_properties = []
 950        with_properties = []
 951
 952        for p in expression.expressions:
 953            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 954            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 955                with_properties.append(p)
 956            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 957                root_properties.append(p)
 958
 959        return self.root_properties(
 960            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 961        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 962
 963    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 964        if properties.expressions:
 965            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 966        return ""
 967
 968    def properties(
 969        self,
 970        properties: exp.Properties,
 971        prefix: str = "",
 972        sep: str = ", ",
 973        suffix: str = "",
 974        wrapped: bool = True,
 975    ) -> str:
 976        if properties.expressions:
 977            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 978            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 979            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 980        return ""
 981
 982    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 983        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 984
 985    def locate_properties(
 986        self, properties: exp.Properties
 987    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 988        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 989            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 990        }
 991
 992        for p in properties.expressions:
 993            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 994            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 995                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 996            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 997                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 998            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 999                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1000            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1001                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1002            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1003                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1004            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1005                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1006            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1007                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1008            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1009                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1010
1011        return properties_locs
1012
1013    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1014        property_cls = expression.__class__
1015        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1016            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1017
1018        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1019        if not property_name:
1020            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1021
1022        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1023
1024    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1025        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1026        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1027        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1028
1029    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1030        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1031        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1032        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1033
1034    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1035        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1036        local = expression.args.get("local")
1037        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1038        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1039        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1040        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1041        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1042
1043    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1044        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1045        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1046        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1047
1048    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1049        if expression.args.get("default"):
1050            property = "DEFAULT"
1051        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1052            property = "ON"
1053        else:
1054            property = "OFF"
1055        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1056
1057    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1058        if expression.args.get("no"):
1059            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1060        if expression.args.get("default"):
1061            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1062
1063        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1064        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1065
1066    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1067        default = expression.args.get("default")
1068        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1069        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1070        if default or minimum or maximum:
1071            if default:
1072                prop = "DEFAULT"
1073            elif minimum:
1074                prop = "MINIMUM"
1075            else:
1076                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1077            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1078        units = expression.args.get("units")
1079        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1080        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1081
1082    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1083        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1084        always = expression.args.get("always")
1085        default = expression.args.get("default")
1086        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1087        never = expression.args.get("never")
1088
1089        if autotemp is not None:
1090            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1091        elif always:
1092            prop = "ALWAYS"
1093        elif default:
1094            prop = "DEFAULT"
1095        elif manual:
1096            prop = "MANUAL"
1097        elif never:
1098            prop = "NEVER"
1099        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1100
1101    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1102        no = expression.args.get("no")
1103        no = " NO" if no else ""
1104        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1105        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1106
1107        for_ = ""
1108        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1109            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1110        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1111            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1112        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1113            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1114        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1115
1116    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1117        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1118        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1119        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1120        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1121        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1122        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1123
1124    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1125        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1126        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1127        statistics_sql = ""
1128        if statistics is not None:
1129            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1130        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1131
1132    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1133        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1134
1135        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1136            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1137        else:
1138            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1139
1140        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1141        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1142        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1143
1144        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1145
1146        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1147        partition_sql = (
1148            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1149        )
1150        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1151        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1152        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1153        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1154        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1155
1156        if self.RETURNING_END:
1157            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1158        else:
1159            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1160
1161        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1162        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1163
1164    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1165        return self.prepend_ctes(
1166            expression,
1167            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1168        )
1169
1170    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1171        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1172
1173    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1174        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1175
1176    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1177        return expression.name.upper()
1178
1179    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1180        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1181        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1182        if constraint:
1183            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1184        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1185        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1186        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1187        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1188        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1189        if expressions:
1190            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1191        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1192
1193    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1194        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1195
1196    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1197        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1198        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1199        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1200        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1201        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1202        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1203        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1204        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1205        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1206        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1207        null = expression.args.get("null")
1208        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1209        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1210
1211    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1212        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1213
1214    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1215        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1216        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1217        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1218        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1219
1220    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1221        table = ".".join(
1222            part
1223            for part in [
1224                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1225                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1226                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1227            ]
1228            if part
1229        )
1230
1231        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1232        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1233        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1234        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1235        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1236        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1237        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1238        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1239        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1240        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1241
1242        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1243
1244    def tablesample_sql(
1245        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1246    ) -> str:
1247        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1248            table = expression.this.copy()
1249            table.set("alias", None)
1250            this = self.sql(table)
1251            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1252        else:
1253            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254            alias = ""
1255        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1256        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1257        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1258        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1259        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1260        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1261        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1262        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1263        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1264        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1265        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1266        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1267        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1268            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1269        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1270        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1271        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1272        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1273
1274    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1275        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1276
1277        if expression.this:
1278            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1280            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1281            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1282            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1283            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1284
1285        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1286        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1287        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1288        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1289        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1290        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1291
1292    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1293        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1294
1295    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1298        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1299        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1300        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1301        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1302        if self.RETURNING_END:
1303            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1304        else:
1305            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1306        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1307        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1308
1309    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1310        args = self.expressions(expression)
1311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1312        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1313        values = (
1314            f"({values})"
1315            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1316            else values
1317        )
1318        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1319
1320    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1321        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1322
1323    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1324        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1325        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1326        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1327
1328    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1329        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1330
1331    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1332        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1333
1334        if expression.args.get("all"):
1335            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1336
1337        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1338        grouping_sets = (
1339            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1340        )
1341
1342        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1343        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1344            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1345        else:
1346            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1347            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1348
1349        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1350        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1351            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1352        else:
1353            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1354            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1355
1356        groupings = csv(
1357            grouping_sets,
1358            cube_sql,
1359            rollup_sql,
1360            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1361            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1362        )
1363
1364        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1365            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1366
1367        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1368
1369    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1370        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1371        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1372
1373    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1374        op_sql = " ".join(
1375            op
1376            for op in (
1377                expression.method,
1378                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1379                expression.side,
1380                expression.kind,
1381                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1382            )
1383            if op
1384        )
1385        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1386        using = expression.args.get("using")
1387
1388        if not on_sql and using:
1389            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1390
1391        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1392
1393        if on_sql:
1394            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1395            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1396            if using:
1397                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1398            else:
1399                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1400        elif not op_sql:
1401            return f", {this_sql}"
1402
1403        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1404        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1405
1406    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1407        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1408        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1409        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1410
1411    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1413
1414        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1415            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1416
1417        if expression.args.get("view"):
1418            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1419            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1420            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1421            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1422            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1423            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1424
1425        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1426        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1427        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1428
1429    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1431        args = ", ".join(
1432            sql
1433            for sql in (
1434                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1435                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1436            )
1437            if sql
1438        )
1439        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1440
1441    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1443        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1444
1445    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1447        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1450        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1451        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1452        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1453        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1454
1455    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1456        expressions = (
1457            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1458        )
1459        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1460        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1461
1462    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1463        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1464
1465    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1466        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1467            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1468            return ""
1469
1470        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1471        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1472        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1473        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1474
1475        if wait is not None:
1476            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1477                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1478            else:
1479                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1480
1481        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1482
1483    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1484        text = expression.this or ""
1485        if expression.is_string:
1486            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1487        return text
1488
1489    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1490        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1491        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1492            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1493        elif self.pretty:
1494            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1495        return text
1496
1497    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1498        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1499        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1500        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1501        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1502        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1503        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1504        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1505        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1506        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1507        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1508        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1509
1510    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1511        return "NULL"
1512
1513    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1514        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1515
1516    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1518        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1519        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1520
1521    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1522        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1523
1524    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1525        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1526
1527    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1528        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1529
1530    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1531        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1532        asc = not desc
1533
1534        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1535        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1536        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1537        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1538        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1539
1540        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1541        nulls_sort_change = ""
1542        if nulls_first and (
1543            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1544        ):
1545            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1546        elif (
1547            nulls_last
1548            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1549            and not nulls_are_last
1550        ):
1551            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1552
1553        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1554            self.unsupported(
1555                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1556            )
1557            nulls_sort_change = ""
1558
1559        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1560
1561    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1562        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1563        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1564        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1565        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1566        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1567        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1568        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1569        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1570        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1571        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1572        definition_sqls = [
1573            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1574            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1575        ]
1576        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1577        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1578        body = "".join(
1579            (
1580                partition,
1581                order,
1582                measures,
1583                rows,
1584                after,
1585                pattern,
1586                define,
1587            )
1588        )
1589        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1590        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1591        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1592
1593    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1594        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1595
1596        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1597        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1598
1599        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1600            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1601        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1602            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1603
1604        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1605
1606        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1607            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1608            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1609            else []
1610        )
1611
1612        return csv(
1613            *sqls,
1614            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1615            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1616            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1617            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1618            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1619            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1620            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1621            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1622            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1623            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1624            sep="",
1625        )
1626
1627    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1628        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1629    ) -> t.List[str]:
1630        return [
1631            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1632            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1633        ]
1634
1635    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1636        return [
1637            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1638            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1639            if expression.args.get("windows")
1640            else "",
1641            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1642            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1643            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1644        ]
1645
1646    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1647        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1648        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1649        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1650
1651    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1652        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1653        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1654        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1656        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1657        top = (
1658            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1659            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1660            else ""
1661        )
1662
1663        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1664
1665        if kind:
1666            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1667                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1668            else:
1669                if kind == "STRUCT":
1670                    expressions = self.expressions(
1671                        sqls=[
1672                            self.sql(
1673                                exp.Struct(
1674                                    expressions=[
1675                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1676                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1677                                        )
1678                                        for e in expression.expressions
1679                                    ]
1680                                )
1681                            )
1682                        ]
1683                    )
1684                kind = ""
1685
1686        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1687        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1688            expression,
1689            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1690            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1691            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1692        )
1693        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1694
1695    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1697        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1698        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1699        return f"{this}{sql}"
1700
1701    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1702        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1703
1704    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1705        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1706        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1707        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1708        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1709        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1710
1711    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1713        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1714        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1715
1716    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        kind = expression.text("kind")
1719        if kind:
1720            kind = f"{kind}."
1721        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1722
1723    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1724        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1725
1726    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1728        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1729
1730        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1731        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1732
1733        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1735
1736    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1737        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1738        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1739
1740    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1741        return self.prepend_ctes(
1742            expression,
1743            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1744        )
1745
1746    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1747        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1748        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1749        return f"UNION{kind}"
1750
1751    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1752        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1753        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1754        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1755            columns = alias.columns
1756            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1757        else:
1758            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1759        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1760        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1761        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1762        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1763        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1764
1765    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1766        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1767        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1768
1769    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1772        order = expression.args.get("order")
1773        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1774        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1775        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1776        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1777
1778        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1779
1780        first = expression.args.get("first")
1781        if first is None:
1782            first = ""
1783        else:
1784            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1785
1786        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1787            return f"{this} {alias}"
1788
1789        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1790        return f"{this} ({args})"
1791
1792    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1793        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1794        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1795
1796    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1797        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1798        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1799        end = (
1800            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1801            or "CURRENT ROW"
1802        )
1803        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1804
1805    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1808        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1809
1810    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1813        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1814        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1815
1816    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1817        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1818        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1819
1820        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1821
1822    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1823        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1824
1825    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1826        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1827
1828    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1831            this = self.wrap(this)
1832        return f"ANY {this}"
1833
1834    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1835        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1836
1837    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1839        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1840
1841        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1842            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1843            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1844
1845        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1846
1847        if default:
1848            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1849
1850        statements.append("END")
1851
1852        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1853            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1854
1855        return " ".join(statements)
1856
1857    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1859        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1860        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1861
1862    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1863        order = expression.args.get("order")
1864        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1865        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1866
1867    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1870        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1871
1872    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1873        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1874
1875        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1876            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1877        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1878            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1879        else:
1880            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1881
1882    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1883        expressions = expression.expressions
1884        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1885            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1886        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1887
1888    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1889        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1890        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1891
1892    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1893        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1894        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1895        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1896        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1897        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1898        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1899        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1900        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1901
1902    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1904        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1905        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1906        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1907
1908    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1909        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1910
1911    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1912        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1913        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1914        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1915
1916    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1918
1919    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1920        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1921        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1922        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1923        if unique_keys is not None:
1924            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1925        else:
1926            unique_keys = ""
1927        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1928        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1929        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1930        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1931        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1932        return self.func(
1933            "JSON_OBJECT",
1934            *expression.expressions,
1935            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1936        )
1937
1938    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1940        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1941        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1942        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1943        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1944        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1945
1946    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1949        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1951        with_ = (
1952            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1953            if expressions
1954            else ""
1955        )
1956        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1957
1958    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1959        query = expression.args.get("query")
1960        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1961        field = expression.args.get("field")
1962        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1963
1964        if query:
1965            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1966        elif unnest:
1967            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1968        elif field:
1969            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1970        else:
1971            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1972
1973        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1974
1975    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1976        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1977
1978    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1979        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1980        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1981            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1982        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1983
1984        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1985            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1986            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1987
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        if this:
1990            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1991            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1992
1993        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1994
1995    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1996        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1997
1998    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2001        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2002        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2003        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2004        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2005
2006    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2007        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2008
2009    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2010        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2011            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2012        else:
2013            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2014            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2015
2016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2017
2018    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2019        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2020        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2022        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2023
2024    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2025        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2026
2027    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2028        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2029        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2031
2032    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2034
2035    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2038        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2039
2040    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2041        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2042
2043    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2044        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2045
2046    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2047        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2048
2049    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2050        if not self.pretty:
2051            return self.binary(expression, op)
2052
2053        sqls = tuple(
2054            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2055            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2056        )
2057
2058        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2059        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2060
2061    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2062        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2063
2064    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2065        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2066
2067    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2068        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2069
2070    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2071        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2072
2073    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2074        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2075
2076    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2077        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2078
2079    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2080        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2081        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2082        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2083
2084    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2085        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2087
2088    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2089        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2090
2091    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2092        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2093
2094    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2097        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2098        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2099        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2100
2101    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2103        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2104        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2105        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2106        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2107        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2108        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2109        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2110        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2111
2112    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2113        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2114        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2115        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2116        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2117
2118        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2119            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2120
2121        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2122
2123    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2124        return "BEGIN"
2125
2126    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2127        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2128        if chain is not None:
2129            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2130
2131        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2132
2133    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2134        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2135        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2136        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2137
2138    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2140
2141        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2142        if dtype:
2143            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2144            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2145            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2146            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2147            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2148
2149        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2150        if default:
2151            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2152
2153        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2154            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2155
2156        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2157
2158    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2159        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2160            # Remove db from tables
2161            expression = expression.transform(
2162                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2163            )
2164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2165        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2166
2167    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2168        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2169
2170        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2171            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2172        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2173            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2174        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2175            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2176        else:
2177            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2178
2179        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2180        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2181
2182    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2183        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2184        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2185        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2186
2187    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2190        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2191
2192        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2193        if enforced is not None:
2194            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2195
2196        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2197
2198    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2199        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2200        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2201
2202        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2203        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2204        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2205
2206    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2207        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2208
2209    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2210        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2211
2212    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2213        return self.sql(
2214            exp.Cast(
2215                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2216                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2217            )
2218        )
2219
2220    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2221        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2222
2223    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2224        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2225            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2226        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2227
2228    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2230
2231    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2232        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2233
2234    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2235        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2236
2237    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2238        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2239
2240    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2241        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2242
2243    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2244        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2245
2246    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2247        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2248
2249    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2250        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2251
2252    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2253        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2254
2255    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2256        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2257
2258    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2259        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2260
2261    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2262        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2263            return self.sql(
2264                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2265            )
2266        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2267
2268    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2269        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2270
2271    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2272        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2273
2274    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2276
2277    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2279
2280    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2282
2283    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2284        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2285
2286    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2287        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2288
2289    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2291
2292    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2294
2295    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2296        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2297
2298    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2299        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2300
2301    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2302        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2303
2304    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2305        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2306
2307    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2308        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2309
2310    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2311        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2312        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2314        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2315        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2316
2317    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2318        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2319        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2320
2321    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2322        args = []
2323
2324        for key in expression.arg_types:
2325            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2326
2327            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2328                for value in arg_value:
2329                    args.append(value)
2330            elif arg_value is not None:
2331                args.append(arg_value)
2332
2333        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2334
2335    def func(
2336        self,
2337        name: str,
2338        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2339        prefix: str = "(",
2340        suffix: str = ")",
2341    ) -> str:
2342        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2343
2344    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2345        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2346        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2347            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2348        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2349
2350    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2351        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2352
2353    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2354        return format_time(
2355            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2356        )
2357
2358    def expressions(
2359        self,
2360        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2361        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2362        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2363        flat: bool = False,
2364        indent: bool = True,
2365        skip_first: bool = False,
2366        sep: str = ", ",
2367        prefix: str = "",
2368    ) -> str:
2369        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2370
2371        if not expressions:
2372            return ""
2373
2374        if flat:
2375            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2376
2377        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2378
2379        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2380        pad = " " * self.pad
2381        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2382
2383        result_sqls = []
2384        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2385            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2386            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2387
2388            if self.pretty:
2389                if self.leading_comma:
2390                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2391                else:
2392                    result_sqls.append(
2393                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2394                    )
2395            else:
2396                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2397
2398        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2399        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2400
2401    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2402        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2403        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2404        if flat:
2405            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2406        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2407
2408    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2409        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2410        if not property_name:
2411            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2412        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2413
2414    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2416        op = self.seg(op)
2417        return self.query_modifiers(
2418            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2419        )
2420
2421    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2422        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2423
2424    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2425        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2426
2427    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2428        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2429        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2430        expressions = (
2431            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2432        )
2433        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2434
2435    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2437        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2438        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2439
2440    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2441        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2442
2443    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2444        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2445        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2446        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2447        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2448
2449        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2450        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2451            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2452            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2453                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2454        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2455            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2456                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2457            else:
2458                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2459        else:
2460            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2461        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2462
2463    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2466        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2467        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2468
2469    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2470        if expression.args.get("format"):
2471            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2472
2473        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2474
2475    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2478        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2479        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2480        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2481
2482    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2485        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2486        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2487
2488    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2489        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2490
2491    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2492        return ""
2493
2494    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2495        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2496        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2497        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2498        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2499        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2500
2501    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2503        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2504
2505        if having:
2506            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2507
2508        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2509
2510
2511def cached_generator(
2512    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2513) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2514    """Returns a cached generator."""
2515    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2516    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2517    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)