Adding upstream version 13.4.upstream/13.4upstream

Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>

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+<!-- doc/src/sgml/ltree.sgml -->
+
+<sect1 id="ltree" xreflabel="ltree">
+ <title>ltree</title>
+
+ <indexterm zone="ltree">
+  <primary>ltree</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+  This module implements a data type <type>ltree</type> for representing
+  labels of data stored in a hierarchical tree-like structure.
+  Extensive facilities for searching through label trees are provided.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+  This module is considered <quote>trusted</quote>, that is, it can be
+  installed by non-superusers who have <literal>CREATE</literal> privilege
+  on the current database.
+ </para>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Definitions</title>
+
+  <para>
+   A <firstterm>label</firstterm> is a sequence of alphanumeric characters
+   and underscores (for example, in C locale the characters
+   <literal>A-Za-z0-9_</literal> are allowed).
+   Labels must be less than 256 characters long.
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   Examples: <literal>42</literal>, <literal>Personal_Services</literal>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   A <firstterm>label path</firstterm> is a sequence of zero or more
+   labels separated by dots, for example <literal>L1.L2.L3</literal>, representing
+   a path from the root of a hierarchical tree to a particular node.  The
+   length of a label path cannot exceed 65535 labels.
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   Example: <literal>Top.Countries.Europe.Russia</literal>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   The <filename>ltree</filename> module provides several data types:
+  </para>
+
+  <itemizedlist>
+   <listitem>
+    <para>
+     <type>ltree</type> stores a label path.
+    </para>
+   </listitem>
+
+   <listitem>
+    <para>
+     <type>lquery</type> represents a regular-expression-like pattern
+     for matching <type>ltree</type> values.  A simple word matches that
+     label within a path.  A star symbol (<literal>*</literal>) matches zero
+     or more labels.  These can be joined with dots to form a pattern that
+     must match the whole label path.  For example:
+<synopsis>
+foo         <lineannotation>Match the exact label path <literal>foo</literal></lineannotation>
+*.foo.*     <lineannotation>Match any label path containing the label <literal>foo</literal></lineannotation>
+*.foo       <lineannotation>Match any label path whose last label is <literal>foo</literal></lineannotation>
+</synopsis>
+    </para>
+
+    <para>
+     Both star symbols and simple words can be quantified to restrict how many
+     labels they can match:
+<synopsis>
+*{<replaceable>n</replaceable>}        <lineannotation>Match exactly <replaceable>n</replaceable> labels</lineannotation>
+*{<replaceable>n</replaceable>,}       <lineannotation>Match at least <replaceable>n</replaceable> labels</lineannotation>
+*{<replaceable>n</replaceable>,<replaceable>m</replaceable>}      <lineannotation>Match at least <replaceable>n</replaceable> but not more than <replaceable>m</replaceable> labels</lineannotation>
+*{,<replaceable>m</replaceable>}       <lineannotation>Match at most <replaceable>m</replaceable> labels &mdash; same as </lineannotation>*{0,<replaceable>m</replaceable>}
+foo{<replaceable>n</replaceable>,<replaceable>m</replaceable>}    <lineannotation>Match at least <replaceable>n</replaceable> but not more than <replaceable>m</replaceable> occurrences of <literal>foo</literal></lineannotation>
+foo{,}      <lineannotation>Match any number of occurrences of <literal>foo</literal>, including zero</lineannotation>
+</synopsis>
+     In the absence of any explicit quantifier, the default for a star symbol
+     is to match any number of labels (that is, <literal>{,}</literal>) while
+     the default for a non-star item is to match exactly once (that
+     is, <literal>{1}</literal>).
+    </para>
+
+    <para>
+     There are several modifiers that can be put at the end of a non-star
+     <type>lquery</type> item to make it match more than just the exact match:
+<synopsis>
+@           <lineannotation>Match case-insensitively, for example <literal>a@</literal> matches <literal>A</literal></lineannotation>
+*           <lineannotation>Match any label with this prefix, for example <literal>foo*</literal> matches <literal>foobar</literal></lineannotation>
+%           <lineannotation>Match initial underscore-separated words</lineannotation>
+</synopsis>
+     The behavior of <literal>%</literal> is a bit complicated.  It tries to match
+     words rather than the entire label.  For example
+     <literal>foo_bar%</literal> matches <literal>foo_bar_baz</literal> but not
+     <literal>foo_barbaz</literal>.  If combined with <literal>*</literal>, prefix
+     matching applies to each word separately, for example
+     <literal>foo_bar%*</literal> matches <literal>foo1_bar2_baz</literal> but
+     not <literal>foo1_br2_baz</literal>.
+    </para>
+
+    <para>
+     Also, you can write several possibly-modified non-star items separated with
+     <literal>|</literal> (OR) to match any of those items, and you can put
+     <literal>!</literal> (NOT) at the start of a non-star group to match any
+     label that doesn't match any of the alternatives.  A quantifier, if any,
+     goes at the end of the group; it means some number of matches for the
+     group as a whole (that is, some number of labels matching or not matching
+     any of the alternatives).
+    </para>
+
+    <para>
+     Here's an annotated example of <type>lquery</type>:
+<programlisting>
+Top.*{0,2}.sport*@.!football|tennis{1,}.Russ*|Spain
+a.  b.     c.      d.                   e.
+</programlisting>
+     This query will match any label path that:
+    </para>
+    <orderedlist numeration="loweralpha">
+     <listitem>
+      <para>
+       begins with the label <literal>Top</literal>
+      </para>
+     </listitem>
+     <listitem>
+      <para>
+       and next has zero to two labels before
+      </para>
+     </listitem>
+     <listitem>
+      <para>
+       a label beginning with the case-insensitive prefix <literal>sport</literal>
+      </para>
+     </listitem>
+     <listitem>
+      <para>
+       then has one or more labels, none of which
+       match <literal>football</literal> nor <literal>tennis</literal>
+      </para>
+     </listitem>
+     <listitem>
+      <para>
+       and then ends with a label beginning with <literal>Russ</literal> or
+       exactly matching <literal>Spain</literal>.
+      </para>
+     </listitem>
+    </orderedlist>
+   </listitem>
+
+   <listitem>
+    <para><type>ltxtquery</type> represents a full-text-search-like
+    pattern for matching <type>ltree</type> values.  An
+    <type>ltxtquery</type> value contains words, possibly with the
+    modifiers <literal>@</literal>, <literal>*</literal>, <literal>%</literal> at the end;
+    the modifiers have the same meanings as in <type>lquery</type>.
+    Words can be combined with <literal>&amp;</literal> (AND),
+    <literal>|</literal> (OR), <literal>!</literal> (NOT), and parentheses.
+    The key difference from
+    <type>lquery</type> is that <type>ltxtquery</type> matches words without
+    regard to their position in the label path.
+    </para>
+
+    <para>
+     Here's an example <type>ltxtquery</type>:
+<programlisting>
+Europe &amp; Russia*@ &amp; !Transportation
+</programlisting>
+     This will match paths that contain the label <literal>Europe</literal> and
+     any label beginning with <literal>Russia</literal> (case-insensitive),
+     but not paths containing the label <literal>Transportation</literal>.
+     The location of these words within the path is not important.
+     Also, when <literal>%</literal> is used, the word can be matched to any
+     underscore-separated word within a label, regardless of position.
+    </para>
+   </listitem>
+
+  </itemizedlist>
+
+  <para>
+   Note: <type>ltxtquery</type> allows whitespace between symbols, but
+   <type>ltree</type> and <type>lquery</type> do not.
+  </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Operators and Functions</title>
+
+  <para>
+   Type <type>ltree</type> has the usual comparison operators
+   <literal>=</literal>, <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal>,
+   <literal>&lt;</literal>, <literal>&gt;</literal>, <literal>&lt;=</literal>, <literal>&gt;=</literal>.
+   Comparison sorts in the order of a tree traversal, with the children
+   of a node sorted by label text.  In addition, the specialized
+   operators shown in <xref linkend="ltree-op-table"/> are available.
+  </para>
+
+  <table id="ltree-op-table">
+   <title><type>ltree</type> Operators</title>
+    <tgroup cols="1">
+     <thead>
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        Operator
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Description
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+     </thead>
+
+     <tbody>
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>@&gt;</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Is left argument an ancestor of right (or equal)?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>&lt;@</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Is left argument a descendant of right (or equal)?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>lquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>lquery</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does <type>ltree</type> match <type>lquery</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>?</literal> <type>lquery[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>lquery[]</type> <literal>?</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does <type>ltree</type> match any <type>lquery</type> in array?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>@</literal> <type>ltxtquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltxtquery</type> <literal>@</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does <type>ltree</type> match <type>ltxtquery</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Concatenates <type>ltree</type> paths.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>text</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>text</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Converts text to <type>ltree</type> and concatenates.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>@&gt;</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>&lt;@</literal> <type>ltree[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does array contain an ancestor of <type>ltree</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>&lt;@</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree</type> <literal>@&gt;</literal> <type>ltree[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does array contain a descendant of <type>ltree</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>lquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>lquery</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>ltree[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does array contain any path matching <type>lquery</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>?</literal> <type>lquery[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>lquery[]</type> <literal>?</literal> <type>ltree[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does <type>ltree</type> array contain any path matching
+        any <type>lquery</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>@</literal> <type>ltxtquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltxtquery</type> <literal>@</literal> <type>ltree[]</type>
+        <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Does array contain any path matching <type>ltxtquery</type>?
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>?@&gt;</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns first array entry that is an ancestor of <type>ltree</type>,
+        or <literal>NULL</literal> if none.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>?&lt;@</literal> <type>ltree</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns first array entry that is a descendant of <type>ltree</type>,
+        or <literal>NULL</literal> if none.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>?~</literal> <type>lquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns first array entry that matches <type>lquery</type>,
+        or <literal>NULL</literal> if none.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <type>ltree[]</type> <literal>?@</literal> <type>ltxtquery</type>
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns first array entry that matches <type>ltxtquery</type>,
+        or <literal>NULL</literal> if none.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+     </tbody>
+    </tgroup>
+  </table>
+
+  <para>
+   The operators <literal>&lt;@</literal>, <literal>@&gt;</literal>,
+   <literal>@</literal> and <literal>~</literal> have analogues
+   <literal>^&lt;@</literal>, <literal>^@&gt;</literal>, <literal>^@</literal>,
+   <literal>^~</literal>, which are the same except they do not use
+   indexes.  These are useful only for testing purposes.
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   The available functions are shown in <xref linkend="ltree-func-table"/>.
+  </para>
+
+  <table id="ltree-func-table">
+   <title><type>ltree</type> Functions</title>
+    <tgroup cols="1">
+     <thead>
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        Function
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Description
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Example(s)
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+     </thead>
+
+     <tbody>
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>subltree</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>subltree</function> ( <type>ltree</type>, <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>end</parameter> <type>integer</type> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns subpath of <type>ltree</type> from
+        position <parameter>start</parameter> to
+        position <parameter>end</parameter>-1 (counting from 0).
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>subltree('Top.Child1.Child2', 1, 2)</literal>
+        <returnvalue>Child1</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>subpath</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>subpath</function> ( <type>ltree</type>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>len</parameter> <type>integer</type> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns subpath of <type>ltree</type> starting at
+        position <parameter>offset</parameter>, with
+        length <parameter>len</parameter>.  If <parameter>offset</parameter>
+        is negative, subpath starts that far from the end of the path.
+        If <parameter>len</parameter> is negative, leaves that many labels off
+        the end of the path.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>subpath('Top.Child1.Child2', 0, 2)</literal>
+        <returnvalue>Top.Child1</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <function>subpath</function> ( <type>ltree</type>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>integer</type> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns subpath of <type>ltree</type> starting at
+        position <parameter>offset</parameter>, extending to end of path.
+        If <parameter>offset</parameter> is negative, subpath starts that far
+        from the end of the path.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>subpath('Top.Child1.Child2', 1)</literal>
+        <returnvalue>Child1.Child2</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>nlevel</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>nlevel</function> ( <type>ltree</type> )
+        <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns number of labels in path.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>nlevel('Top.Child1.Child2')</literal>
+        <returnvalue>3</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>index</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>index</function> ( <parameter>a</parameter> <type>ltree</type>, <parameter>b</parameter> <type>ltree</type> )
+        <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns position of first occurrence of <parameter>b</parameter> in
+        <parameter>a</parameter>, or -1 if not found.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>index('0.1.2.3.5.4.5.6.8.5.6.8', '5.6')</literal>
+        <returnvalue>6</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <function>index</function> ( <parameter>a</parameter> <type>ltree</type>,  <parameter>b</parameter> <type>ltree</type>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>integer</type> )
+        <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Returns position of first occurrence of <parameter>b</parameter>
+        in <parameter>a</parameter>, or -1 if not found.  The search starts at
+        position <parameter>offset</parameter>;
+        negative <parameter>offset</parameter> means
+        start <parameter>-offset</parameter> labels from the end of the path.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>index('0.1.2.3.5.4.5.6.8.5.6.8', '5.6', -4)</literal>
+        <returnvalue>9</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>text2ltree</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>text2ltree</function> ( <type>text</type> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Casts <type>text</type> to <type>ltree</type>.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>ltree2text</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>ltree2text</function> ( <type>ltree</type> )
+        <returnvalue>text</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Casts <type>ltree</type> to <type>text</type>.
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <indexterm><primary>lca</primary></indexterm>
+        <function>lca</function> ( <type>ltree</type> <optional>, <type>ltree</type> <optional>, ... </optional></optional> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Computes longest common ancestor of paths
+        (up to 8 arguments are supported).
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>lca('1.2.3', '1.2.3.4.5.6')</literal>
+        <returnvalue>1.2</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+
+      <row>
+       <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature">
+        <function>lca</function> ( <type>ltree[]</type> )
+        <returnvalue>ltree</returnvalue>
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        Computes longest common ancestor of paths in array.
+       </para>
+       <para>
+        <literal>lca(array['1.2.3'::ltree,'1.2.3.4'])</literal>
+        <returnvalue>1.2</returnvalue>
+       </para></entry>
+      </row>
+     </tbody>
+    </tgroup>
+  </table>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Indexes</title>
+  <para>
+   <filename>ltree</filename> supports several types of indexes that can speed
+   up the indicated operators:
+  </para>
+
+  <itemizedlist>
+   <listitem>
+    <para>
+     B-tree index over <type>ltree</type>:
+     <literal>&lt;</literal>, <literal>&lt;=</literal>, <literal>=</literal>,
+     <literal>&gt;=</literal>, <literal>&gt;</literal>
+    </para>
+   </listitem>
+   <listitem>
+    <para>
+     GiST index over <type>ltree</type> (<literal>gist_ltree_ops</literal>
+     opclass):
+     <literal>&lt;</literal>, <literal>&lt;=</literal>, <literal>=</literal>,
+     <literal>&gt;=</literal>, <literal>&gt;</literal>,
+     <literal>@&gt;</literal>, <literal>&lt;@</literal>,
+     <literal>@</literal>, <literal>~</literal>, <literal>?</literal>
+    </para>
+    <para>
+     <literal>gist_ltree_ops</literal> GiST opclass approximates a set of
+     path labels as a bitmap signature.  Its optional integer parameter
+     <literal>siglen</literal> determines the
+     signature length in bytes.  The default signature length is 8 bytes.
+     Valid values of signature length are between 1 and 2024 bytes.  Longer
+     signatures lead to a more precise search (scanning a smaller fraction of the index and
+     fewer heap pages), at the cost of a larger index.
+    </para>
+    <para>
+     Example of creating such an index with the default signature length of 8 bytes:
+    </para>
+<programlisting>
+CREATE INDEX path_gist_idx ON test USING GIST (path);
+</programlisting>
+    <para>
+     Example of creating such an index with a signature length of 100 bytes:
+    </para>
+<programlisting>
+CREATE INDEX path_gist_idx ON test USING GIST (path gist_ltree_ops(siglen=100));
+</programlisting>
+   </listitem>
+   <listitem>
+    <para>
+     GiST index over <type>ltree[]</type> (<literal>gist__ltree_ops</literal>
+     opclass):
+     <literal>ltree[] &lt;@ ltree</literal>, <literal>ltree @&gt; ltree[]</literal>,
+     <literal>@</literal>, <literal>~</literal>, <literal>?</literal>
+    </para>
+    <para>
+     <literal>gist__ltree_ops</literal> GiST opclass works similarly to
+     <literal>gist_ltree_ops</literal> and also takes signature length as
+     a parameter.  The default value of <literal>siglen</literal> in
+      <literal>gist__ltree_ops</literal> is 28 bytes.
+    </para>
+    <para>
+     Example of creating such an index with the default signature length of 28 bytes:
+    </para>
+<programlisting>
+CREATE INDEX path_gist_idx ON test USING GIST (array_path);
+</programlisting>
+    <para>
+     Example of creating such an index with a signature length of 100 bytes:
+    </para>
+<programlisting>
+CREATE INDEX path_gist_idx ON test USING GIST (array_path gist__ltree_ops(siglen=100));
+</programlisting>
+    <para>
+     Note: This index type is lossy.
+    </para>
+   </listitem>
+  </itemizedlist>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Example</title>
+
+  <para>
+   This example uses the following data (also available in file
+   <filename>contrib/ltree/ltreetest.sql</filename> in the source distribution):
+  </para>
+
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE test (path ltree);
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Science');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Science.Astronomy');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Hobbies');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Hobbies.Amateurs_Astronomy');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections.Pictures');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Stars');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Galaxies');
+INSERT INTO test VALUES ('Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Astronauts');
+CREATE INDEX path_gist_idx ON test USING GIST (path);
+CREATE INDEX path_idx ON test USING BTREE (path);
+</programlisting>
+
+  <para>
+   Now, we have a table <structname>test</structname> populated with data describing
+   the hierarchy shown below:
+  </para>
+
+<literallayout class="monospaced">
+                        Top
+                     /   |  \
+             Science Hobbies Collections
+                 /       |              \
+        Astronomy   Amateurs_Astronomy Pictures
+           /  \                            |
+Astrophysics  Cosmology                Astronomy
+                                        /  |    \
+                                 Galaxies Stars Astronauts
+</literallayout>
+
+  <para>
+   We can do inheritance:
+<screen>
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT path FROM test WHERE path &lt;@ 'Top.Science';
+                path
+------------------------------------
+ Top.Science
+ Top.Science.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology
+(4 rows)
+</screen>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   Here are some examples of path matching:
+<screen>
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT path FROM test WHERE path ~ '*.Astronomy.*';
+                     path
+-----------------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology
+ Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy
+ Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Stars
+ Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Galaxies
+ Top.Collections.Pictures.Astronomy.Astronauts
+(7 rows)
+
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT path FROM test WHERE path ~ '*.!pictures@.Astronomy.*';
+                path
+------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology
+(3 rows)
+</screen>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   Here are some examples of full text search:
+<screen>
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT path FROM test WHERE path @ 'Astro*% &amp; !pictures@';
+                path
+------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology
+ Top.Hobbies.Amateurs_Astronomy
+(4 rows)
+
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT path FROM test WHERE path @ 'Astro* &amp; !pictures@';
+                path
+------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Astronomy.Cosmology
+(3 rows)
+</screen>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   Path construction using functions:
+<screen>
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT subpath(path,0,2)||'Space'||subpath(path,2) FROM test WHERE path &lt;@ 'Top.Science.Astronomy';
+                 ?column?
+------------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy.Cosmology
+(3 rows)
+</screen>
+  </para>
+
+  <para>
+   We could simplify this by creating a SQL function that inserts a label
+   at a specified position in a path:
+<screen>
+CREATE FUNCTION ins_label(ltree, int, text) RETURNS ltree
+    AS 'select subpath($1,0,$2) || $3 || subpath($1,$2);'
+    LANGUAGE SQL IMMUTABLE;
+
+ltreetest=&gt; SELECT ins_label(path,2,'Space') FROM test WHERE path &lt;@ 'Top.Science.Astronomy';
+                ins_label
+------------------------------------------
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy.Astrophysics
+ Top.Science.Space.Astronomy.Cosmology
+(3 rows)
+</screen>
+  </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Transforms</title>
+
+  <para>
+   Additional extensions are available that implement transforms for
+   the <type>ltree</type> type for PL/Python.  The extensions are
+   called <literal>ltree_plpythonu</literal>, <literal>ltree_plpython2u</literal>,
+   and <literal>ltree_plpython3u</literal>
+   (see <xref linkend="plpython-python23"/> for the PL/Python naming
+   convention).  If you install these transforms and specify them when
+   creating a function, <type>ltree</type> values are mapped to Python lists.
+   (The reverse is currently not supported, however.)
+  </para>
+
+  <caution>
+   <para>
+    It is strongly recommended that the transform extensions be installed in
+    the same schema as <filename>ltree</filename>.  Otherwise there are
+    installation-time security hazards if a transform extension's schema
+    contains objects defined by a hostile user.
+   </para>
+  </caution>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+  <title>Authors</title>
+
+  <para>
+   All work was done by Teodor Sigaev (<email>teodor@stack.net</email>) and
+   Oleg Bartunov (<email>oleg@sai.msu.su</email>). See
+   <ulink url="http://www.sai.msu.su/~megera/postgres/gist/"></ulink> for
+   additional information. Authors would like to thank Eugeny Rodichev for
+   helpful discussions. Comments and bug reports are welcome.
+  </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+</sect1>