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| author | Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org> | 2024-05-04 12:15:05 +0000 |
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| committer | Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org> | 2024-05-04 12:15:05 +0000 |
| commit | 46651ce6fe013220ed397add242004d764fc0153 (patch) | |
| tree | 6e5299f990f88e60174a1d3ae6e48eedd2688b2b /doc/src/sgml/func.sgml | |
| parent | Initial commit. (diff) | |
| download | postgresql-14-upstream.tar.xz postgresql-14-upstream.zip | |
Adding upstream version 14.5.upstream/14.5upstream
Signed-off-by: Daniel Baumann <daniel.baumann@progress-linux.org>
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diff --git a/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml b/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac8b7e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml @@ -0,0 +1,27890 @@ +<!-- doc/src/sgml/func.sgml --> + + <chapter id="functions"> + <title>Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions"> + <primary>function</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm zone="functions"> + <primary>operator</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a large number of + functions and operators for the built-in data types. This chapter + describes most of them, although additional special-purpose functions + appear in relevant sections of the manual. Users can also + define their own functions and operators, as described in + <xref linkend="server-programming"/>. The + <application>psql</application> commands <command>\df</command> and + <command>\do</command> can be used to list all + available functions and operators, respectively. + </para> + + <para> + The notation used throughout this chapter to describe the argument and + result data types of a function or operator is like this: +<synopsis> +<function>repeat</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>integer</type> ) <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + which says that the function <function>repeat</function> takes one text and + one integer argument and returns a result of type text. The right arrow + is also used to indicate the result of an example, thus: +<programlisting> +repeat('Pg', 4) <returnvalue>PgPgPgPg</returnvalue> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + If you are concerned about portability then note that most of + the functions and operators described in this chapter, with the + exception of the most trivial arithmetic and comparison operators + and some explicitly marked functions, are not specified by the + <acronym>SQL</acronym> standard. Some of this extended functionality + is present in other <acronym>SQL</acronym> database management + systems, and in many cases this functionality is compatible and + consistent between the various implementations. + </para> + + + <sect1 id="functions-logical"> + <title>Logical Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-logical"> + <primary>operator</primary> + <secondary>logical</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>Boolean</primary> + <secondary>operators</secondary> + <see>operators, logical</see> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The usual logical operators are available: + + <indexterm> + <primary>AND (operator)</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>OR (operator)</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>NOT (operator)</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>conjunction</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>disjunction</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>negation</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<type>boolean</type> <literal>AND</literal> <type>boolean</type> <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +<type>boolean</type> <literal>OR</literal> <type>boolean</type> <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +<literal>NOT</literal> <type>boolean</type> <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <acronym>SQL</acronym> uses a three-valued logic system with true, + false, and <literal>null</literal>, which represents <quote>unknown</quote>. + Observe the following truth tables: + + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols="4"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry> + <entry><replaceable>b</replaceable></entry> + <entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> AND <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry> + <entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> OR <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry> + <entry>NOT <replaceable>a</replaceable></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>FALSE</entry> + <entry>TRUE</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry>NULL</entry> + <entry>NULL</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + </para> + + <para> + The operators <literal>AND</literal> and <literal>OR</literal> are + commutative, that is, you can switch the left and right operands + without affecting the result. (However, it is not guaranteed that + the left operand is evaluated before the right operand. See <xref + linkend="syntax-express-eval"/> for more information about the + order of evaluation of subexpressions.) + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-comparison"> + <title>Comparison Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-comparison"> + <primary>comparison</primary> + <secondary>operators</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The usual comparison operators are available, as shown in <xref + linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-comparison-op-table"> + <title>Comparison Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Operator</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal><</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Less than</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>></literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Greater than</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal><=</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Less than or equal to</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>>=</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Greater than or equal to</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>=</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Equal</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal><></literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Not equal</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>!=</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </entry> + <entry>Not equal</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + <literal><></literal> is the standard SQL notation for <quote>not + equal</quote>. <literal>!=</literal> is an alias, which is converted + to <literal><></literal> at a very early stage of parsing. + Hence, it is not possible to implement <literal>!=</literal> + and <literal><></literal> operators that do different things. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + These comparison operators are available for all built-in data types + that have a natural ordering, including numeric, string, and date/time + types. In addition, arrays, composite types, and ranges can be compared + if their component data types are comparable. + </para> + + <para> + It is usually possible to compare values of related data + types as well; for example <type>integer</type> <literal>></literal> + <type>bigint</type> will work. Some cases of this sort are implemented + directly by <quote>cross-type</quote> comparison operators, but if no + such operator is available, the parser will coerce the less-general type + to the more-general type and apply the latter's comparison operator. + </para> + + <para> + As shown above, all comparison operators are binary operators that + return values of type <type>boolean</type>. Thus, expressions like + <literal>1 < 2 < 3</literal> are not valid (because there is + no <literal><</literal> operator to compare a Boolean value with + <literal>3</literal>). Use the <literal>BETWEEN</literal> predicates + shown below to perform range tests. + </para> + + <para> + There are also some comparison predicates, as shown in <xref + linkend="functions-comparison-pred-table"/>. These behave much like + operators, but have special syntax mandated by the SQL standard. + </para> + + <table id="functions-comparison-pred-table"> + <title>Comparison Predicates</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Predicate + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>BETWEEN</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>AND</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Between (inclusive of the range endpoints). + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 BETWEEN 1 AND 3</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 BETWEEN 3 AND 1</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>NOT BETWEEN</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>AND</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Not between (the negation of <literal>BETWEEN</literal>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 NOT BETWEEN 1 AND 3</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>BETWEEN SYMMETRIC</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>AND</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Between, after sorting the two endpoint values. + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 BETWEEN SYMMETRIC 3 AND 1</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>NOT BETWEEN SYMMETRIC</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>AND</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Not between, after sorting the two endpoint values. + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 NOT BETWEEN SYMMETRIC 3 AND 1</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>IS DISTINCT FROM</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Not equal, treating null as a comparable value. + </para> + <para> + <literal>1 IS DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL IS DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</literal> <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Equal, treating null as a comparable value. + </para> + <para> + <literal>1 IS NOT DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL IS NOT DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>IS NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether value is null. + </para> + <para> + <literal>1.5 IS NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>IS NOT NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether value is not null. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'null' IS NOT NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>ISNULL</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether value is null (nonstandard syntax). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>datatype</replaceable> <literal>NOTNULL</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether value is not null (nonstandard syntax). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields true. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS NOT TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields false or unknown. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS NOT TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS NOT TRUE</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields false. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS NOT FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields true or unknown. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS NOT FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS NOT FALSE</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields unknown. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>boolean</type> <literal>IS NOT UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test whether boolean expression yields true or false. + </para> + <para> + <literal>true IS NOT UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>NULL::boolean IS NOT UNKNOWN</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> (rather than <literal>NULL</literal>) + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>BETWEEN</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>BETWEEN SYMMETRIC</primary> + </indexterm> + The <token>BETWEEN</token> predicate simplifies range tests: +<synopsis> +<replaceable>a</replaceable> BETWEEN <replaceable>x</replaceable> AND <replaceable>y</replaceable> +</synopsis> + is equivalent to +<synopsis> +<replaceable>a</replaceable> >= <replaceable>x</replaceable> AND <replaceable>a</replaceable> <= <replaceable>y</replaceable> +</synopsis> + Notice that <token>BETWEEN</token> treats the endpoint values as included + in the range. + <literal>BETWEEN SYMMETRIC</literal> is like <literal>BETWEEN</literal> + except there is no requirement that the argument to the left of + <literal>AND</literal> be less than or equal to the argument on the right. + If it is not, those two arguments are automatically swapped, so that + a nonempty range is always implied. + </para> + + <para> + The various variants of <literal>BETWEEN</literal> are implemented in + terms of the ordinary comparison operators, and therefore will work for + any data type(s) that can be compared. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + The use of <literal>AND</literal> in the <literal>BETWEEN</literal> + syntax creates an ambiguity with the use of <literal>AND</literal> as a + logical operator. To resolve this, only a limited set of expression + types are allowed as the second argument of a <literal>BETWEEN</literal> + clause. If you need to write a more complex sub-expression + in <literal>BETWEEN</literal>, write parentheses around the + sub-expression. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS DISTINCT FROM</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</primary> + </indexterm> + Ordinary comparison operators yield null (signifying <quote>unknown</quote>), + not true or false, when either input is null. For example, + <literal>7 = NULL</literal> yields null, as does <literal>7 <> NULL</literal>. When + this behavior is not suitable, use the + <literal>IS <optional> NOT </optional> DISTINCT FROM</literal> predicates: +<synopsis> +<replaceable>a</replaceable> IS DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>b</replaceable> +<replaceable>a</replaceable> IS NOT DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>b</replaceable> +</synopsis> + For non-null inputs, <literal>IS DISTINCT FROM</literal> is + the same as the <literal><></literal> operator. However, if both + inputs are null it returns false, and if only one input is + null it returns true. Similarly, <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT + FROM</literal> is identical to <literal>=</literal> for non-null + inputs, but it returns true when both inputs are null, and false when only + one input is null. Thus, these predicates effectively act as though null + were a normal data value, rather than <quote>unknown</quote>. + </para> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NULL</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT NULL</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>ISNULL</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>NOTNULL</primary> + </indexterm> + To check whether a value is or is not null, use the predicates: +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NULL +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT NULL +</synopsis> + or the equivalent, but nonstandard, predicates: +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> ISNULL +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOTNULL +</synopsis> + <indexterm><primary>null value</primary><secondary>comparing</secondary></indexterm> + </para> + + <para> + Do <emphasis>not</emphasis> write + <literal><replaceable>expression</replaceable> = NULL</literal> + because <literal>NULL</literal> is not <quote>equal to</quote> + <literal>NULL</literal>. (The null value represents an unknown value, + and it is not known whether two unknown values are equal.) + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + Some applications might expect that + <literal><replaceable>expression</replaceable> = NULL</literal> + returns true if <replaceable>expression</replaceable> evaluates to + the null value. It is highly recommended that these applications + be modified to comply with the SQL standard. However, if that + cannot be done the <xref linkend="guc-transform-null-equals"/> + configuration variable is available. If it is enabled, + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will convert <literal>x = + NULL</literal> clauses to <literal>x IS NULL</literal>. + </para> + </tip> + + <para> + If the <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is row-valued, then + <literal>IS NULL</literal> is true when the row expression itself is null + or when all the row's fields are null, while + <literal>IS NOT NULL</literal> is true when the row expression itself is non-null + and all the row's fields are non-null. Because of this behavior, + <literal>IS NULL</literal> and <literal>IS NOT NULL</literal> do not always return + inverse results for row-valued expressions; in particular, a row-valued + expression that contains both null and non-null fields will return false + for both tests. In some cases, it may be preferable to + write <replaceable>row</replaceable> <literal>IS DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal> + or <replaceable>row</replaceable> <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM NULL</literal>, + which will simply check whether the overall row value is null without any + additional tests on the row fields. + </para> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS TRUE</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT TRUE</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS FALSE</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT FALSE</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS UNKNOWN</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT UNKNOWN</primary> + </indexterm> + Boolean values can also be tested using the predicates +<synopsis> +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS TRUE +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS NOT TRUE +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS FALSE +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS NOT FALSE +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS UNKNOWN +<replaceable>boolean_expression</replaceable> IS NOT UNKNOWN +</synopsis> + These will always return true or false, never a null value, even when the + operand is null. + A null input is treated as the logical value <quote>unknown</quote>. + Notice that <literal>IS UNKNOWN</literal> and <literal>IS NOT UNKNOWN</literal> are + effectively the same as <literal>IS NULL</literal> and + <literal>IS NOT NULL</literal>, respectively, except that the input + expression must be of Boolean type. + </para> + + <para> + Some comparison-related functions are also available, as shown in <xref + linkend="functions-comparison-func-table"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-comparison-func-table"> + <title>Comparison Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>num_nonnulls</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>num_nonnulls</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of non-null arguments. + </para> + <para> + <literal>num_nonnulls(1, NULL, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>num_nulls</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>num_nulls</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of null arguments. + </para> + <para> + <literal>num_nulls(1, NULL, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-math"> + <title>Mathematical Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + Mathematical operators are provided for many + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> types. For types without + standard mathematical conventions + (e.g., date/time types) we + describe the actual behavior in subsequent sections. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-math-op-table"/> shows the mathematical + operators that are available for the standard numeric types. + Unless otherwise noted, operators shown as + accepting <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> are available for all + the types <type>smallint</type>, <type>integer</type>, + <type>bigint</type>, <type>numeric</type>, <type>real</type>, + and <type>double precision</type>. + Operators shown as accepting <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> + are available for the types <type>smallint</type>, <type>integer</type>, + and <type>bigint</type>. + Except where noted, each form of an operator returns the same data type + as its argument(s). Calls involving multiple argument data types, such + as <type>integer</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>numeric</type>, + are resolved by using the type appearing later in these lists. + </para> + + <table id="functions-math-op-table"> + <title>Mathematical Operators</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> <literal>+</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Addition + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 + 3</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>+</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Unary plus (no operation) + </para> + <para> + <literal>+ 3.5</literal> + <returnvalue>3.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> <literal>-</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtraction + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 - 3</literal> + <returnvalue>-1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>-</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Negation + </para> + <para> + <literal>- (-4)</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> <literal>*</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Multiplication + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 * 3</literal> + <returnvalue>6</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> <literal>/</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Division (for integral types, division truncates the result towards + zero) + </para> + <para> + <literal>5.0 / 2</literal> + <returnvalue>2.5000000000000000</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>5 / 2</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>(-5) / 2</literal> + <returnvalue>-2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> <literal>%</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Modulo (remainder); available for <type>smallint</type>, + <type>integer</type>, <type>bigint</type>, and <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + <literal>5 % 4</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>numeric</type> <literal>^</literal> <type>numeric</type> + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>double precision</type> <literal>^</literal> <type>double precision</type> + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Exponentiation + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 ^ 3</literal> + <returnvalue>8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Unlike typical mathematical practice, multiple uses of + <literal>^</literal> will associate left to right by default: + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 ^ 3 ^ 3</literal> + <returnvalue>512</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>2 ^ (3 ^ 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>134217728</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>|/</literal> <type>double precision</type> + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Square root + </para> + <para> + <literal>|/ 25.0</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>||/</literal> <type>double precision</type> + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cube root + </para> + <para> + <literal>||/ 64.0</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>@</literal> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Absolute value + </para> + <para> + <literal>@ -5.0</literal> + <returnvalue>5.0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> <literal>&</literal> <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise AND + </para> + <para> + <literal>91 & 15</literal> + <returnvalue>11</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> <literal>|</literal> <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise OR + </para> + <para> + <literal>32 | 3</literal> + <returnvalue>35</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> <literal>#</literal> <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise exclusive OR + </para> + <para> + <literal>17 # 5</literal> + <returnvalue>20</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>~</literal> <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise NOT + </para> + <para> + <literal>~1</literal> + <returnvalue>-2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> <literal><<</literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise shift left + </para> + <para> + <literal>1 << 4</literal> + <returnvalue>16</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>integral_type</replaceable> <literal>>></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>integral_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise shift right + </para> + <para> + <literal>8 >> 2</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-math-func-table"/> shows the available + mathematical functions. + Many of these functions are provided in multiple forms with different + argument types. + Except where noted, any given form of a function returns the same + data type as its argument(s); cross-type cases are resolved in the + same way as explained above for operators. + The functions working with <type>double precision</type> data are mostly + implemented on top of the host system's C library; accuracy and behavior in + boundary cases can therefore vary depending on the host system. + </para> + + <table id="functions-math-func-table"> + <title>Mathematical Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>abs</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>abs</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Absolute value + </para> + <para> + <literal>abs(-17.4)</literal> + <returnvalue>17.4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cbrt</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cbrt</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cube root + </para> + <para> + <literal>cbrt(64.0)</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ceil</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ceil</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>ceil</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Nearest integer greater than or equal to argument + </para> + <para> + <literal>ceil(42.2)</literal> + <returnvalue>43</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>ceil(-42.8)</literal> + <returnvalue>-42</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ceiling</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ceiling</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>ceiling</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Nearest integer greater than or equal to argument (same + as <function>ceil</function>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>ceiling(95.3)</literal> + <returnvalue>96</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>degrees</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>degrees</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts radians to degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>degrees(0.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>28.64788975654116</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>div</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>div</function> ( <parameter>y</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, + <parameter>x</parameter> <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Integer quotient of <parameter>y</parameter>/<parameter>x</parameter> + (truncates towards zero) + </para> + <para> + <literal>div(9, 4)</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>exp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>exp</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>exp</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Exponential (<literal>e</literal> raised to the given power) + </para> + <para> + <literal>exp(1.0)</literal> + <returnvalue>2.7182818284590452</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm id="function-factorial"> + <primary>factorial</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>factorial</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Factorial + </para> + <para> + <literal>factorial(5)</literal> + <returnvalue>120</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>floor</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>floor</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>floor</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Nearest integer less than or equal to argument + </para> + <para> + <literal>floor(42.8)</literal> + <returnvalue>42</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>floor(-42.8)</literal> + <returnvalue>-43</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>gcd</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>gcd</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable>, <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Greatest common divisor (the largest positive number that divides both + inputs with no remainder); returns <literal>0</literal> if both inputs + are zero; available for <type>integer</type>, <type>bigint</type>, + and <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + <literal>gcd(1071, 462)</literal> + <returnvalue>21</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lcm</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lcm</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable>, <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Least common multiple (the smallest strictly positive number that is + an integral multiple of both inputs); returns <literal>0</literal> if + either input is zero; available for <type>integer</type>, + <type>bigint</type>, and <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + <literal>lcm(1071, 462)</literal> + <returnvalue>23562</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ln</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ln</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>ln</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Natural logarithm + </para> + <para> + <literal>ln(2.0)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.6931471805599453</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>log</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>log</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>log</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Base 10 logarithm + </para> + <para> + <literal>log(100)</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>log10</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>log10</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>log10</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Base 10 logarithm (same as <function>log</function>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>log10(1000)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>log</function> ( <parameter>b</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, + <parameter>x</parameter> <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Logarithm of <parameter>x</parameter> to base <parameter>b</parameter> + </para> + <para> + <literal>log(2.0, 64.0)</literal> + <returnvalue>6.0000000000000000</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>min_scale</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>min_scale</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Minimum scale (number of fractional decimal digits) needed + to represent the supplied value precisely + </para> + <para> + <literal>min_scale(8.4100)</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>mod</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>mod</function> ( <parameter>y</parameter> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable>, + <parameter>x</parameter> <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Remainder of <parameter>y</parameter>/<parameter>x</parameter>; + available for <type>smallint</type>, <type>integer</type>, + <type>bigint</type>, and <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + <literal>mod(9, 4)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pi</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pi</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Approximate value of <phrase role="symbol_font">π</phrase> + </para> + <para> + <literal>pi()</literal> + <returnvalue>3.141592653589793</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>power</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>power</function> ( <parameter>a</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, + <parameter>b</parameter> <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>power</function> ( <parameter>a</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, + <parameter>b</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <parameter>a</parameter> raised to the power of <parameter>b</parameter> + </para> + <para> + <literal>power(9, 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>729</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>radians</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>radians</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts degrees to radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>radians(45.0)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.7853981633974483</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>round</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>round</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>round</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Rounds to nearest integer. For <type>numeric</type>, ties are + broken by rounding away from zero. For <type>double precision</type>, + the tie-breaking behavior is platform dependent, but + <quote>round to nearest even</quote> is the most common rule. + </para> + <para> + <literal>round(42.4)</literal> + <returnvalue>42</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>round</function> ( <parameter>v</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>s</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Rounds <parameter>v</parameter> to <parameter>s</parameter> decimal + places. Ties are broken by rounding away from zero. + </para> + <para> + <literal>round(42.4382, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>42.44</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>scale</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>scale</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Scale of the argument (the number of decimal digits in the fractional part) + </para> + <para> + <literal>scale(8.4100)</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sign</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sign</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sign</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sign of the argument (-1, 0, or +1) + </para> + <para> + <literal>sign(-8.4)</literal> + <returnvalue>-1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sqrt</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sqrt</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sqrt</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Square root + </para> + <para> + <literal>sqrt(2)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.4142135623730951</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trim_scale</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trim_scale</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reduces the value's scale (number of fractional decimal digits) by + removing trailing zeroes + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim_scale(8.4100)</literal> + <returnvalue>8.41</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trunc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trunc</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>trunc</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Truncates to integer (towards zero) + </para> + <para> + <literal>trunc(42.8)</literal> + <returnvalue>42</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>trunc(-42.8)</literal> + <returnvalue>-42</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>trunc</function> ( <parameter>v</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>s</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Truncates <parameter>v</parameter> to <parameter>s</parameter> + decimal places + </para> + <para> + <literal>trunc(42.4382, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>42.43</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>width_bucket</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>width_bucket</function> ( <parameter>operand</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>low</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>high</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>width_bucket</function> ( <parameter>operand</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>low</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>high</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of the bucket in + which <parameter>operand</parameter> falls in a histogram + having <parameter>count</parameter> equal-width buckets spanning the + range <parameter>low</parameter> to <parameter>high</parameter>. + Returns <literal>0</literal> + or <literal><parameter>count</parameter>+1</literal> for an input + outside that range. + </para> + <para> + <literal>width_bucket(5.35, 0.024, 10.06, 5)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>width_bucket</function> ( <parameter>operand</parameter> <type>anycompatible</type>, <parameter>thresholds</parameter> <type>anycompatiblearray</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of the bucket in + which <parameter>operand</parameter> falls given an array listing the + lower bounds of the buckets. Returns <literal>0</literal> for an + input less than the first lower + bound. <parameter>operand</parameter> and the array elements can be + of any type having standard comparison operators. + The <parameter>thresholds</parameter> array <emphasis>must be + sorted</emphasis>, smallest first, or unexpected results will be + obtained. + </para> + <para> + <literal>width_bucket(now(), array['yesterday', 'today', 'tomorrow']::timestamptz[])</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-math-random-table"/> shows functions for + generating random numbers. + </para> + + <table id="functions-math-random-table"> + <title>Random Functions</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>random</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>random</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a random value in the range 0.0 <= x < 1.0 + </para> + <para> + <literal>random()</literal> + <returnvalue>0.897124072839091</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>setseed</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>setseed</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the seed for subsequent <literal>random()</literal> calls; + argument must be between -1.0 and 1.0, inclusive + </para> + <para> + <literal>setseed(0.12345)</literal> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The <function>random()</function> function uses a simple linear + congruential algorithm. It is fast but not suitable for cryptographic + applications; see the <xref linkend="pgcrypto"/> module for a more + secure alternative. + If <function>setseed()</function> is called, the series of results of + subsequent <function>random()</function> calls in the current session + can be repeated by re-issuing <function>setseed()</function> with the same + argument. + Without any prior <function>setseed()</function> call in the same + session, the first <function>random()</function> call obtains a seed + from a platform-dependent source of random bits. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-math-trig-table"/> shows the + available trigonometric functions. Each of these functions comes in + two variants, one that measures angles in radians and one that + measures angles in degrees. + </para> + + <table id="functions-math-trig-table"> + <title>Trigonometric Functions</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>acos</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>acos</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse cosine, result in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>acos(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>acosd</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>acosd</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse cosine, result in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>acosd(0.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>60</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>asin</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>asin</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse sine, result in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>asin(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.5707963267948966</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>asind</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>asind</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse sine, result in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>asind(0.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>30</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>atan</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>atan</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse tangent, result in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>atan(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.7853981633974483</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>atand</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>atand</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse tangent, result in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>atand(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>45</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>atan2</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>atan2</function> ( <parameter>y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, + <parameter>x</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse tangent of + <parameter>y</parameter>/<parameter>x</parameter>, + result in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>atan2(1, 0)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.5707963267948966</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>atan2d</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>atan2d</function> ( <parameter>y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, + <parameter>x</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse tangent of + <parameter>y</parameter>/<parameter>x</parameter>, + result in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>atan2d(1, 0)</literal> + <returnvalue>90</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cos</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cos</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cosine, argument in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>cos(0)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cosd</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cosd</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cosine, argument in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>cosd(60)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cot</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cotangent, argument in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>cot(0.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.830487721712452</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cotd</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cotd</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cotangent, argument in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>cotd(45)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sin</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sin</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sine, argument in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>sin(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.8414709848078965</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sind</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sind</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sine, argument in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>sind(30)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tan</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tan</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tangent, argument in radians + </para> + <para> + <literal>tan(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.5574077246549023</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tand</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tand</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tangent, argument in degrees + </para> + <para> + <literal>tand(45)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + Another way to work with angles measured in degrees is to use the unit + transformation functions <literal><function>radians()</function></literal> + and <literal><function>degrees()</function></literal> shown earlier. + However, using the degree-based trigonometric functions is preferred, + as that way avoids round-off error for special cases such + as <literal>sind(30)</literal>. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-math-hyp-table"/> shows the + available hyperbolic functions. + </para> + + <table id="functions-math-hyp-table"> + <title>Hyperbolic Functions</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sinh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sinh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Hyperbolic sine + </para> + <para> + <literal>sinh(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.1752011936438014</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cosh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cosh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Hyperbolic cosine + </para> + <para> + <literal>cosh(0)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tanh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tanh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Hyperbolic tangent + </para> + <para> + <literal>tanh(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.7615941559557649</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>asinh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>asinh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse hyperbolic sine + </para> + <para> + <literal>asinh(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.881373587019543</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>acosh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>acosh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse hyperbolic cosine + </para> + <para> + <literal>acosh(1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>atanh</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>atanh</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Inverse hyperbolic tangent + </para> + <para> + <literal>atanh(0.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>0.5493061443340548</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-string"> + <title>String Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + This section describes functions and operators for examining and + manipulating string values. Strings in this context include values + of the types <type>character</type>, <type>character varying</type>, + and <type>text</type>. Except where noted, these functions and operators + are declared to accept and return type <type>text</type>. They will + interchangeably accept <type>character varying</type> arguments. + Values of type <type>character</type> will be converted + to <type>text</type> before the function or operator is applied, resulting + in stripping any trailing spaces in the <type>character</type> value. + </para> + + <para> + <acronym>SQL</acronym> defines some string functions that use + key words, rather than commas, to separate + arguments. Details are in + <xref linkend="functions-string-sql"/>. + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> also provides versions of these functions + that use the regular function invocation syntax + (see <xref linkend="functions-string-other"/>). + </para> + + <note> + <para> + The string concatenation operator (<literal>||</literal>) will accept + non-string input, so long as at least one input is of string type, as shown + in <xref linkend="functions-string-sql"/>. For other cases, inserting an + explicit coercion to <type>text</type> can be used to have non-string input + accepted. + </para> + </note> + + <table id="functions-string-sql"> + <title><acronym>SQL</acronym> String Functions and Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function/Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>character string</primary> + <secondary>concatenation</secondary> + </indexterm> + <type>text</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the two strings. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'Post' || 'greSQL'</literal> + <returnvalue>PostgreSQL</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anynonarray</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>anynonarray</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the non-string input to text, then concatenates the two + strings. (The non-string input cannot be of an array type, because + that would create ambiguity with the array <literal>||</literal> + operators. If you want to concatenate an array's text equivalent, + cast it to <type>text</type> explicitly.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'Value: ' || 42</literal> + <returnvalue>Value: 42</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>normalized</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>Unicode normalization</primary> + </indexterm> + <type>text</type> <literal>IS</literal> <optional><literal>NOT</literal></optional> <optional><parameter>form</parameter></optional> <literal>NORMALIZED</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Checks whether the string is in the specified Unicode normalization + form. The optional <parameter>form</parameter> key word specifies the + form: <literal>NFC</literal> (the default), <literal>NFD</literal>, + <literal>NFKC</literal>, or <literal>NFKD</literal>. This expression can + only be used when the server encoding is <literal>UTF8</literal>. Note + that checking for normalization using this expression is often faster + than normalizing possibly already normalized strings. + </para> + <para> + <literal>U&'\0061\0308bc' IS NFD NORMALIZED</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_length</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bits in the string (8 + times the <function>octet_length</function>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>bit_length('jose')</literal> + <returnvalue>32</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>char_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>character string</primary> + <secondary>length</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + <secondary sortas="character string">of a character string</secondary> + <see>character string, length</see> + </indexterm> + <function>char_length</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>character_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>character_length</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of characters in the string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>char_length('josé')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the string to all lower case, according to the rules of the + database's locale. + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower('TOM')</literal> + <returnvalue>tom</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>normalize</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>Unicode normalization</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>normalize</function> ( <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>form</parameter> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the string to the specified Unicode + normalization form. The optional <parameter>form</parameter> key word + specifies the form: <literal>NFC</literal> (the default), + <literal>NFD</literal>, <literal>NFKC</literal>, or + <literal>NFKD</literal>. This function can only be used when the + server encoding is <literal>UTF8</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>normalize(U&'\0061\0308bc', NFC)</literal> + <returnvalue>U&'\00E4bc'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>octet_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>octet_length</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bytes in the string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>octet_length('josé')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> (if server encoding is UTF8) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>octet_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>octet_length</function> ( <type>character</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bytes in the string. Since this version of the + function accepts type <type>character</type> directly, it will not + strip trailing spaces. + </para> + <para> + <literal>octet_length('abc '::character(4))</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>overlay</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>overlay</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>PLACING</literal> <parameter>newsubstring</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces the substring of <parameter>string</parameter> that starts at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th character and extends + for <parameter>count</parameter> characters + with <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + If <parameter>count</parameter> is omitted, it defaults to the length + of <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>overlay('Txxxxas' placing 'hom' from 2 for 4)</literal> + <returnvalue>Thomas</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>position</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>position</function> ( <parameter>substring</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>IN</literal> <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns first starting index of the specified + <parameter>substring</parameter> within + <parameter>string</parameter>, or zero if it's not present. + </para> + <para> + <literal>position('om' in 'Thomas')</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>substring</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the substring of <parameter>string</parameter> starting at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th character if that is specified, + and stopping after <parameter>count</parameter> characters if that is + specified. Provide at least one of <parameter>start</parameter> + and <parameter>count</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('Thomas' from 2 for 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>hom</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('Thomas' from 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>omas</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('Thomas' for 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>Th</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the first substring matching POSIX regular expression; see + <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('Thomas' from '...$')</literal> + <returnvalue>mas</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>SIMILAR</literal> <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>ESCAPE</literal> <parameter>escape</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>escape</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the first substring matching <acronym>SQL</acronym> regular expression; + see <xref linkend="functions-similarto-regexp"/>. The first form has + been specified since SQL:2003; the second form was only in SQL:1999 + and should be considered obsolete. + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('Thomas' similar '%#"o_a#"_' escape '#')</literal> + <returnvalue>oma</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trim</function> ( <optional> <literal>LEADING</literal> | <literal>TRAILING</literal> | <literal>BOTH</literal> </optional> + <optional> <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> <literal>FROM</literal> + <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only characters in + <parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the + start, end, or both ends (<literal>BOTH</literal> is the default) + of <parameter>string</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim(both 'xyz' from 'yxTomxx')</literal> + <returnvalue>Tom</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>trim</function> ( <optional> <literal>LEADING</literal> | <literal>TRAILING</literal> | <literal>BOTH</literal> </optional> <optional> <literal>FROM</literal> </optional> + <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, + <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is a non-standard syntax for <function>trim()</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim(both from 'yxTomxx', 'xyz')</literal> + <returnvalue>Tom</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the string to all upper case, according to the rules of the + database's locale. + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper('tom')</literal> + <returnvalue>TOM</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Additional string manipulation functions are available and are + listed in <xref linkend="functions-string-other"/>. Some of them are used internally to implement the + <acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard string functions listed in <xref linkend="functions-string-sql"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-string-other"> + <title>Other String Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ascii</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ascii</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the numeric code of the first character of the argument. + In <acronym>UTF8</acronym> encoding, returns the Unicode code point + of the character. In other multibyte encodings, the argument must + be an <acronym>ASCII</acronym> character. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ascii('x')</literal> + <returnvalue>120</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>btrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>btrim</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only characters + in <parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) + from the start and end of <parameter>string</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>btrim('xyxtrimyyx', 'xyz')</literal> + <returnvalue>trim</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>chr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>chr</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the character with the given code. In <acronym>UTF8</acronym> + encoding the argument is treated as a Unicode code point. In other + multibyte encodings the argument must designate + an <acronym>ASCII</acronym> character. <literal>chr(0)</literal> is + disallowed because text data types cannot store that character. + </para> + <para> + <literal>chr(65)</literal> + <returnvalue>A</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>concat</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>concat</function> ( <parameter>val1</parameter> <type>"any"</type> + [, <parameter>val2</parameter> <type>"any"</type> [, ...] ] ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the text representations of all the arguments. + NULL arguments are ignored. + </para> + <para> + <literal>concat('abcde', 2, NULL, 22)</literal> + <returnvalue>abcde222</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>concat_ws</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>concat_ws</function> ( <parameter>sep</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>val1</parameter> <type>"any"</type> + [, <parameter>val2</parameter> <type>"any"</type> [, ...] ] ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates all but the first argument, with separators. The first + argument is used as the separator string, and should not be NULL. + Other NULL arguments are ignored. + </para> + <para> + <literal>concat_ws(',', 'abcde', 2, NULL, 22)</literal> + <returnvalue>abcde,2,22</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>format</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>format</function> ( <parameter>formatstr</parameter> <type>text</type> + [, <parameter>formatarg</parameter> <type>"any"</type> [, ...] ] ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Formats arguments according to a format string; + see <xref linkend="functions-string-format"/>. + This function is similar to the C function <function>sprintf</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>format('Hello %s, %1$s', 'World')</literal> + <returnvalue>Hello World, World</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>initcap</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>initcap</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the first letter of each word to upper case and the + rest to lower case. Words are sequences of alphanumeric + characters separated by non-alphanumeric characters. + </para> + <para> + <literal>initcap('hi THOMAS')</literal> + <returnvalue>Hi Thomas</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>left</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>left</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns first <parameter>n</parameter> characters in the + string, or when <parameter>n</parameter> is negative, returns + all but last |<parameter>n</parameter>| characters. + </para> + <para> + <literal>left('abcde', 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>ab</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>length</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of characters in the string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length('jose')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lpad</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lpad</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>length</parameter> <type>integer</type> + <optional>, <parameter>fill</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extends the <parameter>string</parameter> to length + <parameter>length</parameter> by prepending the characters + <parameter>fill</parameter> (a space by default). If the + <parameter>string</parameter> is already longer than + <parameter>length</parameter> then it is truncated (on the right). + </para> + <para> + <literal>lpad('hi', 5, 'xy')</literal> + <returnvalue>xyxhi</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ltrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ltrim</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only characters in + <parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the start of + <parameter>string</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ltrim('zzzytest', 'xyz')</literal> + <returnvalue>test</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>md5</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>md5</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the MD5 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> of + the argument, with the result written in hexadecimal. + </para> + <para> + <literal>md5('abc')</literal> + <returnvalue>900150983cd24fb0&zwsp;d6963f7d28e17f72</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>parse_ident</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>parse_ident</function> ( <parameter>qualified_identifier</parameter> <type>text</type> + [, <parameter>strict_mode</parameter> <type>boolean</type> <literal>DEFAULT</literal> <literal>true</literal> ] ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits <parameter>qualified_identifier</parameter> into an array of + identifiers, removing any quoting of individual identifiers. By + default, extra characters after the last identifier are considered an + error; but if the second parameter is <literal>false</literal>, then such + extra characters are ignored. (This behavior is useful for parsing + names for objects like functions.) Note that this function does not + truncate over-length identifiers. If you want truncation you can cast + the result to <type>name[]</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>parse_ident('"SomeSchema".someTable')</literal> + <returnvalue>{SomeSchema,sometable}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_client_encoding</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_client_encoding</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns current client encoding name. + </para> + <para> + <literal>pg_client_encoding()</literal> + <returnvalue>UTF8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>quote_ident</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>quote_ident</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the given string suitably quoted to be used as an identifier + in an <acronym>SQL</acronym> statement string. + Quotes are added only if necessary (i.e., if the string contains + non-identifier characters or would be case-folded). + Embedded quotes are properly doubled. + See also <xref linkend="plpgsql-quote-literal-example"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>quote_ident('Foo bar')</literal> + <returnvalue>"Foo bar"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>quote_literal</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>quote_literal</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the given string suitably quoted to be used as a string literal + in an <acronym>SQL</acronym> statement string. + Embedded single-quotes and backslashes are properly doubled. + Note that <function>quote_literal</function> returns null on null + input; if the argument might be null, + <function>quote_nullable</function> is often more suitable. + See also <xref linkend="plpgsql-quote-literal-example"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>quote_literal(E'O\'Reilly')</literal> + <returnvalue>'O''Reilly'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>quote_literal</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the given value to text and then quotes it as a literal. + Embedded single-quotes and backslashes are properly doubled. + </para> + <para> + <literal>quote_literal(42.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>'42.5'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>quote_nullable</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>quote_nullable</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the given string suitably quoted to be used as a string literal + in an <acronym>SQL</acronym> statement string; or, if the argument + is null, returns <literal>NULL</literal>. + Embedded single-quotes and backslashes are properly doubled. + See also <xref linkend="plpgsql-quote-literal-example"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>quote_nullable(NULL)</literal> + <returnvalue>NULL</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>quote_nullable</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the given value to text and then quotes it as a literal; + or, if the argument is null, returns <literal>NULL</literal>. + Embedded single-quotes and backslashes are properly doubled. + </para> + <para> + <literal>quote_nullable(42.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>'42.5'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_match</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regexp_match</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>flags</parameter> <type>text</type> ] ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns captured substrings resulting from the first match of a POSIX + regular expression to the <parameter>string</parameter>; see + <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>regexp_match('foobarbequebaz', '(bar)(beque)')</literal> + <returnvalue>{bar,beque}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_matches</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regexp_matches</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>flags</parameter> <type>text</type> ] ) + <returnvalue>setof text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns captured substrings resulting from the first match of a + POSIX regular expression to the <parameter>string</parameter>, + or multiple matches if the <literal>g</literal> flag is used; + see <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>regexp_matches('foobarbequebaz', 'ba.', 'g')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + {bar} + {baz} +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_replace</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regexp_replace</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>replacement</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>flags</parameter> <type>text</type> ] ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces substrings resulting from the first match of a + POSIX regular expression, or multiple substring matches + if the <literal>g</literal> flag is used; see <xref + linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>regexp_replace('Thomas', '.[mN]a.', 'M')</literal> + <returnvalue>ThM</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_split_to_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regexp_split_to_array</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>flags</parameter> <type>text</type> ] ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits <parameter>string</parameter> using a POSIX regular + expression as the delimiter, producing an array of results; see + <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>regexp_split_to_array('hello world', '\s+')</literal> + <returnvalue>{hello,world}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_split_to_table</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regexp_split_to_table</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>pattern</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>flags</parameter> <type>text</type> ] ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits <parameter>string</parameter> using a POSIX regular + expression as the delimiter, producing a set of results; see + <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>regexp_split_to_table('hello world', '\s+')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + hello + world +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>repeat</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>repeat</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>number</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Repeats <parameter>string</parameter> the specified + <parameter>number</parameter> of times. + </para> + <para> + <literal>repeat('Pg', 4)</literal> + <returnvalue>PgPgPgPg</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>replace</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>replace</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>from</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>to</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces all occurrences in <parameter>string</parameter> of + substring <parameter>from</parameter> with + substring <parameter>to</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>replace('abcdefabcdef', 'cd', 'XX')</literal> + <returnvalue>abXXefabXXef</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>reverse</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>reverse</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reverses the order of the characters in the string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>reverse('abcde')</literal> + <returnvalue>edcba</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>right</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>right</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns last <parameter>n</parameter> characters in the string, + or when <parameter>n</parameter> is negative, returns all but + first |<parameter>n</parameter>| characters. + </para> + <para> + <literal>right('abcde', 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>de</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>rpad</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>rpad</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>length</parameter> <type>integer</type> + <optional>, <parameter>fill</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extends the <parameter>string</parameter> to length + <parameter>length</parameter> by appending the characters + <parameter>fill</parameter> (a space by default). If the + <parameter>string</parameter> is already longer than + <parameter>length</parameter> then it is truncated. + </para> + <para> + <literal>rpad('hi', 5, 'xy')</literal> + <returnvalue>hixyx</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>rtrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>rtrim</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only characters in + <parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the end of + <parameter>string</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>rtrim('testxxzx', 'xyz')</literal> + <returnvalue>test</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>split_part</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>split_part</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits <parameter>string</parameter> at occurrences + of <parameter>delimiter</parameter> and returns + the <parameter>n</parameter>'th field (counting from one), + or when <parameter>n</parameter> is negative, returns + the |<parameter>n</parameter>|'th-from-last field. + </para> + <para> + <literal>split_part('abc~@~def~@~ghi', '~@~', 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>def</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>split_part('abc,def,ghi,jkl', ',', -2)</literal> + <returnvalue>ghi</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>strpos</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>strpos</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>substring</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns first starting index of the specified <parameter>substring</parameter> + within <parameter>string</parameter>, or zero if it's not present. + (Same as <literal>position(<parameter>substring</parameter> in + <parameter>string</parameter>)</literal>, but note the reversed + argument order.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>strpos('high', 'ig')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>substr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>substr</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the substring of <parameter>string</parameter> starting at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th character, + and extending for <parameter>count</parameter> characters if that is + specified. (Same + as <literal>substring(<parameter>string</parameter> + from <parameter>start</parameter> + for <parameter>count</parameter>)</literal>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>substr('alphabet', 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>phabet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>substr('alphabet', 3, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>ph</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>starts_with</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>starts_with</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>prefix</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if <parameter>string</parameter> starts + with <parameter>prefix</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>starts_with('alphabet', 'alph')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>string_to_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>string_to_array</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>null_string</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits the <parameter>string</parameter> at occurrences + of <parameter>delimiter</parameter> and forms the resulting fields + into a <type>text</type> array. + If <parameter>delimiter</parameter> is <literal>NULL</literal>, + each character in the <parameter>string</parameter> will become a + separate element in the array. + If <parameter>delimiter</parameter> is an empty string, then + the <parameter>string</parameter> is treated as a single field. + If <parameter>null_string</parameter> is supplied and is + not <literal>NULL</literal>, fields matching that string are + replaced by <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>string_to_array('xx~~yy~~zz', '~~', 'yy')</literal> + <returnvalue>{xx,NULL,zz}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>string_to_table</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>string_to_table</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>null_string</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Splits the <parameter>string</parameter> at occurrences + of <parameter>delimiter</parameter> and returns the resulting fields + as a set of <type>text</type> rows. + If <parameter>delimiter</parameter> is <literal>NULL</literal>, + each character in the <parameter>string</parameter> will become a + separate row of the result. + If <parameter>delimiter</parameter> is an empty string, then + the <parameter>string</parameter> is treated as a single field. + If <parameter>null_string</parameter> is supplied and is + not <literal>NULL</literal>, fields matching that string are + replaced by <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>string_to_table('xx~^~yy~^~zz', '~^~', 'yy')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + xx + NULL + zz +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_ascii</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_ascii</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_ascii</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>encoding</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_ascii</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>encoding</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts <parameter>string</parameter> to <acronym>ASCII</acronym> + from another encoding, which may be identified by name or number. + If <parameter>encoding</parameter> is omitted the database encoding + is assumed (which in practice is the only useful case). + The conversion consists primarily of dropping accents. + Conversion is only supported + from <literal>LATIN1</literal>, <literal>LATIN2</literal>, + <literal>LATIN9</literal>, and <literal>WIN1250</literal> encodings. + (See the <xref linkend="unaccent"/> module for another, more flexible + solution.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_ascii('Karél')</literal> + <returnvalue>Karel</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_hex</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_hex</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_hex</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the number to its equivalent hexadecimal representation. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_hex(2147483647)</literal> + <returnvalue>7fffffff</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>translate</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>translate</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>from</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>to</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces each character in <parameter>string</parameter> that + matches a character in the <parameter>from</parameter> set with the + corresponding character in the <parameter>to</parameter> + set. If <parameter>from</parameter> is longer than + <parameter>to</parameter>, occurrences of the extra characters in + <parameter>from</parameter> are deleted. + </para> + <para> + <literal>translate('12345', '143', 'ax')</literal> + <returnvalue>a2x5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>unistr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>unistr</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Evaluate escaped Unicode characters in the argument. Unicode characters + can be specified as + <literal>\<replaceable>XXXX</replaceable></literal> (4 hexadecimal + digits), <literal>\+<replaceable>XXXXXX</replaceable></literal> (6 + hexadecimal digits), + <literal>\u<replaceable>XXXX</replaceable></literal> (4 hexadecimal + digits), or <literal>\U<replaceable>XXXXXXXX</replaceable></literal> + (8 hexadecimal digits). To specify a backslash, write two + backslashes. All other characters are taken literally. + </para> + + <para> + If the server encoding is not UTF-8, the Unicode code point identified + by one of these escape sequences is converted to the actual server + encoding; an error is reported if that's not possible. + </para> + + <para> + This function provides a (non-standard) alternative to string + constants with Unicode escapes (see <xref + linkend="sql-syntax-strings-uescape"/>). + </para> + + <para> + <literal>unistr('d\0061t\+000061')</literal> + <returnvalue>data</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>unistr('d\u0061t\U00000061')</literal> + <returnvalue>data</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The <function>concat</function>, <function>concat_ws</function> and + <function>format</function> functions are variadic, so it is possible to + pass the values to be concatenated or formatted as an array marked with + the <literal>VARIADIC</literal> keyword (see <xref + linkend="xfunc-sql-variadic-functions"/>). The array's elements are + treated as if they were separate ordinary arguments to the function. + If the variadic array argument is NULL, <function>concat</function> + and <function>concat_ws</function> return NULL, but + <function>format</function> treats a NULL as a zero-element array. + </para> + + <para> + See also the aggregate function <function>string_agg</function> in + <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/>, and the functions for + converting between strings and the <type>bytea</type> type in + <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-conversions"/>. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-string-format"> + <title><function>format</function></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>format</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The function <function>format</function> produces output formatted according to + a format string, in a style similar to the C function + <function>sprintf</function>. + </para> + + <para> +<synopsis> +<function>format</function>(<parameter>formatstr</parameter> <type>text</type> [, <parameter>formatarg</parameter> <type>"any"</type> [, ...] ]) +</synopsis> + <parameter>formatstr</parameter> is a format string that specifies how the + result should be formatted. Text in the format string is copied + directly to the result, except where <firstterm>format specifiers</firstterm> are + used. Format specifiers act as placeholders in the string, defining how + subsequent function arguments should be formatted and inserted into the + result. Each <parameter>formatarg</parameter> argument is converted to text + according to the usual output rules for its data type, and then formatted + and inserted into the result string according to the format specifier(s). + </para> + + <para> + Format specifiers are introduced by a <literal>%</literal> character and have + the form +<synopsis> +%[<parameter>position</parameter>][<parameter>flags</parameter>][<parameter>width</parameter>]<parameter>type</parameter> +</synopsis> + where the component fields are: + + <variablelist> + <varlistentry> + <term><parameter>position</parameter> (optional)</term> + <listitem> + <para> + A string of the form <literal><parameter>n</parameter>$</literal> where + <parameter>n</parameter> is the index of the argument to print. + Index 1 means the first argument after + <parameter>formatstr</parameter>. If the <parameter>position</parameter> is + omitted, the default is to use the next argument in sequence. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><parameter>flags</parameter> (optional)</term> + <listitem> + <para> + Additional options controlling how the format specifier's output is + formatted. Currently the only supported flag is a minus sign + (<literal>-</literal>) which will cause the format specifier's output to be + left-justified. This has no effect unless the <parameter>width</parameter> + field is also specified. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><parameter>width</parameter> (optional)</term> + <listitem> + <para> + Specifies the <emphasis>minimum</emphasis> number of characters to use to + display the format specifier's output. The output is padded on the + left or right (depending on the <literal>-</literal> flag) with spaces as + needed to fill the width. A too-small width does not cause + truncation of the output, but is simply ignored. The width may be + specified using any of the following: a positive integer; an + asterisk (<literal>*</literal>) to use the next function argument as the + width; or a string of the form <literal>*<parameter>n</parameter>$</literal> to + use the <parameter>n</parameter>th function argument as the width. + </para> + + <para> + If the width comes from a function argument, that argument is + consumed before the argument that is used for the format specifier's + value. If the width argument is negative, the result is left + aligned (as if the <literal>-</literal> flag had been specified) within a + field of length <function>abs</function>(<parameter>width</parameter>). + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><parameter>type</parameter> (required)</term> + <listitem> + <para> + The type of format conversion to use to produce the format + specifier's output. The following types are supported: + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>s</literal> formats the argument value as a simple + string. A null value is treated as an empty string. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>I</literal> treats the argument value as an SQL + identifier, double-quoting it if necessary. + It is an error for the value to be null (equivalent to + <function>quote_ident</function>). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>L</literal> quotes the argument value as an SQL literal. + A null value is displayed as the string <literal>NULL</literal>, without + quotes (equivalent to <function>quote_nullable</function>). + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + </variablelist> + </para> + + <para> + In addition to the format specifiers described above, the special sequence + <literal>%%</literal> may be used to output a literal <literal>%</literal> character. + </para> + + <para> + Here are some examples of the basic format conversions: + +<screen> +SELECT format('Hello %s', 'World'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>Hello World</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('Testing %s, %s, %s, %%', 'one', 'two', 'three'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>Testing one, two, three, %</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('INSERT INTO %I VALUES(%L)', 'Foo bar', E'O\'Reilly'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>INSERT INTO "Foo bar" VALUES('O''Reilly')</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('INSERT INTO %I VALUES(%L)', 'locations', 'C:\Program Files'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>INSERT INTO locations VALUES('C:\Program Files')</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + Here are examples using <parameter>width</parameter> fields + and the <literal>-</literal> flag: + +<screen> +SELECT format('|%10s|', 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>| foo|</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%-10s|', 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>|foo |</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%*s|', 10, 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>| foo|</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%*s|', -10, 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>|foo |</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%-*s|', 10, 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>|foo |</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%-*s|', -10, 'foo'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>|foo |</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + These examples show use of <parameter>position</parameter> fields: + +<screen> +SELECT format('Testing %3$s, %2$s, %1$s', 'one', 'two', 'three'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>Testing three, two, one</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%*2$s|', 'foo', 10, 'bar'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>| bar|</computeroutput> + +SELECT format('|%1$*2$s|', 'foo', 10, 'bar'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>| foo|</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + Unlike the standard C function <function>sprintf</function>, + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s <function>format</function> function allows format + specifiers with and without <parameter>position</parameter> fields to be mixed + in the same format string. A format specifier without a + <parameter>position</parameter> field always uses the next argument after the + last argument consumed. + In addition, the <function>format</function> function does not require all + function arguments to be used in the format string. + For example: + +<screen> +SELECT format('Testing %3$s, %2$s, %s', 'one', 'two', 'three'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>Testing three, two, three</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + The <literal>%I</literal> and <literal>%L</literal> format specifiers are particularly + useful for safely constructing dynamic SQL statements. See + <xref linkend="plpgsql-quote-literal-example"/>. + </para> + </sect2> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-binarystring"> + <title>Binary String Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-binarystring"> + <primary>binary data</primary> + <secondary>functions</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes functions and operators for examining and + manipulating binary strings, that is values of type <type>bytea</type>. + Many of these are equivalent, in purpose and syntax, to the + text-string functions described in the previous section. + </para> + + <para> + <acronym>SQL</acronym> defines some string functions that use + key words, rather than commas, to separate + arguments. Details are in + <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-sql"/>. + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> also provides versions of these functions + that use the regular function invocation syntax + (see <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-other"/>). + </para> + + <table id="functions-binarystring-sql"> + <title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Binary String Functions and Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function/Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>binary string</primary> + <secondary>concatenation</secondary> + </indexterm> + <type>bytea</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>bytea</type> + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the two binary strings. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'\x123456'::bytea || '\x789a00bcde'::bytea</literal> + <returnvalue>\x123456789a00bcde</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_length</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bits in the binary string (8 + times the <function>octet_length</function>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>bit_length('\x123456'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>24</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>octet_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>octet_length</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bytes in the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>octet_length('\x123456'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>overlay</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>overlay</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type> <literal>PLACING</literal> <parameter>newsubstring</parameter> <type>bytea</type> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces the substring of <parameter>bytes</parameter> that starts at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th byte and extends + for <parameter>count</parameter> bytes + with <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + If <parameter>count</parameter> is omitted, it defaults to the length + of <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>overlay('\x1234567890'::bytea placing '\002\003'::bytea from 2 for 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x12020390</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>position</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>position</function> ( <parameter>substring</parameter> <type>bytea</type> <literal>IN</literal> <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns first starting index of the specified + <parameter>substring</parameter> within + <parameter>bytes</parameter>, or zero if it's not present. + </para> + <para> + <literal>position('\x5678'::bytea in '\x1234567890'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>substring</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type> <optional> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the substring of <parameter>bytes</parameter> starting at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th byte if that is specified, + and stopping after <parameter>count</parameter> bytes if that is + specified. Provide at least one of <parameter>start</parameter> + and <parameter>count</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring('\x1234567890'::bytea from 3 for 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x5678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trim</function> ( <optional> <literal>LEADING</literal> | <literal>TRAILING</literal> | <literal>BOTH</literal> </optional> + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> <type>bytea</type> <literal>FROM</literal> + <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only bytes appearing in + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> from the start, + end, or both ends (<literal>BOTH</literal> is the default) + of <parameter>bytes</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim('\x9012'::bytea from '\x1234567890'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x345678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>trim</function> ( <optional> <literal>LEADING</literal> | <literal>TRAILING</literal> | <literal>BOTH</literal> </optional> <optional> <literal>FROM</literal> </optional> + <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is a non-standard syntax for <function>trim()</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim(both from '\x1234567890'::bytea, '\x9012'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x345678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Additional binary string manipulation functions are available and + are listed in <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-other"/>. Some + of them are used internally to implement the + <acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard string functions listed in <xref + linkend="functions-binarystring-sql"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-binarystring-other"> + <title>Other Binary String Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_count</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>popcount</primary> + <see>bit_count</see> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_count</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of bits set in the binary string (also known as + <quote>popcount</quote>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>bit_count('\x1234567890'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>15</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>btrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>btrim</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only bytes appearing in + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> from the start and end of + <parameter>bytes</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>btrim('\x1234567890'::bytea, '\x9012'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x345678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>get_bit</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>get_bit</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts <link linkend="functions-zerobased-note">n'th</link> bit + from binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>get_bit('\x1234567890'::bytea, 30)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>get_byte</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>get_byte</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts <link linkend="functions-zerobased-note">n'th</link> byte + from binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>get_byte('\x1234567890'::bytea, 4)</literal> + <returnvalue>144</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>binary string</primary> + <secondary>length</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + <secondary sortas="binary string">of a binary string</secondary> + <see>binary strings, length</see> + </indexterm> + <function>length</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of bytes in the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length('\x1234567890'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>length</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>encoding</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of characters in the binary string, assuming + that it is text in the given <parameter>encoding</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length('jose'::bytea, 'UTF8')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ltrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ltrim</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only bytes appearing in + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> from the start of + <parameter>bytes</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ltrim('\x1234567890'::bytea, '\x9012'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x34567890</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>md5</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>md5</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the MD5 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> of + the binary string, with the result written in hexadecimal. + </para> + <para> + <literal>md5('Th\000omas'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>8ab2d3c9689aaf18&zwsp;b4958c334c82d8b1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>rtrim</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>rtrim</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the longest string containing only bytes appearing in + <parameter>bytesremoved</parameter> from the end of + <parameter>bytes</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>rtrim('\x1234567890'::bytea, '\x9012'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x12345678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>set_bit</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>set_bit</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>newvalue</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets <link linkend="functions-zerobased-note">n'th</link> bit in + binary string to <parameter>newvalue</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_bit('\x1234567890'::bytea, 30, 0)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x1234563890</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>set_byte</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>set_byte</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>newvalue</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets <link linkend="functions-zerobased-note">n'th</link> byte in + binary string to <parameter>newvalue</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_byte('\x1234567890'::bytea, 4, 64)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x1234567840</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sha224</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sha224</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the SHA-224 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> + of the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>sha224('abc'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x23097d223405d8228642a477bda2&zwsp;55b32aadbce4bda0b3f7e36c9da7</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sha256</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sha256</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the SHA-256 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> + of the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>sha256('abc'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\xba7816bf8f01cfea414140de5dae2223&zwsp;b00361a396177a9cb410ff61f20015ad</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sha384</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sha384</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the SHA-384 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> + of the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>sha384('abc'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\xcb00753f45a35e8bb5a03d699ac65007&zwsp;272c32ab0eded1631a8b605a43ff5bed&zwsp;8086072ba1e7cc2358baeca134c825a7</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sha512</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sha512</function> ( <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the SHA-512 <link linkend="functions-hash-note">hash</link> + of the binary string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>sha512('abc'::bytea)</literal> + <returnvalue>\xddaf35a193617abacc417349ae204131&zwsp;12e6fa4e89a97ea20a9eeee64b55d39a&zwsp;2192992a274fc1a836ba3c23a3feebbd&zwsp;454d4423643ce80e2a9ac94fa54ca49f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>substr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>substr</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the substring of <parameter>bytes</parameter> starting at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th byte, + and extending for <parameter>count</parameter> bytes if that is + specified. (Same + as <literal>substring(<parameter>bytes</parameter> + from <parameter>start</parameter> + for <parameter>count</parameter>)</literal>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>substr('\x1234567890'::bytea, 3, 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>\x5678</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para id="functions-zerobased-note"> + Functions <function>get_byte</function> and <function>set_byte</function> + number the first byte of a binary string as byte 0. + Functions <function>get_bit</function> and <function>set_bit</function> + number bits from the right within each byte; for example bit 0 is the least + significant bit of the first byte, and bit 15 is the most significant bit + of the second byte. + </para> + + <para id="functions-hash-note"> + For historical reasons, the function <function>md5</function> + returns a hex-encoded value of type <type>text</type> whereas the SHA-2 + functions return type <type>bytea</type>. Use the functions + <link linkend="function-encode"><function>encode</function></link> + and <link linkend="function-decode"><function>decode</function></link> to + convert between the two. For example write <literal>encode(sha256('abc'), + 'hex')</literal> to get a hex-encoded text representation, + or <literal>decode(md5('abc'), 'hex')</literal> to get + a <type>bytea</type> value. + </para> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>character string</primary> + <secondary>converting to binary string</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>binary string</primary> + <secondary>converting to character string</secondary> + </indexterm> + Functions for converting strings between different character sets + (encodings), and for representing arbitrary binary data in textual + form, are shown in + <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-conversions"/>. For these + functions, an argument or result of type <type>text</type> is expressed + in the database's default encoding, while arguments or results of + type <type>bytea</type> are in an encoding named by another argument. + </para> + + <table id="functions-binarystring-conversions"> + <title>Text/Binary String Conversion Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>convert</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>convert</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>src_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>dest_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a binary string representing text in + encoding <parameter>src_encoding</parameter> + to a binary string in encoding <parameter>dest_encoding</parameter> + (see <xref linkend="multibyte-conversions-supported"/> for + available conversions). + </para> + <para> + <literal>convert('text_in_utf8', 'UTF8', 'LATIN1')</literal> + <returnvalue>\x746578745f696e5f75746638</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>convert_from</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>convert_from</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>src_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a binary string representing text in + encoding <parameter>src_encoding</parameter> + to <type>text</type> in the database encoding + (see <xref linkend="multibyte-conversions-supported"/> for + available conversions). + </para> + <para> + <literal>convert_from('text_in_utf8', 'UTF8')</literal> + <returnvalue>text_in_utf8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>convert_to</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>convert_to</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>dest_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a <type>text</type> string (in the database encoding) to a + binary string encoded in encoding <parameter>dest_encoding</parameter> + (see <xref linkend="multibyte-conversions-supported"/> for + available conversions). + </para> + <para> + <literal>convert_to('some_text', 'UTF8')</literal> + <returnvalue>\x736f6d655f74657874</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm id="function-encode"> + <primary>encode</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>encode</function> ( <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>, + <parameter>format</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Encodes binary data into a textual representation; supported + <parameter>format</parameter> values are: + <link linkend="encode-format-base64"><literal>base64</literal></link>, + <link linkend="encode-format-escape"><literal>escape</literal></link>, + <link linkend="encode-format-hex"><literal>hex</literal></link>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>encode('123\000\001', 'base64')</literal> + <returnvalue>MTIzAAE=</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm id="function-decode"> + <primary>decode</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>decode</function> ( <parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>format</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Decodes binary data from a textual representation; supported + <parameter>format</parameter> values are the same as + for <function>encode</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>decode('MTIzAAE=', 'base64')</literal> + <returnvalue>\x3132330001</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The <function>encode</function> and <function>decode</function> + functions support the following textual formats: + + <variablelist> + <varlistentry id="encode-format-base64"> + <term>base64 + <indexterm> + <primary>base64 format</primary> + </indexterm></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <literal>base64</literal> format is that + of <ulink url="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045#section-6.8">RFC + 2045 Section 6.8</ulink>. As per the <acronym>RFC</acronym>, encoded lines are + broken at 76 characters. However instead of the MIME CRLF + end-of-line marker, only a newline is used for end-of-line. + The <function>decode</function> function ignores carriage-return, + newline, space, and tab characters. Otherwise, an error is + raised when <function>decode</function> is supplied invalid + base64 data — including when trailing padding is incorrect. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry id="encode-format-escape"> + <term>escape + <indexterm> + <primary>escape format</primary> + </indexterm></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <literal>escape</literal> format converts zero bytes and + bytes with the high bit set into octal escape sequences + (<literal>\</literal><replaceable>nnn</replaceable>), and it doubles + backslashes. Other byte values are represented literally. + The <function>decode</function> function will raise an error if a + backslash is not followed by either a second backslash or three + octal digits; it accepts other byte values unchanged. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry id="encode-format-hex"> + <term>hex + <indexterm> + <primary>hex format</primary> + </indexterm></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <literal>hex</literal> format represents each 4 bits of + data as one hexadecimal digit, <literal>0</literal> + through <literal>f</literal>, writing the higher-order digit of + each byte first. The <function>encode</function> function outputs + the <literal>a</literal>-<literal>f</literal> hex digits in lower + case. Because the smallest unit of data is 8 bits, there are + always an even number of characters returned + by <function>encode</function>. + The <function>decode</function> function + accepts the <literal>a</literal>-<literal>f</literal> characters in + either upper or lower case. An error is raised + when <function>decode</function> is given invalid hex data + — including when given an odd number of characters. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + </variablelist> + </para> + + <para> + See also the aggregate function <function>string_agg</function> in + <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/> and the large object functions + in <xref linkend="lo-funcs"/>. + </para> + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-bitstring"> + <title>Bit String Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-bitstring"> + <primary>bit strings</primary> + <secondary>functions</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes functions and operators for examining and + manipulating bit strings, that is values of the types + <type>bit</type> and <type>bit varying</type>. (While only + type <type>bit</type> is mentioned in these tables, values of + type <type>bit varying</type> can be used interchangeably.) + Bit strings support the usual comparison operators shown in + <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/>, as well as the + operators shown in <xref linkend="functions-bit-string-op-table"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-bit-string-op-table"> + <title>Bit String Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>bit</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenation + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' || B'011'</literal> + <returnvalue>10001011</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal>&</literal> <type>bit</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise AND (inputs must be of equal length) + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' & B'01101'</literal> + <returnvalue>00001</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal>|</literal> <type>bit</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise OR (inputs must be of equal length) + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' | B'01101'</literal> + <returnvalue>11101</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal>#</literal> <type>bit</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise exclusive OR (inputs must be of equal length) + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' # B'01101'</literal> + <returnvalue>11100</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>~</literal> <type>bit</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise NOT + </para> + <para> + <literal>~ B'10001'</literal> + <returnvalue>01110</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise shift left + (string length is preserved) + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' << 3</literal> + <returnvalue>01000</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bit</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bitwise shift right + (string length is preserved) + </para> + <para> + <literal>B'10001' >> 2</literal> + <returnvalue>00100</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Some of the functions available for binary strings are also available + for bit strings, as shown in <xref linkend="functions-bit-string-table"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-bit-string-table"> + <title>Bit String Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_count</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_count</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of bits set in the bit string (also known as + <quote>popcount</quote>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>bit_count(B'10111')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_length</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bits in the bit string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>bit_length(B'10111')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit string</primary> + <secondary>length</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>length</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bits in the bit string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length(B'10111')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>octet_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>octet_length</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns number of bytes in the bit string. + </para> + <para> + <literal>octet_length(B'1011111011')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>overlay</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>overlay</function> ( <parameter>bits</parameter> <type>bit</type> <literal>PLACING</literal> <parameter>newsubstring</parameter> <type>bit</type> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces the substring of <parameter>bits</parameter> that starts at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th bit and extends + for <parameter>count</parameter> bits + with <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + If <parameter>count</parameter> is omitted, it defaults to the length + of <parameter>newsubstring</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>overlay(B'01010101010101010' placing B'11111' from 2 for 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>0111110101010101010</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>position</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>position</function> ( <parameter>substring</parameter> <type>bit</type> <literal>IN</literal> <parameter>bits</parameter> <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns first starting index of the specified <parameter>substring</parameter> + within <parameter>bits</parameter>, or zero if it's not present. + </para> + <para> + <literal>position(B'010' in B'000001101011')</literal> + <returnvalue>8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>substring</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>substring</function> ( <parameter>bits</parameter> <type>bit</type> <optional> <literal>FROM</literal> <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> <optional> <literal>FOR</literal> <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the substring of <parameter>bits</parameter> starting at + the <parameter>start</parameter>'th bit if that is specified, + and stopping after <parameter>count</parameter> bits if that is + specified. Provide at least one of <parameter>start</parameter> + and <parameter>count</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>substring(B'110010111111' from 3 for 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>get_bit</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>get_bit</function> ( <parameter>bits</parameter> <type>bit</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts <parameter>n</parameter>'th bit + from bit string; the first (leftmost) bit is bit 0. + </para> + <para> + <literal>get_bit(B'101010101010101010', 6)</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>set_bit</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>set_bit</function> ( <parameter>bits</parameter> <type>bit</type>, + <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>newvalue</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets <parameter>n</parameter>'th bit in + bit string to <parameter>newvalue</parameter>; + the first (leftmost) bit is bit 0. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_bit(B'101010101010101010', 6, 0)</literal> + <returnvalue>101010001010101010</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + In addition, it is possible to cast integral values to and from type + <type>bit</type>. + Casting an integer to <type>bit(n)</type> copies the rightmost + <literal>n</literal> bits. Casting an integer to a bit string width wider + than the integer itself will sign-extend on the left. + Some examples: +<programlisting> +44::bit(10) <lineannotation>0000101100</lineannotation> +44::bit(3) <lineannotation>100</lineannotation> +cast(-44 as bit(12)) <lineannotation>111111010100</lineannotation> +'1110'::bit(4)::integer <lineannotation>14</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + Note that casting to just <quote>bit</quote> means casting to + <literal>bit(1)</literal>, and so will deliver only the least significant + bit of the integer. + </para> + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-matching"> + <title>Pattern Matching</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-matching"> + <primary>pattern matching</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + There are three separate approaches to pattern matching provided + by <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>: the traditional + <acronym>SQL</acronym> <function>LIKE</function> operator, the + more recent <function>SIMILAR TO</function> operator (added in + SQL:1999), and <acronym>POSIX</acronym>-style regular + expressions. Aside from the basic <quote>does this string match + this pattern?</quote> operators, functions are available to extract + or replace matching substrings and to split a string at matching + locations. + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + If you have pattern matching needs that go beyond this, + consider writing a user-defined function in Perl or Tcl. + </para> + </tip> + + <caution> + <para> + While most regular-expression searches can be executed very quickly, + regular expressions can be contrived that take arbitrary amounts of + time and memory to process. Be wary of accepting regular-expression + search patterns from hostile sources. If you must do so, it is + advisable to impose a statement timeout. + </para> + + <para> + Searches using <function>SIMILAR TO</function> patterns have the same + security hazards, since <function>SIMILAR TO</function> provides many + of the same capabilities as <acronym>POSIX</acronym>-style regular + expressions. + </para> + + <para> + <function>LIKE</function> searches, being much simpler than the other + two options, are safer to use with possibly-hostile pattern sources. + </para> + </caution> + + <para> + The pattern matching operators of all three kinds do not support + nondeterministic collations. If required, apply a different collation to + the expression to work around this limitation. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-like"> + <title><function>LIKE</function></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>LIKE</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>string</replaceable> LIKE <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional> +<replaceable>string</replaceable> NOT LIKE <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>LIKE</function> expression returns true if the + <replaceable>string</replaceable> matches the supplied + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>. (As + expected, the <function>NOT LIKE</function> expression returns + false if <function>LIKE</function> returns true, and vice versa. + An equivalent expression is + <literal>NOT (<replaceable>string</replaceable> LIKE + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>)</literal>.) + </para> + + <para> + If <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> does not contain percent + signs or underscores, then the pattern only represents the string + itself; in that case <function>LIKE</function> acts like the + equals operator. An underscore (<literal>_</literal>) in + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> stands for (matches) any single + character; a percent sign (<literal>%</literal>) matches any sequence + of zero or more characters. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +'abc' LIKE 'abc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abc' LIKE 'a%' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abc' LIKE '_b_' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abc' LIKE 'c' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + <function>LIKE</function> pattern matching always covers the entire + string. Therefore, if it's desired to match a sequence anywhere within + a string, the pattern must start and end with a percent sign. + </para> + + <para> + To match a literal underscore or percent sign without matching + other characters, the respective character in + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> must be + preceded by the escape character. The default escape + character is the backslash but a different one can be selected by + using the <literal>ESCAPE</literal> clause. To match the escape + character itself, write two escape characters. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + If you have <xref linkend="guc-standard-conforming-strings"/> turned off, + any backslashes you write in literal string constants will need to be + doubled. See <xref linkend="sql-syntax-strings"/> for more information. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + It's also possible to select no escape character by writing + <literal>ESCAPE ''</literal>. This effectively disables the + escape mechanism, which makes it impossible to turn off the + special meaning of underscore and percent signs in the pattern. + </para> + + <para> + According to the SQL standard, omitting <literal>ESCAPE</literal> + means there is no escape character (rather than defaulting to a + backslash), and a zero-length <literal>ESCAPE</literal> value is + disallowed. <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s behavior in + this regard is therefore slightly nonstandard. + </para> + + <para> + The key word <token>ILIKE</token> can be used instead of + <token>LIKE</token> to make the match case-insensitive according + to the active locale. This is not in the <acronym>SQL</acronym> standard but is a + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> extension. + </para> + + <para> + The operator <literal>~~</literal> is equivalent to + <function>LIKE</function>, and <literal>~~*</literal> corresponds to + <function>ILIKE</function>. There are also + <literal>!~~</literal> and <literal>!~~*</literal> operators that + represent <function>NOT LIKE</function> and <function>NOT + ILIKE</function>, respectively. All of these operators are + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>-specific. You may see these + operator names in <command>EXPLAIN</command> output and similar + places, since the parser actually translates <function>LIKE</function> + et al. to these operators. + </para> + + <para> + The phrases <function>LIKE</function>, <function>ILIKE</function>, + <function>NOT LIKE</function>, and <function>NOT ILIKE</function> are + generally treated as operators + in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> syntax; for example they can + be used in <replaceable>expression</replaceable> + <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY + (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) constructs, although + an <literal>ESCAPE</literal> clause cannot be included there. In some + obscure cases it may be necessary to use the underlying operator names + instead. + </para> + + <para> + Also see the prefix operator <literal>^@</literal> and corresponding + <function>starts_with</function> function, which are useful in cases + where simply matching the beginning of a string is needed. + </para> + </sect2> + + + <sect2 id="functions-similarto-regexp"> + <title><function>SIMILAR TO</function> Regular Expressions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>regular expression</primary> + <!-- <seealso>pattern matching</seealso> breaks index build --> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>SIMILAR TO</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>substring</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>string</replaceable> SIMILAR TO <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional> +<replaceable>string</replaceable> NOT SIMILAR TO <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>SIMILAR TO</function> operator returns true or + false depending on whether its pattern matches the given string. + It is similar to <function>LIKE</function>, except that it + interprets the pattern using the SQL standard's definition of a + regular expression. SQL regular expressions are a curious cross + between <function>LIKE</function> notation and common (POSIX) regular + expression notation. + </para> + + <para> + Like <function>LIKE</function>, the <function>SIMILAR TO</function> + operator succeeds only if its pattern matches the entire string; + this is unlike common regular expression behavior where the pattern + can match any part of the string. + Also like + <function>LIKE</function>, <function>SIMILAR TO</function> uses + <literal>_</literal> and <literal>%</literal> as wildcard characters denoting + any single character and any string, respectively (these are + comparable to <literal>.</literal> and <literal>.*</literal> in POSIX regular + expressions). + </para> + + <para> + In addition to these facilities borrowed from <function>LIKE</function>, + <function>SIMILAR TO</function> supports these pattern-matching + metacharacters borrowed from POSIX regular expressions: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>|</literal> denotes alternation (either of two alternatives). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>*</literal> denotes repetition of the previous item zero + or more times. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>+</literal> denotes repetition of the previous item one + or more times. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>?</literal> denotes repetition of the previous item zero + or one time. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}</literal> denotes repetition + of the previous item exactly <replaceable>m</replaceable> times. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,}</literal> denotes repetition + of the previous item <replaceable>m</replaceable> or more times. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}</literal> + denotes repetition of the previous item at least <replaceable>m</replaceable> and + not more than <replaceable>n</replaceable> times. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Parentheses <literal>()</literal> can be used to group items into + a single logical item. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + A bracket expression <literal>[...]</literal> specifies a character + class, just as in POSIX regular expressions. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + Notice that the period (<literal>.</literal>) is not a metacharacter + for <function>SIMILAR TO</function>. + </para> + + <para> + As with <function>LIKE</function>, a backslash disables the special + meaning of any of these metacharacters. A different escape character + can be specified with <literal>ESCAPE</literal>, or the escape + capability can be disabled by writing <literal>ESCAPE ''</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + According to the SQL standard, omitting <literal>ESCAPE</literal> + means there is no escape character (rather than defaulting to a + backslash), and a zero-length <literal>ESCAPE</literal> value is + disallowed. <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s behavior in + this regard is therefore slightly nonstandard. + </para> + + <para> + Another nonstandard extension is that following the escape character + with a letter or digit provides access to the escape sequences + defined for POSIX regular expressions; see + <xref linkend="posix-character-entry-escapes-table"/>, + <xref linkend="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table"/>, and + <xref linkend="posix-constraint-escapes-table"/> below. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +'abc' SIMILAR TO 'abc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abc' SIMILAR TO 'a' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation> +'abc' SIMILAR TO '%(b|d)%' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abc' SIMILAR TO '(b|c)%' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation> +'-abc-' SIMILAR TO '%\mabc\M%' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'xabcy' SIMILAR TO '%\mabc\M%' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>substring</function> function with three parameters + provides extraction of a substring that matches an SQL + regular expression pattern. The function can be written according + to standard SQL syntax: +<synopsis> +substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable> similar <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> escape <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + or using the now obsolete SQL:1999 syntax: +<synopsis> +substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable> from <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> for <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + or as a plain three-argument function: +<synopsis> +substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable>, <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>, <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + As with <literal>SIMILAR TO</literal>, the + specified pattern must match the entire data string, or else the + function fails and returns null. To indicate the part of the + pattern for which the matching data sub-string is of interest, + the pattern should contain + two occurrences of the escape character followed by a double quote + (<literal>"</literal>). <!-- " font-lock sanity --> + The text matching the portion of the pattern + between these separators is returned when the match is successful. + </para> + + <para> + The escape-double-quote separators actually + divide <function>substring</function>'s pattern into three independent + regular expressions; for example, a vertical bar (<literal>|</literal>) + in any of the three sections affects only that section. Also, the first + and third of these regular expressions are defined to match the smallest + possible amount of text, not the largest, when there is any ambiguity + about how much of the data string matches which pattern. (In POSIX + parlance, the first and third regular expressions are forced to be + non-greedy.) + </para> + + <para> + As an extension to the SQL standard, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + allows there to be just one escape-double-quote separator, in which case + the third regular expression is taken as empty; or no separators, in which + case the first and third regular expressions are taken as empty. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples, with <literal>#"</literal> delimiting the return string: +<programlisting> +substring('foobar' similar '%#"o_b#"%' escape '#') <lineannotation>oob</lineannotation> +substring('foobar' similar '#"o_b#"%' escape '#') <lineannotation>NULL</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-posix-regexp"> + <title><acronym>POSIX</acronym> Regular Expressions</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-posix-regexp"> + <primary>regular expression</primary> + <seealso>pattern matching</seealso> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>substring</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_replace</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_match</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_matches</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_split_to_table</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regexp_split_to_array</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-posix-table"/> lists the available + operators for pattern matching using POSIX regular expressions. + </para> + + <table id="functions-posix-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Match Operators</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + String matches regular expression, case sensitively + </para> + <para> + <literal>'thomas' ~ 't.*ma'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>~*</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + String matches regular expression, case insensitively + </para> + <para> + <literal>'thomas' ~* 'T.*ma'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>!~</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + String does not match regular expression, case sensitively + </para> + <para> + <literal>'thomas' !~ 't.*max'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>!~*</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + String does not match regular expression, case insensitively + </para> + <para> + <literal>'thomas' !~* 'T.*ma'</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <acronym>POSIX</acronym> regular expressions provide a more + powerful means for pattern matching than the <function>LIKE</function> and + <function>SIMILAR TO</function> operators. + Many Unix tools such as <command>egrep</command>, + <command>sed</command>, or <command>awk</command> use a pattern + matching language that is similar to the one described here. + </para> + + <para> + A regular expression is a character sequence that is an + abbreviated definition of a set of strings (a <firstterm>regular + set</firstterm>). A string is said to match a regular expression + if it is a member of the regular set described by the regular + expression. As with <function>LIKE</function>, pattern characters + match string characters exactly unless they are special characters + in the regular expression language — but regular expressions use + different special characters than <function>LIKE</function> does. + Unlike <function>LIKE</function> patterns, a + regular expression is allowed to match anywhere within a string, unless + the regular expression is explicitly anchored to the beginning or + end of the string. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +'abcd' ~ 'bc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation> +'abcd' ~ 'a.c' <lineannotation>true — dot matches any character</lineannotation> +'abcd' ~ 'a.*d' <lineannotation>true — <literal>*</literal> repeats the preceding pattern item</lineannotation> +'abcd' ~ '(b|x)' <lineannotation>true — <literal>|</literal> means OR, parentheses group</lineannotation> +'abcd' ~ '^a' <lineannotation>true — <literal>^</literal> anchors to start of string</lineannotation> +'abcd' ~ '^(b|c)' <lineannotation>false — would match except for anchoring</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <acronym>POSIX</acronym> pattern language is described in much + greater detail below. + </para> + + <para> + The <function>substring</function> function with two parameters, + <function>substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable> from + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>)</function>, provides extraction of a + substring + that matches a POSIX regular expression pattern. It returns null if + there is no match, otherwise the first portion of the text that matched the + pattern. But if the pattern contains any parentheses, the portion + of the text that matched the first parenthesized subexpression (the + one whose left parenthesis comes first) is + returned. You can put parentheses around the whole expression + if you want to use parentheses within it without triggering this + exception. If you need parentheses in the pattern before the + subexpression you want to extract, see the non-capturing parentheses + described below. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +substring('foobar' from 'o.b') <lineannotation>oob</lineannotation> +substring('foobar' from 'o(.)b') <lineannotation>o</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>regexp_replace</function> function provides substitution of + new text for substrings that match POSIX regular expression patterns. + It has the syntax + <function>regexp_replace</function>(<replaceable>source</replaceable>, + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>, <replaceable>replacement</replaceable> + <optional>, <replaceable>flags</replaceable> </optional>). + The <replaceable>source</replaceable> string is returned unchanged if + there is no match to the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>. If there is a + match, the <replaceable>source</replaceable> string is returned with the + <replaceable>replacement</replaceable> string substituted for the matching + substring. The <replaceable>replacement</replaceable> string can contain + <literal>\</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable>, where <replaceable>n</replaceable> is 1 + through 9, to indicate that the source substring matching the + <replaceable>n</replaceable>'th parenthesized subexpression of the pattern should be + inserted, and it can contain <literal>\&</literal> to indicate that the + substring matching the entire pattern should be inserted. Write + <literal>\\</literal> if you need to put a literal backslash in the replacement + text. + The <replaceable>flags</replaceable> parameter is an optional text + string containing zero or more single-letter flags that change the + function's behavior. Flag <literal>i</literal> specifies case-insensitive + matching, while flag <literal>g</literal> specifies replacement of each matching + substring rather than only the first one. Supported flags (though + not <literal>g</literal>) are + described in <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b..', 'X') + <lineannotation>fooXbaz</lineannotation> +regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b..', 'X', 'g') + <lineannotation>fooXX</lineannotation> +regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b(..)', 'X\1Y', 'g') + <lineannotation>fooXarYXazY</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>regexp_match</function> function returns a text array of + captured substring(s) resulting from the first match of a POSIX + regular expression pattern to a string. It has the syntax + <function>regexp_match</function>(<replaceable>string</replaceable>, + <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>, <replaceable>flags</replaceable> </optional>). + If there is no match, the result is <literal>NULL</literal>. + If a match is found, and the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> contains no + parenthesized subexpressions, then the result is a single-element text + array containing the substring matching the whole pattern. + If a match is found, and the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> contains + parenthesized subexpressions, then the result is a text array + whose <replaceable>n</replaceable>'th element is the substring matching + the <replaceable>n</replaceable>'th parenthesized subexpression of + the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> (not counting <quote>non-capturing</quote> + parentheses; see below for details). + The <replaceable>flags</replaceable> parameter is an optional text string + containing zero or more single-letter flags that change the function's + behavior. Supported flags are described + in <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +SELECT regexp_match('foobarbequebaz', 'bar.*que'); + regexp_match +-------------- + {barbeque} +(1 row) + +SELECT regexp_match('foobarbequebaz', '(bar)(beque)'); + regexp_match +-------------- + {bar,beque} +(1 row) +</programlisting> + In the common case where you just want the whole matching substring + or <literal>NULL</literal> for no match, write something like +<programlisting> +SELECT (regexp_match('foobarbequebaz', 'bar.*que'))[1]; + regexp_match +-------------- + barbeque +(1 row) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>regexp_matches</function> function returns a set of text arrays + of captured substring(s) resulting from matching a POSIX regular + expression pattern to a string. It has the same syntax as + <function>regexp_match</function>. + This function returns no rows if there is no match, one row if there is + a match and the <literal>g</literal> flag is not given, or <replaceable>N</replaceable> + rows if there are <replaceable>N</replaceable> matches and the <literal>g</literal> flag + is given. Each returned row is a text array containing the whole + matched substring or the substrings matching parenthesized + subexpressions of the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>, just as described above + for <function>regexp_match</function>. + <function>regexp_matches</function> accepts all the flags shown + in <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>, plus + the <literal>g</literal> flag which commands it to return all matches, not + just the first one. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> +SELECT regexp_matches('foo', 'not there'); + regexp_matches +---------------- +(0 rows) + +SELECT regexp_matches('foobarbequebazilbarfbonk', '(b[^b]+)(b[^b]+)', 'g'); + regexp_matches +---------------- + {bar,beque} + {bazil,barf} +(2 rows) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + In most cases <function>regexp_matches()</function> should be used with + the <literal>g</literal> flag, since if you only want the first match, it's + easier and more efficient to use <function>regexp_match()</function>. + However, <function>regexp_match()</function> only exists + in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> version 10 and up. When working in older + versions, a common trick is to place a <function>regexp_matches()</function> + call in a sub-select, for example: +<programlisting> +SELECT col1, (SELECT regexp_matches(col2, '(bar)(beque)')) FROM tab; +</programlisting> + This produces a text array if there's a match, or <literal>NULL</literal> if + not, the same as <function>regexp_match()</function> would do. Without the + sub-select, this query would produce no output at all for table rows + without a match, which is typically not the desired behavior. + </para> + </tip> + + <para> + The <function>regexp_split_to_table</function> function splits a string using a POSIX + regular expression pattern as a delimiter. It has the syntax + <function>regexp_split_to_table</function>(<replaceable>string</replaceable>, <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> + <optional>, <replaceable>flags</replaceable> </optional>). + If there is no match to the <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>, the function returns the + <replaceable>string</replaceable>. If there is at least one match, for each match it returns + the text from the end of the last match (or the beginning of the string) + to the beginning of the match. When there are no more matches, it + returns the text from the end of the last match to the end of the string. + The <replaceable>flags</replaceable> parameter is an optional text string containing + zero or more single-letter flags that change the function's behavior. + <function>regexp_split_to_table</function> supports the flags described in + <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + The <function>regexp_split_to_array</function> function behaves the same as + <function>regexp_split_to_table</function>, except that <function>regexp_split_to_array</function> + returns its result as an array of <type>text</type>. It has the syntax + <function>regexp_split_to_array</function>(<replaceable>string</replaceable>, <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> + <optional>, <replaceable>flags</replaceable> </optional>). + The parameters are the same as for <function>regexp_split_to_table</function>. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<programlisting> + +SELECT foo FROM regexp_split_to_table('the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog', '\s+') AS foo; + foo +------- + the + quick + brown + fox + jumps + over + the + lazy + dog +(9 rows) + +SELECT regexp_split_to_array('the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog', '\s+'); + regexp_split_to_array +----------------------------------------------- + {the,quick,brown,fox,jumps,over,the,lazy,dog} +(1 row) + +SELECT foo FROM regexp_split_to_table('the quick brown fox', '\s*') AS foo; + foo +----- + t + h + e + q + u + i + c + k + b + r + o + w + n + f + o + x +(16 rows) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + As the last example demonstrates, the regexp split functions ignore + zero-length matches that occur at the start or end of the string + or immediately after a previous match. This is contrary to the strict + definition of regexp matching that is implemented by + <function>regexp_match</function> and + <function>regexp_matches</function>, but is usually the most convenient behavior + in practice. Other software systems such as Perl use similar definitions. + </para> + +<!-- derived from the re_syntax.n man page --> + + <sect3 id="posix-syntax-details"> + <title>Regular Expression Details</title> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s regular expressions are implemented + using a software package written by Henry Spencer. Much of + the description of regular expressions below is copied verbatim from his + manual. + </para> + + <para> + Regular expressions (<acronym>RE</acronym>s), as defined in + <acronym>POSIX</acronym> 1003.2, come in two forms: + <firstterm>extended</firstterm> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>ERE</acronym>s + (roughly those of <command>egrep</command>), and + <firstterm>basic</firstterm> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>BRE</acronym>s + (roughly those of <command>ed</command>). + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> supports both forms, and + also implements some extensions + that are not in the POSIX standard, but have become widely used + due to their availability in programming languages such as Perl and Tcl. + <acronym>RE</acronym>s using these non-POSIX extensions are called + <firstterm>advanced</firstterm> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>ARE</acronym>s + in this documentation. AREs are almost an exact superset of EREs, + but BREs have several notational incompatibilities (as well as being + much more limited). + We first describe the ARE and ERE forms, noting features that apply + only to AREs, and then describe how BREs differ. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> always initially presumes that a regular + expression follows the ARE rules. However, the more limited ERE or + BRE rules can be chosen by prepending an <firstterm>embedded option</firstterm> + to the RE pattern, as described in <xref linkend="posix-metasyntax"/>. + This can be useful for compatibility with applications that expect + exactly the <acronym>POSIX</acronym> 1003.2 rules. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + A regular expression is defined as one or more + <firstterm>branches</firstterm>, separated by + <literal>|</literal>. It matches anything that matches one of the + branches. + </para> + + <para> + A branch is zero or more <firstterm>quantified atoms</firstterm> or + <firstterm>constraints</firstterm>, concatenated. + It matches a match for the first, followed by a match for the second, etc; + an empty branch matches the empty string. + </para> + + <para> + A quantified atom is an <firstterm>atom</firstterm> possibly followed + by a single <firstterm>quantifier</firstterm>. + Without a quantifier, it matches a match for the atom. + With a quantifier, it can match some number of matches of the atom. + An <firstterm>atom</firstterm> can be any of the possibilities + shown in <xref linkend="posix-atoms-table"/>. + The possible quantifiers and their meanings are shown in + <xref linkend="posix-quantifiers-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + A <firstterm>constraint</firstterm> matches an empty string, but matches only when + specific conditions are met. A constraint can be used where an atom + could be used, except it cannot be followed by a quantifier. + The simple constraints are shown in + <xref linkend="posix-constraints-table"/>; + some more constraints are described later. + </para> + + + <table id="posix-atoms-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Atoms</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Atom</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>(</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>re</replaceable> is any regular expression) + matches a match for + <replaceable>re</replaceable>, with the match noted for possible reporting </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>(?:</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> as above, but the match is not noted for reporting + (a <quote>non-capturing</quote> set of parentheses) + (AREs only) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>.</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any single character </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>[</literal><replaceable>chars</replaceable><literal>]</literal> </entry> + <entry> a <firstterm>bracket expression</firstterm>, + matching any one of the <replaceable>chars</replaceable> (see + <xref linkend="posix-bracket-expressions"/> for more detail) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>k</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>k</replaceable> is a non-alphanumeric character) + matches that character taken as an ordinary character, + e.g., <literal>\\</literal> matches a backslash character </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>c</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> where <replaceable>c</replaceable> is alphanumeric + (possibly followed by other characters) + is an <firstterm>escape</firstterm>, see <xref linkend="posix-escape-sequences"/> + (AREs only; in EREs and BREs, this matches <replaceable>c</replaceable>) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>{</literal> </entry> + <entry> when followed by a character other than a digit, + matches the left-brace character <literal>{</literal>; + when followed by a digit, it is the beginning of a + <replaceable>bound</replaceable> (see below) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <replaceable>x</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> where <replaceable>x</replaceable> is a single character with no other + significance, matches that character </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + An RE cannot end with a backslash (<literal>\</literal>). + </para> + + <note> + <para> + If you have <xref linkend="guc-standard-conforming-strings"/> turned off, + any backslashes you write in literal string constants will need to be + doubled. See <xref linkend="sql-syntax-strings"/> for more information. + </para> + </note> + + <table id="posix-quantifiers-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Quantifiers</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Quantifier</entry> + <entry>Matches</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of 0 or more matches of the atom </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of 1 or more matches of the atom </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>?</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of 0 or 1 matches of the atom </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of exactly <replaceable>m</replaceable> matches of the atom </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,}</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of <replaceable>m</replaceable> or more matches of the atom </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}</literal> </entry> + <entry> a sequence of <replaceable>m</replaceable> through <replaceable>n</replaceable> + (inclusive) matches of the atom; <replaceable>m</replaceable> cannot exceed + <replaceable>n</replaceable> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>*?</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>*</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>+?</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>+</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>??</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>?</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}?</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,}?</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,}</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}?</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}</literal> </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The forms using <literal>{</literal><replaceable>...</replaceable><literal>}</literal> + are known as <firstterm>bounds</firstterm>. + The numbers <replaceable>m</replaceable> and <replaceable>n</replaceable> within a bound are + unsigned decimal integers with permissible values from 0 to 255 inclusive. + </para> + + <para> + <firstterm>Non-greedy</firstterm> quantifiers (available in AREs only) match the + same possibilities as their corresponding normal (<firstterm>greedy</firstterm>) + counterparts, but prefer the smallest number rather than the largest + number of matches. + See <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/> for more detail. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + A quantifier cannot immediately follow another quantifier, e.g., + <literal>**</literal> is invalid. + A quantifier cannot + begin an expression or subexpression or follow + <literal>^</literal> or <literal>|</literal>. + </para> + </note> + + <table id="posix-constraints-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Constraints</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Constraint</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>^</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches at the beginning of the string </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>$</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches at the end of the string </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>(?=</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> <firstterm>positive lookahead</firstterm> matches at any point + where a substring matching <replaceable>re</replaceable> begins + (AREs only) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>(?!</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> <firstterm>negative lookahead</firstterm> matches at any point + where no substring matching <replaceable>re</replaceable> begins + (AREs only) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>(?<=</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> <firstterm>positive lookbehind</firstterm> matches at any point + where a substring matching <replaceable>re</replaceable> ends + (AREs only) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>(?<!</literal><replaceable>re</replaceable><literal>)</literal> </entry> + <entry> <firstterm>negative lookbehind</firstterm> matches at any point + where no substring matching <replaceable>re</replaceable> ends + (AREs only) </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Lookahead and lookbehind constraints cannot contain <firstterm>back + references</firstterm> (see <xref linkend="posix-escape-sequences"/>), + and all parentheses within them are considered non-capturing. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-bracket-expressions"> + <title>Bracket Expressions</title> + + <para> + A <firstterm>bracket expression</firstterm> is a list of + characters enclosed in <literal>[]</literal>. It normally matches + any single character from the list (but see below). If the list + begins with <literal>^</literal>, it matches any single character + <emphasis>not</emphasis> from the rest of the list. + If two characters + in the list are separated by <literal>-</literal>, this is + shorthand for the full range of characters between those two + (inclusive) in the collating sequence, + e.g., <literal>[0-9]</literal> in <acronym>ASCII</acronym> matches + any decimal digit. It is illegal for two ranges to share an + endpoint, e.g., <literal>a-c-e</literal>. Ranges are very + collating-sequence-dependent, so portable programs should avoid + relying on them. + </para> + + <para> + To include a literal <literal>]</literal> in the list, make it the + first character (after <literal>^</literal>, if that is used). To + include a literal <literal>-</literal>, make it the first or last + character, or the second endpoint of a range. To use a literal + <literal>-</literal> as the first endpoint of a range, enclose it + in <literal>[.</literal> and <literal>.]</literal> to make it a + collating element (see below). With the exception of these characters, + some combinations using <literal>[</literal> + (see next paragraphs), and escapes (AREs only), all other special + characters lose their special significance within a bracket expression. + In particular, <literal>\</literal> is not special when following + ERE or BRE rules, though it is special (as introducing an escape) + in AREs. + </para> + + <para> + Within a bracket expression, a collating element (a character, a + multiple-character sequence that collates as if it were a single + character, or a collating-sequence name for either) enclosed in + <literal>[.</literal> and <literal>.]</literal> stands for the + sequence of characters of that collating element. The sequence is + treated as a single element of the bracket expression's list. This + allows a bracket + expression containing a multiple-character collating element to + match more than one character, e.g., if the collating sequence + includes a <literal>ch</literal> collating element, then the RE + <literal>[[.ch.]]*c</literal> matches the first five characters of + <literal>chchcc</literal>. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> currently does not support multi-character collating + elements. This information describes possible future behavior. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + Within a bracket expression, a collating element enclosed in + <literal>[=</literal> and <literal>=]</literal> is an <firstterm>equivalence + class</firstterm>, standing for the sequences of characters of all collating + elements equivalent to that one, including itself. (If there are + no other equivalent collating elements, the treatment is as if the + enclosing delimiters were <literal>[.</literal> and + <literal>.]</literal>.) For example, if <literal>o</literal> and + <literal>^</literal> are the members of an equivalence class, then + <literal>[[=o=]]</literal>, <literal>[[=^=]]</literal>, and + <literal>[o^]</literal> are all synonymous. An equivalence class + cannot be an endpoint of a range. + </para> + + <para> + Within a bracket expression, the name of a character class + enclosed in <literal>[:</literal> and <literal>:]</literal> stands + for the list of all characters belonging to that class. A character + class cannot be used as an endpoint of a range. + The <acronym>POSIX</acronym> standard defines these character class + names: + <literal>alnum</literal> (letters and numeric digits), + <literal>alpha</literal> (letters), + <literal>blank</literal> (space and tab), + <literal>cntrl</literal> (control characters), + <literal>digit</literal> (numeric digits), + <literal>graph</literal> (printable characters except space), + <literal>lower</literal> (lower-case letters), + <literal>print</literal> (printable characters including space), + <literal>punct</literal> (punctuation), + <literal>space</literal> (any white space), + <literal>upper</literal> (upper-case letters), + and <literal>xdigit</literal> (hexadecimal digits). + The behavior of these standard character classes is generally + consistent across platforms for characters in the 7-bit ASCII set. + Whether a given non-ASCII character is considered to belong to one + of these classes depends on the <firstterm>collation</firstterm> + that is used for the regular-expression function or operator + (see <xref linkend="collation"/>), or by default on the + database's <envar>LC_CTYPE</envar> locale setting (see + <xref linkend="locale"/>). The classification of non-ASCII + characters can vary across platforms even in similarly-named + locales. (But the <literal>C</literal> locale never considers any + non-ASCII characters to belong to any of these classes.) + In addition to these standard character + classes, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> defines + the <literal>word</literal> character class, which is the same as + <literal>alnum</literal> plus the underscore (<literal>_</literal>) + character, and + the <literal>ascii</literal> character class, which contains exactly + the 7-bit ASCII set. + </para> + + <para> + There are two special cases of bracket expressions: the bracket + expressions <literal>[[:<:]]</literal> and + <literal>[[:>:]]</literal> are constraints, + matching empty strings at the beginning + and end of a word respectively. A word is defined as a sequence + of word characters that is neither preceded nor followed by word + characters. A word character is any character belonging to the + <literal>word</literal> character class, that is, any letter, digit, + or underscore. This is an extension, compatible with but not + specified by <acronym>POSIX</acronym> 1003.2, and should be used with + caution in software intended to be portable to other systems. + The constraint escapes described below are usually preferable; they + are no more standard, but are easier to type. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-escape-sequences"> + <title>Regular Expression Escapes</title> + + <para> + <firstterm>Escapes</firstterm> are special sequences beginning with <literal>\</literal> + followed by an alphanumeric character. Escapes come in several varieties: + character entry, class shorthands, constraint escapes, and back references. + A <literal>\</literal> followed by an alphanumeric character but not constituting + a valid escape is illegal in AREs. + In EREs, there are no escapes: outside a bracket expression, + a <literal>\</literal> followed by an alphanumeric character merely stands for + that character as an ordinary character, and inside a bracket expression, + <literal>\</literal> is an ordinary character. + (The latter is the one actual incompatibility between EREs and AREs.) + </para> + + <para> + <firstterm>Character-entry escapes</firstterm> exist to make it easier to specify + non-printing and other inconvenient characters in REs. They are + shown in <xref linkend="posix-character-entry-escapes-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + <firstterm>Class-shorthand escapes</firstterm> provide shorthands for certain + commonly-used character classes. They are + shown in <xref linkend="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + A <firstterm>constraint escape</firstterm> is a constraint, + matching the empty string if specific conditions are met, + written as an escape. They are + shown in <xref linkend="posix-constraint-escapes-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + A <firstterm>back reference</firstterm> (<literal>\</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable>) matches the + same string matched by the previous parenthesized subexpression specified + by the number <replaceable>n</replaceable> + (see <xref linkend="posix-constraint-backref-table"/>). For example, + <literal>([bc])\1</literal> matches <literal>bb</literal> or <literal>cc</literal> + but not <literal>bc</literal> or <literal>cb</literal>. + The subexpression must entirely precede the back reference in the RE. + Subexpressions are numbered in the order of their leading parentheses. + Non-capturing parentheses do not define subexpressions. + The back reference considers only the string characters matched by the + referenced subexpression, not any constraints contained in it. For + example, <literal>(^\d)\1</literal> will match <literal>22</literal>. + </para> + + <table id="posix-character-entry-escapes-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Character-Entry Escapes</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Escape</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>\a</literal> </entry> + <entry> alert (bell) character, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\b</literal> </entry> + <entry> backspace, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\B</literal> </entry> + <entry> synonym for backslash (<literal>\</literal>) to help reduce the need for backslash + doubling </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\c</literal><replaceable>X</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>X</replaceable> is any character) the character whose + low-order 5 bits are the same as those of + <replaceable>X</replaceable>, and whose other bits are all zero </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\e</literal> </entry> + <entry> the character whose collating-sequence name + is <literal>ESC</literal>, + or failing that, the character with octal value <literal>033</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\f</literal> </entry> + <entry> form feed, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\n</literal> </entry> + <entry> newline, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\r</literal> </entry> + <entry> carriage return, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\t</literal> </entry> + <entry> horizontal tab, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\u</literal><replaceable>wxyz</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>wxyz</replaceable> is exactly four hexadecimal digits) + the character whose hexadecimal value is + <literal>0x</literal><replaceable>wxyz</replaceable> + </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\U</literal><replaceable>stuvwxyz</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>stuvwxyz</replaceable> is exactly eight hexadecimal + digits) + the character whose hexadecimal value is + <literal>0x</literal><replaceable>stuvwxyz</replaceable> + </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\v</literal> </entry> + <entry> vertical tab, as in C </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\x</literal><replaceable>hhh</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>hhh</replaceable> is any sequence of hexadecimal + digits) + the character whose hexadecimal value is + <literal>0x</literal><replaceable>hhh</replaceable> + (a single character no matter how many hexadecimal digits are used) + </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\0</literal> </entry> + <entry> the character whose value is <literal>0</literal> (the null byte)</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>xy</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>xy</replaceable> is exactly two octal digits, + and is not a <firstterm>back reference</firstterm>) + the character whose octal value is + <literal>0</literal><replaceable>xy</replaceable> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>xyz</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>xyz</replaceable> is exactly three octal digits, + and is not a <firstterm>back reference</firstterm>) + the character whose octal value is + <literal>0</literal><replaceable>xyz</replaceable> </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Hexadecimal digits are <literal>0</literal>-<literal>9</literal>, + <literal>a</literal>-<literal>f</literal>, and <literal>A</literal>-<literal>F</literal>. + Octal digits are <literal>0</literal>-<literal>7</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + Numeric character-entry escapes specifying values outside the ASCII range + (0–127) have meanings dependent on the database encoding. When the + encoding is UTF-8, escape values are equivalent to Unicode code points, + for example <literal>\u1234</literal> means the character <literal>U+1234</literal>. + For other multibyte encodings, character-entry escapes usually just + specify the concatenation of the byte values for the character. If the + escape value does not correspond to any legal character in the database + encoding, no error will be raised, but it will never match any data. + </para> + + <para> + The character-entry escapes are always taken as ordinary characters. + For example, <literal>\135</literal> is <literal>]</literal> in ASCII, but + <literal>\135</literal> does not terminate a bracket expression. + </para> + + <table id="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Class-Shorthand Escapes</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Escape</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>\d</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any digit, like + <literal>[[:digit:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\s</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any whitespace character, like + <literal>[[:space:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\w</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any word character, like + <literal>[[:word:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\D</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any non-digit, like + <literal>[^[:digit:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\S</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any non-whitespace character, like + <literal>[^[:space:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\W</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches any non-word character, like + <literal>[^[:word:]]</literal> </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The class-shorthand escapes also work within bracket expressions, + although the definitions shown above are not quite syntactically + valid in that context. + For example, <literal>[a-c\d]</literal> is equivalent to + <literal>[a-c[:digit:]]</literal>. + </para> + + <table id="posix-constraint-escapes-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Constraint Escapes</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Escape</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>\A</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at the beginning of the string + (see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/> for how this differs from + <literal>^</literal>) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\m</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at the beginning of a word </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\M</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at the end of a word </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\y</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at the beginning or end of a word </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\Y</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at a point that is not the beginning or end of a + word </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\Z</literal> </entry> + <entry> matches only at the end of the string + (see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/> for how this differs from + <literal>$</literal>) </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + A word is defined as in the specification of + <literal>[[:<:]]</literal> and <literal>[[:>:]]</literal> above. + Constraint escapes are illegal within bracket expressions. + </para> + + <table id="posix-constraint-backref-table"> + <title>Regular Expression Back References</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Escape</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>m</replaceable> is a nonzero digit) + a back reference to the <replaceable>m</replaceable>'th subexpression </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>\</literal><replaceable>mnn</replaceable> </entry> + <entry> (where <replaceable>m</replaceable> is a nonzero digit, and + <replaceable>nn</replaceable> is some more digits, and the decimal value + <replaceable>mnn</replaceable> is not greater than the number of closing capturing + parentheses seen so far) + a back reference to the <replaceable>mnn</replaceable>'th subexpression </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + There is an inherent ambiguity between octal character-entry + escapes and back references, which is resolved by the following heuristics, + as hinted at above. + A leading zero always indicates an octal escape. + A single non-zero digit, not followed by another digit, + is always taken as a back reference. + A multi-digit sequence not starting with a zero is taken as a back + reference if it comes after a suitable subexpression + (i.e., the number is in the legal range for a back reference), + and otherwise is taken as octal. + </para> + </note> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-metasyntax"> + <title>Regular Expression Metasyntax</title> + + <para> + In addition to the main syntax described above, there are some special + forms and miscellaneous syntactic facilities available. + </para> + + <para> + An RE can begin with one of two special <firstterm>director</firstterm> prefixes. + If an RE begins with <literal>***:</literal>, + the rest of the RE is taken as an ARE. (This normally has no effect in + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, since REs are assumed to be AREs; + but it does have an effect if ERE or BRE mode had been specified by + the <replaceable>flags</replaceable> parameter to a regex function.) + If an RE begins with <literal>***=</literal>, + the rest of the RE is taken to be a literal string, + with all characters considered ordinary characters. + </para> + + <para> + An ARE can begin with <firstterm>embedded options</firstterm>: + a sequence <literal>(?</literal><replaceable>xyz</replaceable><literal>)</literal> + (where <replaceable>xyz</replaceable> is one or more alphabetic characters) + specifies options affecting the rest of the RE. + These options override any previously determined options — + in particular, they can override the case-sensitivity behavior implied by + a regex operator, or the <replaceable>flags</replaceable> parameter to a regex + function. + The available option letters are + shown in <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>. + Note that these same option letters are used in the <replaceable>flags</replaceable> + parameters of regex functions. + </para> + + <table id="posix-embedded-options-table"> + <title>ARE Embedded-Option Letters</title> + + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Option</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry> <literal>b</literal> </entry> + <entry> rest of RE is a BRE </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>c</literal> </entry> + <entry> case-sensitive matching (overrides operator type) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>e</literal> </entry> + <entry> rest of RE is an ERE </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>i</literal> </entry> + <entry> case-insensitive matching (see + <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/>) (overrides operator type) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>m</literal> </entry> + <entry> historical synonym for <literal>n</literal> </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>n</literal> </entry> + <entry> newline-sensitive matching (see + <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/>) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>p</literal> </entry> + <entry> partial newline-sensitive matching (see + <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/>) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>q</literal> </entry> + <entry> rest of RE is a literal (<quote>quoted</quote>) string, all ordinary + characters </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>s</literal> </entry> + <entry> non-newline-sensitive matching (default) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>t</literal> </entry> + <entry> tight syntax (default; see below) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>w</literal> </entry> + <entry> inverse partial newline-sensitive (<quote>weird</quote>) matching + (see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"/>) </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry> <literal>x</literal> </entry> + <entry> expanded syntax (see below) </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Embedded options take effect at the <literal>)</literal> terminating the sequence. + They can appear only at the start of an ARE (after the + <literal>***:</literal> director if any). + </para> + + <para> + In addition to the usual (<firstterm>tight</firstterm>) RE syntax, in which all + characters are significant, there is an <firstterm>expanded</firstterm> syntax, + available by specifying the embedded <literal>x</literal> option. + In the expanded syntax, + white-space characters in the RE are ignored, as are + all characters between a <literal>#</literal> + and the following newline (or the end of the RE). This + permits paragraphing and commenting a complex RE. + There are three exceptions to that basic rule: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + a white-space character or <literal>#</literal> preceded by <literal>\</literal> is + retained + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + white space or <literal>#</literal> within a bracket expression is retained + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + white space and comments cannot appear within multi-character symbols, + such as <literal>(?:</literal> + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + For this purpose, white-space characters are blank, tab, newline, and + any character that belongs to the <replaceable>space</replaceable> character class. + </para> + + <para> + Finally, in an ARE, outside bracket expressions, the sequence + <literal>(?#</literal><replaceable>ttt</replaceable><literal>)</literal> + (where <replaceable>ttt</replaceable> is any text not containing a <literal>)</literal>) + is a comment, completely ignored. + Again, this is not allowed between the characters of + multi-character symbols, like <literal>(?:</literal>. + Such comments are more a historical artifact than a useful facility, + and their use is deprecated; use the expanded syntax instead. + </para> + + <para> + <emphasis>None</emphasis> of these metasyntax extensions is available if + an initial <literal>***=</literal> director + has specified that the user's input be treated as a literal string + rather than as an RE. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-matching-rules"> + <title>Regular Expression Matching Rules</title> + + <para> + In the event that an RE could match more than one substring of a given + string, the RE matches the one starting earliest in the string. + If the RE could match more than one substring starting at that point, + either the longest possible match or the shortest possible match will + be taken, depending on whether the RE is <firstterm>greedy</firstterm> or + <firstterm>non-greedy</firstterm>. + </para> + + <para> + Whether an RE is greedy or not is determined by the following rules: + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + Most atoms, and all constraints, have no greediness attribute (because + they cannot match variable amounts of text anyway). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Adding parentheses around an RE does not change its greediness. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + A quantified atom with a fixed-repetition quantifier + (<literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}</literal> + or + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>}?</literal>) + has the same greediness (possibly none) as the atom itself. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + A quantified atom with other normal quantifiers (including + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}</literal> + with <replaceable>m</replaceable> equal to <replaceable>n</replaceable>) + is greedy (prefers longest match). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + A quantified atom with a non-greedy quantifier (including + <literal>{</literal><replaceable>m</replaceable><literal>,</literal><replaceable>n</replaceable><literal>}?</literal> + with <replaceable>m</replaceable> equal to <replaceable>n</replaceable>) + is non-greedy (prefers shortest match). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + A branch — that is, an RE that has no top-level + <literal>|</literal> operator — has the same greediness as the first + quantified atom in it that has a greediness attribute. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + An RE consisting of two or more branches connected by the + <literal>|</literal> operator is always greedy. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + <para> + The above rules associate greediness attributes not only with individual + quantified atoms, but with branches and entire REs that contain quantified + atoms. What that means is that the matching is done in such a way that + the branch, or whole RE, matches the longest or shortest possible + substring <emphasis>as a whole</emphasis>. Once the length of the entire match + is determined, the part of it that matches any particular subexpression + is determined on the basis of the greediness attribute of that + subexpression, with subexpressions starting earlier in the RE taking + priority over ones starting later. + </para> + + <para> + An example of what this means: +<screen> +SELECT SUBSTRING('XY1234Z', 'Y*([0-9]{1,3})'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>123</computeroutput> +SELECT SUBSTRING('XY1234Z', 'Y*?([0-9]{1,3})'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput> +</screen> + In the first case, the RE as a whole is greedy because <literal>Y*</literal> + is greedy. It can match beginning at the <literal>Y</literal>, and it matches + the longest possible string starting there, i.e., <literal>Y123</literal>. + The output is the parenthesized part of that, or <literal>123</literal>. + In the second case, the RE as a whole is non-greedy because <literal>Y*?</literal> + is non-greedy. It can match beginning at the <literal>Y</literal>, and it matches + the shortest possible string starting there, i.e., <literal>Y1</literal>. + The subexpression <literal>[0-9]{1,3}</literal> is greedy but it cannot change + the decision as to the overall match length; so it is forced to match + just <literal>1</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + In short, when an RE contains both greedy and non-greedy subexpressions, + the total match length is either as long as possible or as short as + possible, according to the attribute assigned to the whole RE. The + attributes assigned to the subexpressions only affect how much of that + match they are allowed to <quote>eat</quote> relative to each other. + </para> + + <para> + The quantifiers <literal>{1,1}</literal> and <literal>{1,1}?</literal> + can be used to force greediness or non-greediness, respectively, + on a subexpression or a whole RE. + This is useful when you need the whole RE to have a greediness attribute + different from what's deduced from its elements. As an example, + suppose that we are trying to separate a string containing some digits + into the digits and the parts before and after them. We might try to + do that like this: +<screen> +SELECT regexp_match('abc01234xyz', '(.*)(\d+)(.*)'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>{abc0123,4,xyz}</computeroutput> +</screen> + That didn't work: the first <literal>.*</literal> is greedy so + it <quote>eats</quote> as much as it can, leaving the <literal>\d+</literal> to + match at the last possible place, the last digit. We might try to fix + that by making it non-greedy: +<screen> +SELECT regexp_match('abc01234xyz', '(.*?)(\d+)(.*)'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>{abc,0,""}</computeroutput> +</screen> + That didn't work either, because now the RE as a whole is non-greedy + and so it ends the overall match as soon as possible. We can get what + we want by forcing the RE as a whole to be greedy: +<screen> +SELECT regexp_match('abc01234xyz', '(?:(.*?)(\d+)(.*)){1,1}'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>{abc,01234,xyz}</computeroutput> +</screen> + Controlling the RE's overall greediness separately from its components' + greediness allows great flexibility in handling variable-length patterns. + </para> + + <para> + When deciding what is a longer or shorter match, + match lengths are measured in characters, not collating elements. + An empty string is considered longer than no match at all. + For example: + <literal>bb*</literal> + matches the three middle characters of <literal>abbbc</literal>; + <literal>(week|wee)(night|knights)</literal> + matches all ten characters of <literal>weeknights</literal>; + when <literal>(.*).*</literal> + is matched against <literal>abc</literal> the parenthesized subexpression + matches all three characters; and when + <literal>(a*)*</literal> is matched against <literal>bc</literal> + both the whole RE and the parenthesized + subexpression match an empty string. + </para> + + <para> + If case-independent matching is specified, + the effect is much as if all case distinctions had vanished from the + alphabet. + When an alphabetic that exists in multiple cases appears as an + ordinary character outside a bracket expression, it is effectively + transformed into a bracket expression containing both cases, + e.g., <literal>x</literal> becomes <literal>[xX]</literal>. + When it appears inside a bracket expression, all case counterparts + of it are added to the bracket expression, e.g., + <literal>[x]</literal> becomes <literal>[xX]</literal> + and <literal>[^x]</literal> becomes <literal>[^xX]</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + If newline-sensitive matching is specified, <literal>.</literal> + and bracket expressions using <literal>^</literal> + will never match the newline character + (so that matches will not cross lines unless the RE + explicitly includes a newline) + and <literal>^</literal> and <literal>$</literal> + will match the empty string after and before a newline + respectively, in addition to matching at beginning and end of string + respectively. + But the ARE escapes <literal>\A</literal> and <literal>\Z</literal> + continue to match beginning or end of string <emphasis>only</emphasis>. + Also, the character class shorthands <literal>\D</literal> + and <literal>\W</literal> will match a newline regardless of this mode. + (Before <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 14, they did not match + newlines when in newline-sensitive mode. + Write <literal>[^[:digit:]]</literal> + or <literal>[^[:word:]]</literal> to get the old behavior.) + </para> + + <para> + If partial newline-sensitive matching is specified, + this affects <literal>.</literal> and bracket expressions + as with newline-sensitive matching, but not <literal>^</literal> + and <literal>$</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + If inverse partial newline-sensitive matching is specified, + this affects <literal>^</literal> and <literal>$</literal> + as with newline-sensitive matching, but not <literal>.</literal> + and bracket expressions. + This isn't very useful but is provided for symmetry. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-limits-compatibility"> + <title>Limits and Compatibility</title> + + <para> + No particular limit is imposed on the length of REs in this + implementation. However, + programs intended to be highly portable should not employ REs longer + than 256 bytes, + as a POSIX-compliant implementation can refuse to accept such REs. + </para> + + <para> + The only feature of AREs that is actually incompatible with + POSIX EREs is that <literal>\</literal> does not lose its special + significance inside bracket expressions. + All other ARE features use syntax which is illegal or has + undefined or unspecified effects in POSIX EREs; + the <literal>***</literal> syntax of directors likewise is outside the POSIX + syntax for both BREs and EREs. + </para> + + <para> + Many of the ARE extensions are borrowed from Perl, but some have + been changed to clean them up, and a few Perl extensions are not present. + Incompatibilities of note include <literal>\b</literal>, <literal>\B</literal>, + the lack of special treatment for a trailing newline, + the addition of complemented bracket expressions to the things + affected by newline-sensitive matching, + the restrictions on parentheses and back references in lookahead/lookbehind + constraints, and the longest/shortest-match (rather than first-match) + matching semantics. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="posix-basic-regexes"> + <title>Basic Regular Expressions</title> + + <para> + BREs differ from EREs in several respects. + In BREs, <literal>|</literal>, <literal>+</literal>, and <literal>?</literal> + are ordinary characters and there is no equivalent + for their functionality. + The delimiters for bounds are + <literal>\{</literal> and <literal>\}</literal>, + with <literal>{</literal> and <literal>}</literal> + by themselves ordinary characters. + The parentheses for nested subexpressions are + <literal>\(</literal> and <literal>\)</literal>, + with <literal>(</literal> and <literal>)</literal> by themselves ordinary characters. + <literal>^</literal> is an ordinary character except at the beginning of the + RE or the beginning of a parenthesized subexpression, + <literal>$</literal> is an ordinary character except at the end of the + RE or the end of a parenthesized subexpression, + and <literal>*</literal> is an ordinary character if it appears at the beginning + of the RE or the beginning of a parenthesized subexpression + (after a possible leading <literal>^</literal>). + Finally, single-digit back references are available, and + <literal>\<</literal> and <literal>\></literal> + are synonyms for + <literal>[[:<:]]</literal> and <literal>[[:>:]]</literal> + respectively; no other escapes are available in BREs. + </para> + </sect3> + +<!-- end re_syntax.n man page --> + + <sect3 id="posix-vs-xquery"> + <title>Differences from XQuery (<literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal>)</title> + + <indexterm zone="posix-vs-xquery"> + <primary><literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal></primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm zone="posix-vs-xquery"> + <primary>XQuery regular expressions</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + Since SQL:2008, the SQL standard includes + a <literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal> operator that performs pattern + matching according to the XQuery regular expression + standard. <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> does not yet + implement this operator, but you can get very similar behavior using + the <function>regexp_match()</function> function, since XQuery + regular expressions are quite close to the ARE syntax described above. + </para> + + <para> + Notable differences between the existing POSIX-based + regular-expression feature and XQuery regular expressions include: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery character class subtraction is not supported. An example of + this feature is using the following to match only English + consonants: <literal>[a-z-[aeiou]]</literal>. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery character class shorthands <literal>\c</literal>, + <literal>\C</literal>, <literal>\i</literal>, + and <literal>\I</literal> are not supported. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery character class elements + using <literal>\p{UnicodeProperty}</literal> or the + inverse <literal>\P{UnicodeProperty}</literal> are not supported. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + POSIX interprets character classes such as <literal>\w</literal> + (see <xref linkend="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table"/>) + according to the prevailing locale (which you can control by + attaching a <literal>COLLATE</literal> clause to the operator or + function). XQuery specifies these classes by reference to Unicode + character properties, so equivalent behavior is obtained only with + a locale that follows the Unicode rules. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + The SQL standard (not XQuery itself) attempts to cater for more + variants of <quote>newline</quote> than POSIX does. The + newline-sensitive matching options described above consider only + ASCII NL (<literal>\n</literal>) to be a newline, but SQL would have + us treat CR (<literal>\r</literal>), CRLF (<literal>\r\n</literal>) + (a Windows-style newline), and some Unicode-only characters like + LINE SEPARATOR (U+2028) as newlines as well. + Notably, <literal>.</literal> and <literal>\s</literal> should + count <literal>\r\n</literal> as one character not two according to + SQL. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Of the character-entry escapes described in + <xref linkend="posix-character-entry-escapes-table"/>, + XQuery supports only <literal>\n</literal>, <literal>\r</literal>, + and <literal>\t</literal>. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery does not support + the <literal>[:<replaceable>name</replaceable>:]</literal> syntax + for character classes within bracket expressions. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery does not have lookahead or lookbehind constraints, + nor any of the constraint escapes described in + <xref linkend="posix-constraint-escapes-table"/>. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + The metasyntax forms described in <xref linkend="posix-metasyntax"/> + do not exist in XQuery. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + The regular expression flag letters defined by XQuery are + related to but not the same as the option letters for POSIX + (<xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table"/>). While the + <literal>i</literal> and <literal>q</literal> options behave the + same, others do not: + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery's <literal>s</literal> (allow dot to match newline) + and <literal>m</literal> (allow <literal>^</literal> + and <literal>$</literal> to match at newlines) flags provide + access to the same behaviors as + POSIX's <literal>n</literal>, <literal>p</literal> + and <literal>w</literal> flags, but they + do <emphasis>not</emphasis> match the behavior of + POSIX's <literal>s</literal> and <literal>m</literal> flags. + Note in particular that dot-matches-newline is the default + behavior in POSIX but not XQuery. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + XQuery's <literal>x</literal> (ignore whitespace in pattern) flag + is noticeably different from POSIX's expanded-mode flag. + POSIX's <literal>x</literal> flag also + allows <literal>#</literal> to begin a comment in the pattern, + and POSIX will not ignore a whitespace character after a + backslash. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + </sect3> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-formatting"> + <title>Data Type Formatting Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>formatting</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> formatting functions + provide a powerful set of tools for converting various data types + (date/time, integer, floating point, numeric) to formatted strings + and for converting from formatted strings to specific data types. + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-table"/> lists them. + These functions all follow a common calling convention: the first + argument is the value to be formatted and the second argument is a + template that defines the output or input format. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-table"> + <title>Formatting Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_char</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_char</function> ( <type>timestamp</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_char</function> ( <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts time stamp to string according to the given format. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_char(timestamp '2002-04-20 17:31:12.66', 'HH12:MI:SS')</literal> + <returnvalue>05:31:12</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_char</function> ( <type>interval</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts interval to string according to the given format. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_char(interval '15h 2m 12s', 'HH24:MI:SS')</literal> + <returnvalue>15:02:12</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_char</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts number to string according to the given format; available + for <type>integer</type>, <type>bigint</type>, <type>numeric</type>, + <type>real</type>, <type>double precision</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_char(125, '999')</literal> + <returnvalue>125</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_char(125.8::real, '999D9')</literal> + <returnvalue>125.8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_char(-125.8, '999D99S')</literal> + <returnvalue>125.80-</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_date</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_date</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>date</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts string to date according to the given format. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_date('05 Dec 2000', 'DD Mon YYYY')</literal> + <returnvalue>2000-12-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_number</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_number</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts string to numeric according to the given format. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_number('12,454.8-', '99G999D9S')</literal> + <returnvalue>-12454.8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_timestamp</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts string to time stamp according to the given format. + (See also <function>to_timestamp(double precision)</function> in + <xref linkend="functions-datetime-table"/>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_timestamp('05 Dec 2000', 'DD Mon YYYY')</literal> + <returnvalue>2000-12-05 00:00:00-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <tip> + <para> + <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function> + exist to handle input formats that cannot be converted by + simple casting. For most standard date/time formats, simply casting the + source string to the required data type works, and is much easier. + Similarly, <function>to_number</function> is unnecessary for standard numeric + representations. + </para> + </tip> + + <para> + In a <function>to_char</function> output template string, there are certain + patterns that are recognized and replaced with appropriately-formatted + data based on the given value. Any text that is not a template pattern is + simply copied verbatim. Similarly, in an input template string (for the + other functions), template patterns identify the values to be supplied by + the input data string. If there are characters in the template string + that are not template patterns, the corresponding characters in the input + data string are simply skipped over (whether or not they are equal to the + template string characters). + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-datetime-table"/> shows the + template patterns available for formatting date and time values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-datetime-table"> + <title>Template Patterns for Date/Time Formatting</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Pattern</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>HH</literal></entry> + <entry>hour of day (01–12)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>HH12</literal></entry> + <entry>hour of day (01–12)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>HH24</literal></entry> + <entry>hour of day (00–23)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MI</literal></entry> + <entry>minute (00–59)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>SS</literal></entry> + <entry>second (00–59)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MS</literal></entry> + <entry>millisecond (000–999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>US</literal></entry> + <entry>microsecond (000000–999999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF1</literal></entry> + <entry>tenth of second (0–9)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF2</literal></entry> + <entry>hundredth of second (00–99)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF3</literal></entry> + <entry>millisecond (000–999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF4</literal></entry> + <entry>tenth of a millisecond (0000–9999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF5</literal></entry> + <entry>hundredth of a millisecond (00000–99999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FF6</literal></entry> + <entry>microsecond (000000–999999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>SSSS</literal>, <literal>SSSSS</literal></entry> + <entry>seconds past midnight (0–86399)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>AM</literal>, <literal>am</literal>, + <literal>PM</literal> or <literal>pm</literal></entry> + <entry>meridiem indicator (without periods)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>A.M.</literal>, <literal>a.m.</literal>, + <literal>P.M.</literal> or <literal>p.m.</literal></entry> + <entry>meridiem indicator (with periods)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Y,YYY</literal></entry> + <entry>year (4 or more digits) with comma</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>YYYY</literal></entry> + <entry>year (4 or more digits)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>YYY</literal></entry> + <entry>last 3 digits of year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>YY</literal></entry> + <entry>last 2 digits of year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Y</literal></entry> + <entry>last digit of year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>IYYY</literal></entry> + <entry>ISO 8601 week-numbering year (4 or more digits)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>IYY</literal></entry> + <entry>last 3 digits of ISO 8601 week-numbering year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>IY</literal></entry> + <entry>last 2 digits of ISO 8601 week-numbering year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>I</literal></entry> + <entry>last digit of ISO 8601 week-numbering year</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>BC</literal>, <literal>bc</literal>, + <literal>AD</literal> or <literal>ad</literal></entry> + <entry>era indicator (without periods)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>B.C.</literal>, <literal>b.c.</literal>, + <literal>A.D.</literal> or <literal>a.d.</literal></entry> + <entry>era indicator (with periods)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MONTH</literal></entry> + <entry>full upper case month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Month</literal></entry> + <entry>full capitalized month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>month</literal></entry> + <entry>full lower case month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MON</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated upper case month name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Mon</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated capitalized month name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>mon</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated lower case month name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MM</literal></entry> + <entry>month number (01–12)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>DAY</literal></entry> + <entry>full upper case day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Day</literal></entry> + <entry>full capitalized day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>day</literal></entry> + <entry>full lower case day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>DY</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated upper case day name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Dy</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated capitalized day name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>dy</literal></entry> + <entry>abbreviated lower case day name (3 chars in English, localized lengths vary)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>DDD</literal></entry> + <entry>day of year (001–366)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>IDDD</literal></entry> + <entry>day of ISO 8601 week-numbering year (001–371; day 1 of the year is Monday of the first ISO week)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>DD</literal></entry> + <entry>day of month (01–31)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>D</literal></entry> + <entry>day of the week, Sunday (<literal>1</literal>) to Saturday (<literal>7</literal>)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>ID</literal></entry> + <entry>ISO 8601 day of the week, Monday (<literal>1</literal>) to Sunday (<literal>7</literal>)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>W</literal></entry> + <entry>week of month (1–5) (the first week starts on the first day of the month)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>WW</literal></entry> + <entry>week number of year (1–53) (the first week starts on the first day of the year)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>IW</literal></entry> + <entry>week number of ISO 8601 week-numbering year (01–53; the first Thursday of the year is in week 1)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>CC</literal></entry> + <entry>century (2 digits) (the twenty-first century starts on 2001-01-01)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>J</literal></entry> + <entry>Julian Date (integer days since November 24, 4714 BC at local + midnight; see <xref linkend="datetime-julian-dates"/>)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>Q</literal></entry> + <entry>quarter</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>RM</literal></entry> + <entry>month in upper case Roman numerals (I–XII; I=January)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>rm</literal></entry> + <entry>month in lower case Roman numerals (i–xii; i=January)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TZ</literal></entry> + <entry>upper case time-zone abbreviation + (only supported in <function>to_char</function>)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>tz</literal></entry> + <entry>lower case time-zone abbreviation + (only supported in <function>to_char</function>)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TZH</literal></entry> + <entry>time-zone hours</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TZM</literal></entry> + <entry>time-zone minutes</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>OF</literal></entry> + <entry>time-zone offset from UTC + (only supported in <function>to_char</function>)</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Modifiers can be applied to any template pattern to alter its + behavior. For example, <literal>FMMonth</literal> + is the <literal>Month</literal> pattern with the + <literal>FM</literal> modifier. + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-datetimemod-table"/> shows the + modifier patterns for date/time formatting. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-datetimemod-table"> + <title>Template Pattern Modifiers for Date/Time Formatting</title> + <tgroup cols="3"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Modifier</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + <entry>Example</entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>FM</literal> prefix</entry> + <entry>fill mode (suppress leading zeroes and padding blanks)</entry> + <entry><literal>FMMonth</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TH</literal> suffix</entry> + <entry>upper case ordinal number suffix</entry> + <entry><literal>DDTH</literal>, e.g., <literal>12TH</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>th</literal> suffix</entry> + <entry>lower case ordinal number suffix</entry> + <entry><literal>DDth</literal>, e.g., <literal>12th</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>FX</literal> prefix</entry> + <entry>fixed format global option (see usage notes)</entry> + <entry><literal>FX Month DD Day</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TM</literal> prefix</entry> + <entry>translation mode (use localized day and month names based on + <xref linkend="guc-lc-time"/>)</entry> + <entry><literal>TMMonth</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>SP</literal> suffix</entry> + <entry>spell mode (not implemented)</entry> + <entry><literal>DDSP</literal></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Usage notes for date/time formatting: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>FM</literal> suppresses leading zeroes and trailing blanks + that would otherwise be added to make the output of a pattern be + fixed-width. In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, + <literal>FM</literal> modifies only the next specification, while in + Oracle <literal>FM</literal> affects all subsequent + specifications, and repeated <literal>FM</literal> modifiers + toggle fill mode on and off. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>TM</literal> suppresses trailing blanks whether or + not <literal>FM</literal> is specified. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function> + ignore letter case in the input; so for + example <literal>MON</literal>, <literal>Mon</literal>, + and <literal>mon</literal> all accept the same strings. When using + the <literal>TM</literal> modifier, case-folding is done according to + the rules of the function's input collation (see + <xref linkend="collation"/>). + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function> + skip multiple blank spaces at the beginning of the input string and + around date and time values unless the <literal>FX</literal> option is used. For example, + <literal>to_timestamp(' 2000 JUN', 'YYYY MON')</literal> and + <literal>to_timestamp('2000 - JUN', 'YYYY-MON')</literal> work, but + <literal>to_timestamp('2000 JUN', 'FXYYYY MON')</literal> returns an error + because <function>to_timestamp</function> expects only a single space. + <literal>FX</literal> must be specified as the first item in + the template. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + A separator (a space or non-letter/non-digit character) in the template string of + <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function> + matches any single separator in the input string or is skipped, + unless the <literal>FX</literal> option is used. + For example, <literal>to_timestamp('2000JUN', 'YYYY///MON')</literal> and + <literal>to_timestamp('2000/JUN', 'YYYY MON')</literal> work, but + <literal>to_timestamp('2000//JUN', 'YYYY/MON')</literal> + returns an error because the number of separators in the input string + exceeds the number of separators in the template. + </para> + <para> + If <literal>FX</literal> is specified, a separator in the template string + matches exactly one character in the input string. But note that the + input string character is not required to be the same as the separator from the template string. + For example, <literal>to_timestamp('2000/JUN', 'FXYYYY MON')</literal> + works, but <literal>to_timestamp('2000/JUN', 'FXYYYY MON')</literal> + returns an error because the second space in the template string consumes + the letter <literal>J</literal> from the input string. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + A <literal>TZH</literal> template pattern can match a signed number. + Without the <literal>FX</literal> option, minus signs may be ambiguous, + and could be interpreted as a separator. + This ambiguity is resolved as follows: If the number of separators before + <literal>TZH</literal> in the template string is less than the number of + separators before the minus sign in the input string, the minus sign + is interpreted as part of <literal>TZH</literal>. + Otherwise, the minus sign is considered to be a separator between values. + For example, <literal>to_timestamp('2000 -10', 'YYYY TZH')</literal> matches + <literal>-10</literal> to <literal>TZH</literal>, but + <literal>to_timestamp('2000 -10', 'YYYY TZH')</literal> + matches <literal>10</literal> to <literal>TZH</literal>. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Ordinary text is allowed in <function>to_char</function> + templates and will be output literally. You can put a substring + in double quotes to force it to be interpreted as literal text + even if it contains template patterns. For example, in + <literal>'"Hello Year "YYYY'</literal>, the <literal>YYYY</literal> + will be replaced by the year data, but the single <literal>Y</literal> in <literal>Year</literal> + will not be. + In <function>to_date</function>, <function>to_number</function>, + and <function>to_timestamp</function>, literal text and double-quoted + strings result in skipping the number of characters contained in the + string; for example <literal>"XX"</literal> skips two input characters + (whether or not they are <literal>XX</literal>). + </para> + <tip> + <para> + Prior to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 12, it was possible to + skip arbitrary text in the input string using non-letter or non-digit + characters. For example, + <literal>to_timestamp('2000y6m1d', 'yyyy-MM-DD')</literal> used to + work. Now you can only use letter characters for this purpose. For example, + <literal>to_timestamp('2000y6m1d', 'yyyytMMtDDt')</literal> and + <literal>to_timestamp('2000y6m1d', 'yyyy"y"MM"m"DD"d"')</literal> + skip <literal>y</literal>, <literal>m</literal>, and + <literal>d</literal>. + </para> + </tip> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + If you want to have a double quote in the output you must + precede it with a backslash, for example <literal>'\"YYYY + Month\"'</literal>. <!-- "" font-lock sanity :-) --> + Backslashes are not otherwise special outside of double-quoted + strings. Within a double-quoted string, a backslash causes the + next character to be taken literally, whatever it is (but this + has no special effect unless the next character is a double quote + or another backslash). + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + if the year format specification is less than four digits, e.g., + <literal>YYY</literal>, and the supplied year is less than four digits, + the year will be adjusted to be nearest to the year 2020, e.g., + <literal>95</literal> becomes 1995. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + negative years are treated as signifying BC. If you write both a + negative year and an explicit <literal>BC</literal> field, you get AD + again. An input of year zero is treated as 1 BC. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + the <literal>YYYY</literal> conversion has a restriction when + processing years with more than 4 digits. You must + use some non-digit character or template after <literal>YYYY</literal>, + otherwise the year is always interpreted as 4 digits. For example + (with the year 20000): + <literal>to_date('200001131', 'YYYYMMDD')</literal> will be + interpreted as a 4-digit year; instead use a non-digit + separator after the year, like + <literal>to_date('20000-1131', 'YYYY-MMDD')</literal> or + <literal>to_date('20000Nov31', 'YYYYMonDD')</literal>. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + the <literal>CC</literal> (century) field is accepted but ignored + if there is a <literal>YYY</literal>, <literal>YYYY</literal> or + <literal>Y,YYY</literal> field. If <literal>CC</literal> is used with + <literal>YY</literal> or <literal>Y</literal> then the result is + computed as that year in the specified century. If the century is + specified but the year is not, the first year of the century + is assumed. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + weekday names or numbers (<literal>DAY</literal>, <literal>D</literal>, + and related field types) are accepted but are ignored for purposes of + computing the result. The same is true for quarter + (<literal>Q</literal>) fields. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>, + an ISO 8601 week-numbering date (as distinct from a Gregorian date) + can be specified in one of two ways: + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + Year, week number, and weekday: for + example <literal>to_date('2006-42-4', 'IYYY-IW-ID')</literal> + returns the date <literal>2006-10-19</literal>. + If you omit the weekday it is assumed to be 1 (Monday). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Year and day of year: for example <literal>to_date('2006-291', + 'IYYY-IDDD')</literal> also returns <literal>2006-10-19</literal>. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + <para> + Attempting to enter a date using a mixture of ISO 8601 week-numbering + fields and Gregorian date fields is nonsensical, and will cause an + error. In the context of an ISO 8601 week-numbering year, the + concept of a <quote>month</quote> or <quote>day of month</quote> has no + meaning. In the context of a Gregorian year, the ISO week has no + meaning. + </para> + <caution> + <para> + While <function>to_date</function> will reject a mixture of + Gregorian and ISO week-numbering date + fields, <function>to_char</function> will not, since output format + specifications like <literal>YYYY-MM-DD (IYYY-IDDD)</literal> can be + useful. But avoid writing something like <literal>IYYY-MM-DD</literal>; + that would yield surprising results near the start of the year. + (See <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract"/> for more + information.) + </para> + </caution> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_timestamp</function>, millisecond + (<literal>MS</literal>) or microsecond (<literal>US</literal>) + fields are used as the + seconds digits after the decimal point. For example + <literal>to_timestamp('12.3', 'SS.MS')</literal> is not 3 milliseconds, + but 300, because the conversion treats it as 12 + 0.3 seconds. + So, for the format <literal>SS.MS</literal>, the input values + <literal>12.3</literal>, <literal>12.30</literal>, + and <literal>12.300</literal> specify the + same number of milliseconds. To get three milliseconds, one must write + <literal>12.003</literal>, which the conversion treats as + 12 + 0.003 = 12.003 seconds. + </para> + + <para> + Here is a more + complex example: + <literal>to_timestamp('15:12:02.020.001230', 'HH24:MI:SS.MS.US')</literal> + is 15 hours, 12 minutes, and 2 seconds + 20 milliseconds + + 1230 microseconds = 2.021230 seconds. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <function>to_char(..., 'ID')</function>'s day of the week numbering + matches the <function>extract(isodow from ...)</function> function, but + <function>to_char(..., 'D')</function>'s does not match + <function>extract(dow from ...)</function>'s day numbering. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <function>to_char(interval)</function> formats <literal>HH</literal> and + <literal>HH12</literal> as shown on a 12-hour clock, for example zero hours + and 36 hours both output as <literal>12</literal>, while <literal>HH24</literal> + outputs the full hour value, which can exceed 23 in + an <type>interval</type> value. + </para> + </listitem> + + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-numeric-table"/> shows the + template patterns available for formatting numeric values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-numeric-table"> + <title>Template Patterns for Numeric Formatting</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Pattern</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>9</literal></entry> + <entry>digit position (can be dropped if insignificant)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>0</literal></entry> + <entry>digit position (will not be dropped, even if insignificant)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>.</literal> (period)</entry> + <entry>decimal point</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>,</literal> (comma)</entry> + <entry>group (thousands) separator</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>PR</literal></entry> + <entry>negative value in angle brackets</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>S</literal></entry> + <entry>sign anchored to number (uses locale)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>L</literal></entry> + <entry>currency symbol (uses locale)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>D</literal></entry> + <entry>decimal point (uses locale)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>G</literal></entry> + <entry>group separator (uses locale)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>MI</literal></entry> + <entry>minus sign in specified position (if number < 0)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>PL</literal></entry> + <entry>plus sign in specified position (if number > 0)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>SG</literal></entry> + <entry>plus/minus sign in specified position</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>RN</literal></entry> + <entry>Roman numeral (input between 1 and 3999)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TH</literal> or <literal>th</literal></entry> + <entry>ordinal number suffix</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>V</literal></entry> + <entry>shift specified number of digits (see notes)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>EEEE</literal></entry> + <entry>exponent for scientific notation</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Usage notes for numeric formatting: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>0</literal> specifies a digit position that will always be printed, + even if it contains a leading/trailing zero. <literal>9</literal> also + specifies a digit position, but if it is a leading zero then it will + be replaced by a space, while if it is a trailing zero and fill mode + is specified then it will be deleted. (For <function>to_number()</function>, + these two pattern characters are equivalent.) + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + The pattern characters <literal>S</literal>, <literal>L</literal>, <literal>D</literal>, + and <literal>G</literal> represent the sign, currency symbol, decimal point, + and thousands separator characters defined by the current locale + (see <xref linkend="guc-lc-monetary"/> + and <xref linkend="guc-lc-numeric"/>). The pattern characters period + and comma represent those exact characters, with the meanings of + decimal point and thousands separator, regardless of locale. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + If no explicit provision is made for a sign + in <function>to_char()</function>'s pattern, one column will be reserved for + the sign, and it will be anchored to (appear just left of) the + number. If <literal>S</literal> appears just left of some <literal>9</literal>'s, + it will likewise be anchored to the number. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + A sign formatted using <literal>SG</literal>, <literal>PL</literal>, or + <literal>MI</literal> is not anchored to + the number; for example, + <literal>to_char(-12, 'MI9999')</literal> produces <literal>'- 12'</literal> + but <literal>to_char(-12, 'S9999')</literal> produces <literal>' -12'</literal>. + (The Oracle implementation does not allow the use of + <literal>MI</literal> before <literal>9</literal>, but rather + requires that <literal>9</literal> precede + <literal>MI</literal>.) + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>TH</literal> does not convert values less than zero + and does not convert fractional numbers. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>PL</literal>, <literal>SG</literal>, and + <literal>TH</literal> are <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + extensions. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + In <function>to_number</function>, if non-data template patterns such + as <literal>L</literal> or <literal>TH</literal> are used, the + corresponding number of input characters are skipped, whether or not + they match the template pattern, unless they are data characters + (that is, digits, sign, decimal point, or comma). For + example, <literal>TH</literal> would skip two non-data characters. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>V</literal> with <function>to_char</function> + multiplies the input values by + <literal>10^<replaceable>n</replaceable></literal>, where + <replaceable>n</replaceable> is the number of digits following + <literal>V</literal>. <literal>V</literal> with + <function>to_number</function> divides in a similar manner. + <function>to_char</function> and <function>to_number</function> + do not support the use of + <literal>V</literal> combined with a decimal point + (e.g., <literal>99.9V99</literal> is not allowed). + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>EEEE</literal> (scientific notation) cannot be used in + combination with any of the other formatting patterns or + modifiers other than digit and decimal point patterns, and must be at the end of the format string + (e.g., <literal>9.99EEEE</literal> is a valid pattern). + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + <para> + Certain modifiers can be applied to any template pattern to alter its + behavior. For example, <literal>FM99.99</literal> + is the <literal>99.99</literal> pattern with the + <literal>FM</literal> modifier. + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-numericmod-table"/> shows the + modifier patterns for numeric formatting. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-numericmod-table"> + <title>Template Pattern Modifiers for Numeric Formatting</title> + <tgroup cols="3"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Modifier</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + <entry>Example</entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>FM</literal> prefix</entry> + <entry>fill mode (suppress trailing zeroes and padding blanks)</entry> + <entry><literal>FM99.99</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>TH</literal> suffix</entry> + <entry>upper case ordinal number suffix</entry> + <entry><literal>999TH</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>th</literal> suffix</entry> + <entry>lower case ordinal number suffix</entry> + <entry><literal>999th</literal></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-formatting-examples-table"/> shows some + examples of the use of the <function>to_char</function> function. + </para> + + <table id="functions-formatting-examples-table"> + <title><function>to_char</function> Examples</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Expression</entry> + <entry>Result</entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(current_timestamp, 'Day, DD HH12:MI:SS')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'Tuesday , 06 05:39:18'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(current_timestamp, 'FMDay, FMDD HH12:MI:SS')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'Tuesday, 6 05:39:18'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-0.1, '99.99')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' -.10'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-0.1, 'FM9.99')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'-.1'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-0.1, 'FM90.99')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'-0.1'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(0.1, '0.9')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 0.1'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(12, '9990999.9')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 0012.0'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(12, 'FM9990999.9')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'0012.'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, '999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'-485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, '9 9 9')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 4 8 5'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(1485, '9,999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 1,485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(1485, '9G999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 1 485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(148.5, '999.999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 148.500'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(148.5, 'FM999.999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'148.5'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(148.5, 'FM999.990')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'148.500'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(148.5, '999D999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 148,500'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(3148.5, '9G999D999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 3 148,500'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999S')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'485-'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999MI')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'485-'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, '999MI')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'485 '</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'FM999MI')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'PL999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'+485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'SG999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'+485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, 'SG999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'-485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, '9SG99')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'4-85'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999PR')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'<485>'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'L999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'DM 485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'RN')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' CDLXXXV'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, 'FMRN')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'CDLXXXV'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(5.2, 'FMRN')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'V'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(482, '999th')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 482nd'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485, '"Good number:"999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'Good number: 485'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(485.8, '"Pre:"999" Post:" .999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>'Pre: 485 Post: .800'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(12, '99V999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 12000'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(12.4, '99V999')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 12400'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(12.45, '99V9')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 125'</literal></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>to_char(0.0004859, '9.99EEEE')</literal></entry> + <entry><literal>' 4.86e-04'</literal></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-datetime"> + <title>Date/Time Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-datetime-table"/> shows the available + functions for date/time value processing, with details appearing in + the following subsections. <xref + linkend="operators-datetime-table"/> illustrates the behaviors of + the basic arithmetic operators (<literal>+</literal>, + <literal>*</literal>, etc.). For formatting functions, refer to + <xref linkend="functions-formatting"/>. You should be familiar with + the background information on date/time data types from <xref + linkend="datatype-datetime"/>. + </para> + + <para> + In addition, the usual comparison operators shown in + <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> are available for the + date/time types. Dates and timestamps (with or without time zone) are + all comparable, while times (with or without time zone) and intervals + can only be compared to other values of the same data type. When + comparing a timestamp without time zone to a timestamp with time zone, + the former value is assumed to be given in the time zone specified by + the <xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> configuration parameter, and is + rotated to UTC for comparison to the latter value (which is already + in UTC internally). Similarly, a date value is assumed to represent + midnight in the <varname>TimeZone</varname> zone when comparing it + to a timestamp. + </para> + + <para> + All the functions and operators described below that take <type>time</type> or <type>timestamp</type> + inputs actually come in two variants: one that takes <type>time with time zone</type> or <type>timestamp + with time zone</type>, and one that takes <type>time without time zone</type> or <type>timestamp without time zone</type>. + For brevity, these variants are not shown separately. Also, the + <literal>+</literal> and <literal>*</literal> operators come in commutative pairs (for + example both <type>date</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>integer</type> + and <type>integer</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>date</type>); we show + only one of each such pair. + </para> + + <table id="operators-datetime-table"> + <title>Date/Time Operators</title> + + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>date</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add a number of days to a date + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-09-28' + 7</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-10-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add an interval to a date + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-09-28' + interval '1 hour'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-28 01:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>time</type> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add a time-of-day to a date + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-09-28' + time '03:00'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-28 03:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>interval</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add intervals + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 day' + interval '1 hour'</literal> + <returnvalue>1 day 01:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>timestamp</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add an interval to a timestamp + </para> + <para> + <literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 01:00' + interval '23 hours'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-29 00:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>time</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>time</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Add an interval to a time + </para> + <para> + <literal>time '01:00' + interval '3 hours'</literal> + <returnvalue>04:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>-</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Negate an interval + </para> + <para> + <literal>- interval '23 hours'</literal> + <returnvalue>-23:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>date</type> + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract dates, producing the number of days elapsed + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-10-01' - date '2001-09-28'</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>date</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract a number of days from a date + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-10-01' - 7</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-24</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>date</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract an interval from a date + </para> + <para> + <literal>date '2001-09-28' - interval '1 hour'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-27 23:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>time</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>time</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract times + </para> + <para> + <literal>time '05:00' - time '03:00'</literal> + <returnvalue>02:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>time</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>time</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract an interval from a time + </para> + <para> + <literal>time '05:00' - interval '2 hours'</literal> + <returnvalue>03:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>timestamp</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract an interval from a timestamp + </para> + <para> + <literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 23:00' - interval '23 hours'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-09-28 00:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>interval</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>interval</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract intervals + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 day' - interval '1 hour'</literal> + <returnvalue>1 day -01:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>timestamp</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>timestamp</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract timestamps (converting 24-hour intervals into days, + similarly to <function>justify_hours()</function>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>timestamp '2001-09-29 03:00' - timestamp '2001-07-27 12:00'</literal> + <returnvalue>63 days 15:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>interval</type> <literal>*</literal> <type>double precision</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Multiply an interval by a scalar + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 second' * 900</literal> + <returnvalue>00:15:00</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 day' * 21</literal> + <returnvalue>21 days</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 hour' * 3.5</literal> + <returnvalue>03:30:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>interval</type> <literal>/</literal> <type>double precision</type> + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Divide an interval by a scalar + </para> + <para> + <literal>interval '1 hour' / 1.5</literal> + <returnvalue>00:40:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-datetime-table"> + <title>Date/Time Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>age</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>age</function> ( <type>timestamp</type>, <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract arguments, producing a <quote>symbolic</quote> result that + uses years and months, rather than just days + </para> + <para> + <literal>age(timestamp '2001-04-10', timestamp '1957-06-13')</literal> + <returnvalue>43 years 9 mons 27 days</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>age</function> ( <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtract argument from <function>current_date</function> (at midnight) + </para> + <para> + <literal>age(timestamp '1957-06-13')</literal> + <returnvalue>62 years 6 mons 10 days</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>clock_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>clock_timestamp</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (changes during statement execution); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>clock_timestamp()</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_date</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_date</function> + <returnvalue>date</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_date</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_time</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_time</function> + <returnvalue>time with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current time of day; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_time</literal> + <returnvalue>14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>current_time</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>time with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current time of day, with limited precision; + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_time(2)</literal> + <returnvalue>14:39:53.66-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_timestamp</function> + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current transaction); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_timestamp</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>current_timestamp</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current transaction), with limited precision; + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_timestamp(0)</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>date_bin</function> ( <type>interval</type>, <type>timestamp</type>, <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Bin input into specified interval aligned with specified origin; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-bin"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_bin('15 minutes', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:05:00')</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-02-16 20:35:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>date_part</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>date_part</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Get timestamp subfield (equivalent to <function>extract</function>); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_part('hour', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal> + <returnvalue>20</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>date_part</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Get interval subfield (equivalent to <function>extract</function>); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_part('month', interval '2 years 3 months')</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>date_trunc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>date_trunc</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Truncate to specified precision; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-trunc"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_trunc('hour', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-02-16 20:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>date_trunc</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Truncate to specified precision in the specified time zone; see + <xref linkend="functions-datetime-trunc"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_trunc('day', timestamptz '2001-02-16 20:38:40+00', 'Australia/Sydney')</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-02-16 13:00:00+00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>date_trunc</function> ( <type>text</type>, <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Truncate to specified precision; see + <xref linkend="functions-datetime-trunc"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>date_trunc('hour', interval '2 days 3 hours 40 minutes')</literal> + <returnvalue>2 days 03:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>extract</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>extract</function> ( <parameter>field</parameter> <literal>from</literal> <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Get timestamp subfield; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>extract(hour from timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal> + <returnvalue>20</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>extract</function> ( <parameter>field</parameter> <literal>from</literal> <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Get interval subfield; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>extract(month from interval '2 years 3 months')</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>isfinite</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>isfinite</function> ( <type>date</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test for finite date (not +/-infinity) + </para> + <para> + <literal>isfinite(date '2001-02-16')</literal> + <returnvalue>true</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>isfinite</function> ( <type>timestamp</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test for finite timestamp (not +/-infinity) + </para> + <para> + <literal>isfinite(timestamp 'infinity')</literal> + <returnvalue>false</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>isfinite</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Test for finite interval (currently always true) + </para> + <para> + <literal>isfinite(interval '4 hours')</literal> + <returnvalue>true</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>justify_days</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>justify_days</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adjust interval so 30-day time periods are represented as months + </para> + <para> + <literal>justify_days(interval '35 days')</literal> + <returnvalue>1 mon 5 days</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>justify_hours</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>justify_hours</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adjust interval so 24-hour time periods are represented as days + </para> + <para> + <literal>justify_hours(interval '27 hours')</literal> + <returnvalue>1 day 03:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>justify_interval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>justify_interval</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adjust interval using <function>justify_days</function> + and <function>justify_hours</function>, with additional sign + adjustments + </para> + <para> + <literal>justify_interval(interval '1 mon -1 hour')</literal> + <returnvalue>29 days 23:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>localtime</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>localtime</function> + <returnvalue>time</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current time of day; + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>localtime</literal> + <returnvalue>14:39:53.662522</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>localtime</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>time</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current time of day, with limited precision; + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>localtime(0)</literal> + <returnvalue>14:39:53</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>localtimestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>localtimestamp</function> + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current transaction); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>localtimestamp</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>localtimestamp</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current + transaction), with limited precision; + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>localtimestamp(2)</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.66</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>make_date</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>make_date</function> ( <parameter>year</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>month</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>day</parameter> <type>int</type> ) + <returnvalue>date</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Create date from year, month and day fields + (negative years signify BC) + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_date(2013, 7, 15)</literal> + <returnvalue>2013-07-15</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"><indexterm> + <primary>make_interval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>make_interval</function> ( <optional> <parameter>years</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>months</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>weeks</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>days</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>hours</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>mins</parameter> <type>int</type> + <optional>, <parameter>secs</parameter> <type>double precision</type> + </optional></optional></optional></optional></optional></optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Create interval from years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes and + seconds fields, each of which can default to zero + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_interval(days => 10)</literal> + <returnvalue>10 days</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>make_time</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>make_time</function> ( <parameter>hour</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>min</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>sec</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>time</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Create time from hour, minute and seconds fields + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_time(8, 15, 23.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>08:15:23.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>make_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>make_timestamp</function> ( <parameter>year</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>month</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>day</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>hour</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>min</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>sec</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Create timestamp from year, month, day, hour, minute and seconds fields + (negative years signify BC) + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_timestamp(2013, 7, 15, 8, 15, 23.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>2013-07-15 08:15:23.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>make_timestamptz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>make_timestamptz</function> ( <parameter>year</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>month</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>day</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>hour</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>min</parameter> <type>int</type>, + <parameter>sec</parameter> <type>double precision</type> + <optional>, <parameter>timezone</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Create timestamp with time zone from year, month, day, hour, minute + and seconds fields (negative years signify BC). + If <parameter>timezone</parameter> is not + specified, the current time zone is used; the examples assume the + session time zone is <literal>Europe/London</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_timestamptz(2013, 7, 15, 8, 15, 23.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>2013-07-15 08:15:23.5+01</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>make_timestamptz(2013, 7, 15, 8, 15, 23.5, 'America/New_York')</literal> + <returnvalue>2013-07-15 13:15:23.5+01</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>now</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>now</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current transaction); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>now()</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>statement_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>statement_timestamp</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current statement); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>statement_timestamp()</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>timeofday</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>timeofday</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time + (like <function>clock_timestamp</function>, but as a <type>text</type> string); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>timeofday()</literal> + <returnvalue>Mon Dec 23 14:39:53.662522 2019 EST</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>transaction_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>transaction_timestamp</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Current date and time (start of current transaction); + see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current"/> + </para> + <para> + <literal>transaction_timestamp()</literal> + <returnvalue>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_timestamp</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Convert Unix epoch (seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00+00) to + timestamp with time zone + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_timestamp(1284352323)</literal> + <returnvalue>2010-09-13 04:32:03+00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <indexterm> + <primary>OVERLAPS</primary> + </indexterm> + In addition to these functions, the SQL <literal>OVERLAPS</literal> operator is + supported: +<synopsis> +(<replaceable>start1</replaceable>, <replaceable>end1</replaceable>) OVERLAPS (<replaceable>start2</replaceable>, <replaceable>end2</replaceable>) +(<replaceable>start1</replaceable>, <replaceable>length1</replaceable>) OVERLAPS (<replaceable>start2</replaceable>, <replaceable>length2</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + This expression yields true when two time periods (defined by their + endpoints) overlap, false when they do not overlap. The endpoints + can be specified as pairs of dates, times, or time stamps; or as + a date, time, or time stamp followed by an interval. When a pair + of values is provided, either the start or the end can be written + first; <literal>OVERLAPS</literal> automatically takes the earlier value + of the pair as the start. Each time period is considered to + represent the half-open interval <replaceable>start</replaceable> <literal><=</literal> + <replaceable>time</replaceable> <literal><</literal> <replaceable>end</replaceable>, unless + <replaceable>start</replaceable> and <replaceable>end</replaceable> are equal in which case it + represents that single time instant. This means for instance that two + time periods with only an endpoint in common do not overlap. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT (DATE '2001-02-16', DATE '2001-12-21') OVERLAPS + (DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2002-10-30'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>true</computeroutput> +SELECT (DATE '2001-02-16', INTERVAL '100 days') OVERLAPS + (DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2002-10-30'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>false</computeroutput> +SELECT (DATE '2001-10-29', DATE '2001-10-30') OVERLAPS + (DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2001-10-31'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>false</computeroutput> +SELECT (DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2001-10-30') OVERLAPS + (DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2001-10-31'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>true</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + When adding an <type>interval</type> value to (or subtracting an + <type>interval</type> value from) a <type>timestamp with time zone</type> + value, the days component advances or decrements the date of the + <type>timestamp with time zone</type> by the indicated number of days, + keeping the time of day the same. + Across daylight saving time changes (when the session time zone is set to a + time zone that recognizes DST), this means <literal>interval '1 day'</literal> + does not necessarily equal <literal>interval '24 hours'</literal>. + For example, with the session time zone set + to <literal>America/Denver</literal>: +<screen> +SELECT timestamp with time zone '2005-04-02 12:00:00-07' + interval '1 day'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2005-04-03 12:00:00-06</computeroutput> +SELECT timestamp with time zone '2005-04-02 12:00:00-07' + interval '24 hours'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2005-04-03 13:00:00-06</computeroutput> +</screen> + This happens because an hour was skipped due to a change in daylight saving + time at <literal>2005-04-03 02:00:00</literal> in time zone + <literal>America/Denver</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + Note there can be ambiguity in the <literal>months</literal> field returned by + <function>age</function> because different months have different numbers of + days. <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s approach uses the month from the + earlier of the two dates when calculating partial months. For example, + <literal>age('2004-06-01', '2004-04-30')</literal> uses April to yield + <literal>1 mon 1 day</literal>, while using May would yield <literal>1 mon 2 + days</literal> because May has 31 days, while April has only 30. + </para> + + <para> + Subtraction of dates and timestamps can also be complex. One conceptually + simple way to perform subtraction is to convert each value to a number + of seconds using <literal>EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM ...)</literal>, then subtract the + results; this produces the + number of <emphasis>seconds</emphasis> between the two values. This will adjust + for the number of days in each month, timezone changes, and daylight + saving time adjustments. Subtraction of date or timestamp + values with the <quote><literal>-</literal></quote> operator + returns the number of days (24-hours) and hours/minutes/seconds + between the values, making the same adjustments. The <function>age</function> + function returns years, months, days, and hours/minutes/seconds, + performing field-by-field subtraction and then adjusting for negative + field values. The following queries illustrate the differences in these + approaches. The sample results were produced with <literal>timezone + = 'US/Eastern'</literal>; there is a daylight saving time change between the + two dates used: + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM timestamptz '2013-07-01 12:00:00') - + EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM timestamptz '2013-03-01 12:00:00'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>10537200</computeroutput> +SELECT (EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM timestamptz '2013-07-01 12:00:00') - + EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM timestamptz '2013-03-01 12:00:00')) + / 60 / 60 / 24; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>121.958333333333</computeroutput> +SELECT timestamptz '2013-07-01 12:00:00' - timestamptz '2013-03-01 12:00:00'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>121 days 23:00:00</computeroutput> +SELECT age(timestamptz '2013-07-01 12:00:00', timestamptz '2013-03-01 12:00:00'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>4 mons</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-extract"> + <title><function>EXTRACT</function>, <function>date_part</function></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>date_part</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>extract</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +EXTRACT(<replaceable>field</replaceable> FROM <replaceable>source</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>extract</function> function retrieves subfields + such as year or hour from date/time values. + <replaceable>source</replaceable> must be a value expression of + type <type>timestamp</type>, <type>time</type>, or <type>interval</type>. + (Expressions of type <type>date</type> are + cast to <type>timestamp</type> and can therefore be used as + well.) <replaceable>field</replaceable> is an identifier or + string that selects what field to extract from the source value. + The <function>extract</function> function returns values of type + <type>numeric</type>. + The following are valid field names: + + <!-- alphabetical --> + <variablelist> + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>century</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The century + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(CENTURY FROM TIMESTAMP '2000-12-16 12:21:13'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>20</computeroutput> +SELECT EXTRACT(CENTURY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>21</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + The first century starts at 0001-01-01 00:00:00 AD, although + they did not know it at the time. This definition applies to all + Gregorian calendar countries. There is no century number 0, + you go from -1 century to 1 century. + + If you disagree with this, please write your complaint to: + Pope, Cathedral Saint-Peter of Roma, Vatican. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>day</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + For <type>timestamp</type> values, the day (of the month) field + (1–31) ; for <type>interval</type> values, the number of days + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(DAY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>16</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(DAY FROM INTERVAL '40 days 1 minute'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>40</computeroutput> +</screen> + + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>decade</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The year field divided by 10 + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(DECADE FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>200</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>dow</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The day of the week as Sunday (<literal>0</literal>) to + Saturday (<literal>6</literal>) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(DOW FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>5</computeroutput> +</screen> + <para> + Note that <function>extract</function>'s day of the week numbering + differs from that of the <function>to_char(..., + 'D')</function> function. + </para> + + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>doy</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The day of the year (1–365/366) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(DOY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>47</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>epoch</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + For <type>timestamp with time zone</type> values, the + number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC (negative for + timestamps before that); + for <type>date</type> and <type>timestamp</type> values, the + nominal number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00, + without regard to timezone or daylight-savings rules; + for <type>interval</type> values, the total number + of seconds in the interval + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40.12-08'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>982384720.12</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40.12'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>982355920.12</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM INTERVAL '5 days 3 hours'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>442800</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + You can convert an epoch value back to a <type>timestamp with time zone</type> + with <function>to_timestamp</function>: + </para> +<screen> +SELECT to_timestamp(982384720.12); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-17 04:38:40.12+00</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + Beware that applying <function>to_timestamp</function> to an epoch + extracted from a <type>date</type> or <type>timestamp</type> value + could produce a misleading result: the result will effectively + assume that the original value had been given in UTC, which might + not be the case. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>hour</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The hour field (0–23) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(HOUR FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>20</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>isodow</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The day of the week as Monday (<literal>1</literal>) to + Sunday (<literal>7</literal>) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(ISODOW FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-18 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>7</computeroutput> +</screen> + <para> + This is identical to <literal>dow</literal> except for Sunday. This + matches the <acronym>ISO</acronym> 8601 day of the week numbering. + </para> + + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>isoyear</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <acronym>ISO</acronym> 8601 week-numbering year that the date + falls in (not applicable to intervals) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(ISOYEAR FROM DATE '2006-01-01'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2005</computeroutput> +SELECT EXTRACT(ISOYEAR FROM DATE '2006-01-02'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2006</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + Each <acronym>ISO</acronym> 8601 week-numbering year begins with the + Monday of the week containing the 4th of January, so in early + January or late December the <acronym>ISO</acronym> year may be + different from the Gregorian year. See the <literal>week</literal> + field for more information. + </para> + <para> + This field is not available in PostgreSQL releases prior to 8.3. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>julian</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <firstterm>Julian Date</firstterm> corresponding to the + date or timestamp (not applicable to intervals). Timestamps + that are not local midnight result in a fractional value. See + <xref linkend="datetime-julian-dates"/> for more information. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(JULIAN FROM DATE '2006-01-01'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2453737</computeroutput> +SELECT EXTRACT(JULIAN FROM TIMESTAMP '2006-01-01 12:00'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2453737.50000000000000000000</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>microseconds</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The seconds field, including fractional parts, multiplied by 1 + 000 000; note that this includes full seconds + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(MICROSECONDS FROM TIME '17:12:28.5'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28500000</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>millennium</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The millennium + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(MILLENNIUM FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>3</computeroutput> +</screen> + + <para> + Years in the 1900s are in the second millennium. + The third millennium started January 1, 2001. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>milliseconds</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The seconds field, including fractional parts, multiplied by + 1000. Note that this includes full seconds. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(MILLISECONDS FROM TIME '17:12:28.5'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28500</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>minute</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The minutes field (0–59) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(MINUTE FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>38</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>month</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + For <type>timestamp</type> values, the number of the month + within the year (1–12) ; for <type>interval</type> values, + the number of months, modulo 12 (0–11) + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM INTERVAL '2 years 3 months'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>3</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM INTERVAL '2 years 13 months'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>quarter</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The quarter of the year (1–4) that the date is in + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(QUARTER FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>second</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The seconds field, including any fractional seconds + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(SECOND FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>40</computeroutput> + +SELECT EXTRACT(SECOND FROM TIME '17:12:28.5'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28.5</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>timezone</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The time zone offset from UTC, measured in seconds. Positive values + correspond to time zones east of UTC, negative values to + zones west of UTC. (Technically, + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> does not use UTC because + leap seconds are not handled.) + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>timezone_hour</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The hour component of the time zone offset + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>timezone_minute</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The minute component of the time zone offset + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>week</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The number of the <acronym>ISO</acronym> 8601 week-numbering week of + the year. By definition, ISO weeks start on Mondays and the first + week of a year contains January 4 of that year. In other words, the + first Thursday of a year is in week 1 of that year. + </para> + <para> + In the ISO week-numbering system, it is possible for early-January + dates to be part of the 52nd or 53rd week of the previous year, and for + late-December dates to be part of the first week of the next year. + For example, <literal>2005-01-01</literal> is part of the 53rd week of year + 2004, and <literal>2006-01-01</literal> is part of the 52nd week of year + 2005, while <literal>2012-12-31</literal> is part of the first week of 2013. + It's recommended to use the <literal>isoyear</literal> field together with + <literal>week</literal> to get consistent results. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(WEEK FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>7</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term><literal>year</literal></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The year field. Keep in mind there is no <literal>0 AD</literal>, so subtracting + <literal>BC</literal> years from <literal>AD</literal> years should be done with care. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001</computeroutput> +</screen> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + </variablelist> + </para> + + <note> + <para> + When the input value is +/-Infinity, <function>extract</function> returns + +/-Infinity for monotonically-increasing fields (<literal>epoch</literal>, + <literal>julian</literal>, <literal>year</literal>, <literal>isoyear</literal>, + <literal>decade</literal>, <literal>century</literal>, and <literal>millennium</literal>). + For other fields, NULL is returned. <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + versions before 9.6 returned zero for all cases of infinite input. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + The <function>extract</function> function is primarily intended + for computational processing. For formatting date/time values for + display, see <xref linkend="functions-formatting"/>. + </para> + + <para> + The <function>date_part</function> function is modeled on the traditional + <productname>Ingres</productname> equivalent to the + <acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard function <function>extract</function>: +<synopsis> +date_part('<replaceable>field</replaceable>', <replaceable>source</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + Note that here the <replaceable>field</replaceable> parameter needs to + be a string value, not a name. The valid field names for + <function>date_part</function> are the same as for + <function>extract</function>. + For historical reasons, the <function>date_part</function> function + returns values of type <type>double precision</type>. This can result in + a loss of precision in certain uses. Using <function>extract</function> + is recommended instead. + </para> + +<screen> +SELECT date_part('day', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>16</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_part('hour', INTERVAL '4 hours 3 minutes'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>4</computeroutput> +</screen> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-trunc"> + <title><function>date_trunc</function></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>date_trunc</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The function <function>date_trunc</function> is conceptually + similar to the <function>trunc</function> function for numbers. + </para> + + <para> +<synopsis> +date_trunc(<replaceable>field</replaceable>, <replaceable>source</replaceable> [, <replaceable>time_zone</replaceable> ]) +</synopsis> + <replaceable>source</replaceable> is a value expression of type + <type>timestamp</type>, <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + or <type>interval</type>. + (Values of type <type>date</type> and + <type>time</type> are cast automatically to <type>timestamp</type> or + <type>interval</type>, respectively.) + <replaceable>field</replaceable> selects to which precision to + truncate the input value. The return value is likewise of type + <type>timestamp</type>, <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + or <type>interval</type>, + and it has all fields that are less significant than the + selected one set to zero (or one, for day and month). + </para> + + <para> + Valid values for <replaceable>field</replaceable> are: + <simplelist> + <member><literal>microseconds</literal></member> + <member><literal>milliseconds</literal></member> + <member><literal>second</literal></member> + <member><literal>minute</literal></member> + <member><literal>hour</literal></member> + <member><literal>day</literal></member> + <member><literal>week</literal></member> + <member><literal>month</literal></member> + <member><literal>quarter</literal></member> + <member><literal>year</literal></member> + <member><literal>decade</literal></member> + <member><literal>century</literal></member> + <member><literal>millennium</literal></member> + </simplelist> + </para> + + <para> + When the input value is of type <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + the truncation is performed with respect to a particular time zone; + for example, truncation to <literal>day</literal> produces a value that + is midnight in that zone. By default, truncation is done with respect + to the current <xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> setting, but the + optional <replaceable>time_zone</replaceable> argument can be provided + to specify a different time zone. The time zone name can be specified + in any of the ways described in <xref linkend="datatype-timezones"/>. + </para> + + <para> + A time zone cannot be specified when processing <type>timestamp without + time zone</type> or <type>interval</type> inputs. These are always + taken at face value. + </para> + + <para> + Examples (assuming the local time zone is <literal>America/New_York</literal>): +<screen> +SELECT date_trunc('hour', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 20:00:00</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_trunc('year', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-01-01 00:00:00</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_trunc('day', TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40+00'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 00:00:00-05</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_trunc('day', TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40+00', 'Australia/Sydney'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 08:00:00-05</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_trunc('hour', INTERVAL '3 days 02:47:33'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>3 days 02:00:00</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-bin"> + <title><function>date_bin</function></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>date_bin</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The function <function>date_bin</function> <quote>bins</quote> the input + timestamp into the specified interval (the <firstterm>stride</firstterm>) + aligned with a specified origin. + </para> + + <para> +<synopsis> +date_bin(<replaceable>stride</replaceable>, <replaceable>source</replaceable>, <replaceable>origin</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + <replaceable>source</replaceable> is a value expression of type + <type>timestamp</type> or <type>timestamp with time zone</type>. (Values + of type <type>date</type> are cast automatically to + <type>timestamp</type>.) <replaceable>stride</replaceable> is a value + expression of type <type>interval</type>. The return value is likewise + of type <type>timestamp</type> or <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + and it marks the beginning of the bin into which the + <replaceable>source</replaceable> is placed. + </para> + + <para> + Examples: +<screen> +SELECT date_bin('15 minutes', TIMESTAMP '2020-02-11 15:44:17', TIMESTAMP '2001-01-01'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2020-02-11 15:30:00</computeroutput> + +SELECT date_bin('15 minutes', TIMESTAMP '2020-02-11 15:44:17', TIMESTAMP '2001-01-01 00:02:30'); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2020-02-11 15:32:30</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + In the case of full units (1 minute, 1 hour, etc.), it gives the same result as + the analogous <function>date_trunc</function> call, but the difference is + that <function>date_bin</function> can truncate to an arbitrary interval. + </para> + + <para> + The <parameter>stride</parameter> interval must be greater than zero and + cannot contain units of month or larger. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-zoneconvert"> + <title><literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>time zone</primary> + <secondary>conversion</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>AT TIME ZONE</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The <literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> operator converts time + stamp <emphasis>without</emphasis> time zone to/from + time stamp <emphasis>with</emphasis> time zone, and + <type>time with time zone</type> values to different time + zones. <xref linkend="functions-datetime-zoneconvert-table"/> shows its + variants. + </para> + + <table id="functions-datetime-zoneconvert-table"> + <title><literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> Variants</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>timestamp without time zone</type> <literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> <replaceable>zone</replaceable> + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts given time stamp <emphasis>without</emphasis> time zone to + time stamp <emphasis>with</emphasis> time zone, assuming the given + value is in the named time zone. + </para> + <para> + <literal>timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40' at time zone 'America/Denver'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-02-17 03:38:40+00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>timestamp with time zone</type> <literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> <replaceable>zone</replaceable> + <returnvalue>timestamp without time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts given time stamp <emphasis>with</emphasis> time zone to + time stamp <emphasis>without</emphasis> time zone, as the time would + appear in that zone. + </para> + <para> + <literal>timestamp with time zone '2001-02-16 20:38:40-05' at time zone 'America/Denver'</literal> + <returnvalue>2001-02-16 18:38:40</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>time with time zone</type> <literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> <replaceable>zone</replaceable> + <returnvalue>time with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts given time <emphasis>with</emphasis> time zone to a new time + zone. Since no date is supplied, this uses the currently active UTC + offset for the named destination zone. + </para> + <para> + <literal>time with time zone '05:34:17-05' at time zone 'UTC'</literal> + <returnvalue>10:34:17+00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + In these expressions, the desired time zone <replaceable>zone</replaceable> can be + specified either as a text value (e.g., <literal>'America/Los_Angeles'</literal>) + or as an interval (e.g., <literal>INTERVAL '-08:00'</literal>). + In the text case, a time zone name can be specified in any of the ways + described in <xref linkend="datatype-timezones"/>. + The interval case is only useful for zones that have fixed offsets from + UTC, so it is not very common in practice. + </para> + + <para> + Examples (assuming the current <xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> setting + is <literal>America/Los_Angeles</literal>): +<screen> +SELECT TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40' AT TIME ZONE 'America/Denver'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 19:38:40-08</computeroutput> + +SELECT TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40-05' AT TIME ZONE 'America/Denver'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 18:38:40</computeroutput> + +SELECT TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40' AT TIME ZONE 'Asia/Tokyo' AT TIME ZONE 'America/Chicago'; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 05:38:40</computeroutput> +</screen> + The first example adds a time zone to a value that lacks it, and + displays the value using the current <varname>TimeZone</varname> + setting. The second example shifts the time stamp with time zone value + to the specified time zone, and returns the value without a time zone. + This allows storage and display of values different from the current + <varname>TimeZone</varname> setting. The third example converts + Tokyo time to Chicago time. + </para> + + <para> + The function <literal><function>timezone</function>(<replaceable>zone</replaceable>, + <replaceable>timestamp</replaceable>)</literal> is equivalent to the SQL-conforming construct + <literal><replaceable>timestamp</replaceable> AT TIME ZONE + <replaceable>zone</replaceable></literal>. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-current"> + <title>Current Date/Time</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>date</primary> + <secondary>current</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>time</primary> + <secondary>current</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a number of functions + that return values related to the current date and time. These + SQL-standard functions all return values based on the start time of + the current transaction: +<synopsis> +CURRENT_DATE +CURRENT_TIME +CURRENT_TIMESTAMP +CURRENT_TIME(<replaceable>precision</replaceable>) +CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(<replaceable>precision</replaceable>) +LOCALTIME +LOCALTIMESTAMP +LOCALTIME(<replaceable>precision</replaceable>) +LOCALTIMESTAMP(<replaceable>precision</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + <function>CURRENT_TIME</function> and + <function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function> deliver values with time zone; + <function>LOCALTIME</function> and + <function>LOCALTIMESTAMP</function> deliver values without time zone. + </para> + + <para> + <function>CURRENT_TIME</function>, + <function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function>, + <function>LOCALTIME</function>, and + <function>LOCALTIMESTAMP</function> + can optionally take + a precision parameter, which causes the result to be rounded + to that many fractional digits in the seconds field. Without a precision parameter, + the result is given to the full available precision. + </para> + + <para> + Some examples: +<screen> +SELECT CURRENT_TIME; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>14:39:53.662522-05</computeroutput> + +SELECT CURRENT_DATE; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2019-12-23</computeroutput> + +SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</computeroutput> + +SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(2); +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2019-12-23 14:39:53.66-05</computeroutput> + +SELECT LOCALTIMESTAMP; +<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2019-12-23 14:39:53.662522</computeroutput> +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + Since these functions return + the start time of the current transaction, their values do not + change during the transaction. This is considered a feature: + the intent is to allow a single transaction to have a consistent + notion of the <quote>current</quote> time, so that multiple + modifications within the same transaction bear the same + time stamp. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + Other database systems might advance these values more + frequently. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> also provides functions that + return the start time of the current statement, as well as the actual + current time at the instant the function is called. The complete list + of non-SQL-standard time functions is: +<synopsis> +transaction_timestamp() +statement_timestamp() +clock_timestamp() +timeofday() +now() +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + <function>transaction_timestamp()</function> is equivalent to + <function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function>, but is named to clearly reflect + what it returns. + <function>statement_timestamp()</function> returns the start time of the current + statement (more specifically, the time of receipt of the latest command + message from the client). + <function>statement_timestamp()</function> and <function>transaction_timestamp()</function> + return the same value during the first command of a transaction, but might + differ during subsequent commands. + <function>clock_timestamp()</function> returns the actual current time, and + therefore its value changes even within a single SQL command. + <function>timeofday()</function> is a historical + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> function. Like + <function>clock_timestamp()</function>, it returns the actual current time, + but as a formatted <type>text</type> string rather than a <type>timestamp + with time zone</type> value. + <function>now()</function> is a traditional <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + equivalent to <function>transaction_timestamp()</function>. + </para> + + <para> + All the date/time data types also accept the special literal value + <literal>now</literal> to specify the current date and time (again, + interpreted as the transaction start time). Thus, + the following three all return the same result: +<programlisting> +SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP; +SELECT now(); +SELECT TIMESTAMP 'now'; -- but see tip below +</programlisting> + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + Do not use the third form when specifying a value to be evaluated later, + for example in a <literal>DEFAULT</literal> clause for a table column. + The system will convert <literal>now</literal> + to a <type>timestamp</type> as soon as the constant is parsed, so that when + the default value is needed, + the time of the table creation would be used! The first two + forms will not be evaluated until the default value is used, + because they are function calls. Thus they will give the desired + behavior of defaulting to the time of row insertion. + (See also <xref linkend="datatype-datetime-special-values"/>.) + </para> + </tip> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-datetime-delay"> + <title>Delaying Execution</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_sleep</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_sleep_for</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_sleep_until</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>sleep</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>delay</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The following functions are available to delay execution of the server + process: +<synopsis> +pg_sleep ( <type>double precision</type> ) +pg_sleep_for ( <type>interval</type> ) +pg_sleep_until ( <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) +</synopsis> + + <function>pg_sleep</function> makes the current session's process + sleep until the given number of seconds have + elapsed. Fractional-second delays can be specified. + <function>pg_sleep_for</function> is a convenience function to + allow the sleep time to be specified as an <type>interval</type>. + <function>pg_sleep_until</function> is a convenience function for when + a specific wake-up time is desired. + For example: + +<programlisting> +SELECT pg_sleep(1.5); +SELECT pg_sleep_for('5 minutes'); +SELECT pg_sleep_until('tomorrow 03:00'); +</programlisting> + </para> + + <note> + <para> + The effective resolution of the sleep interval is platform-specific; + 0.01 seconds is a common value. The sleep delay will be at least as long + as specified. It might be longer depending on factors such as server load. + In particular, <function>pg_sleep_until</function> is not guaranteed to + wake up exactly at the specified time, but it will not wake up any earlier. + </para> + </note> + + <warning> + <para> + Make sure that your session does not hold more locks than necessary + when calling <function>pg_sleep</function> or its variants. Otherwise + other sessions might have to wait for your sleeping process, slowing down + the entire system. + </para> + </warning> + </sect2> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-enum"> + <title>Enum Support Functions</title> + + <para> + For enum types (described in <xref linkend="datatype-enum"/>), + there are several functions that allow cleaner programming without + hard-coding particular values of an enum type. + These are listed in <xref linkend="functions-enum-table"/>. The examples + assume an enum type created as: + +<programlisting> +CREATE TYPE rainbow AS ENUM ('red', 'orange', 'yellow', 'green', 'blue', 'purple'); +</programlisting> + + </para> + + <table id="functions-enum-table"> + <title>Enum Support Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>enum_first</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>enum_first</function> ( <type>anyenum</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyenum</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the first value of the input enum type. + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_first(null::rainbow)</literal> + <returnvalue>red</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>enum_last</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>enum_last</function> ( <type>anyenum</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyenum</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the last value of the input enum type. + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_last(null::rainbow)</literal> + <returnvalue>purple</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>enum_range</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>enum_range</function> ( <type>anyenum</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns all values of the input enum type in an ordered array. + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_range(null::rainbow)</literal> + <returnvalue>{red,orange,yellow,&zwsp;green,blue,purple}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>enum_range</function> ( <type>anyenum</type>, <type>anyenum</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the range between the two given enum values, as an ordered + array. The values must be from the same enum type. If the first + parameter is null, the result will start with the first value of + the enum type. + If the second parameter is null, the result will end with the last + value of the enum type. + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_range('orange'::rainbow, 'green'::rainbow)</literal> + <returnvalue>{orange,yellow,green}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_range(NULL, 'green'::rainbow)</literal> + <returnvalue>{red,orange,&zwsp;yellow,green}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>enum_range('orange'::rainbow, NULL)</literal> + <returnvalue>{orange,yellow,green,&zwsp;blue,purple}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Notice that except for the two-argument form of <function>enum_range</function>, + these functions disregard the specific value passed to them; they care + only about its declared data type. Either null or a specific value of + the type can be passed, with the same result. It is more common to + apply these functions to a table column or function argument than to + a hardwired type name as used in the examples. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-geometry"> + <title>Geometric Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + The geometric types <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, + <type>lseg</type>, <type>line</type>, <type>path</type>, + <type>polygon</type>, and <type>circle</type> have a large set of + native support functions and operators, shown in <xref + linkend="functions-geometry-op-table"/>, <xref + linkend="functions-geometry-func-table"/>, and <xref + linkend="functions-geometry-conv-table"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-geometry-op-table"> + <title>Geometric Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>+</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adds the coordinates of the second <type>point</type> to those of each + point of the first argument, thus performing translation. + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, <type>path</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(1,1),(0,0)' + point '(2,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>(3,1),(2,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>path</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>path</type> + <returnvalue>path</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates two open paths (returns NULL if either path is closed). + </para> + <para> + <literal>path '[(0,0),(1,1)]' + path '[(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>[(0,0),(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>-</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtracts the coordinates of the second <type>point</type> from those + of each point of the first argument, thus performing translation. + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, <type>path</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(1,1),(0,0)' - point '(2,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>(-1,1),(-2,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>*</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Multiplies each point of the first argument by the second + <type>point</type> (treating a point as being a complex number + represented by real and imaginary parts, and performing standard + complex multiplication). If one interprets + the second <type>point</type> as a vector, this is equivalent to + scaling the object's size and distance from the origin by the length + of the vector, and rotating it counterclockwise around the origin by + the vector's angle from the <replaceable>x</replaceable> axis. + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>,<footnote + id="functions-geometry-rotation-fn"><para><quote>Rotating</quote> a + box with these operators only moves its corner points: the box is + still considered to have sides parallel to the axes. Hence the box's + size is not preserved, as a true rotation would do.</para></footnote> + <type>path</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>path '((0,0),(1,0),(1,1))' * point '(3.0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(3,0),(3,3))</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>path '((0,0),(1,0),(1,1))' * point(cosd(45), sind(45))</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),&zwsp;(0.7071067811865475,0.7071067811865475),&zwsp;(0,1.414213562373095))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>/</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue><replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Divides each point of the first argument by the second + <type>point</type> (treating a point as being a complex number + represented by real and imaginary parts, and performing standard + complex division). If one interprets + the second <type>point</type> as a vector, this is equivalent to + scaling the object's size and distance from the origin down by the + length of the vector, and rotating it clockwise around the origin by + the vector's angle from the <replaceable>x</replaceable> axis. + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>,<footnoteref + linkend="functions-geometry-rotation-fn"/> <type>path</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>path '((0,0),(1,0),(1,1))' / point '(2.0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(0.5,0),(0.5,0.5))</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>path '((0,0),(1,0),(1,1))' / point(cosd(45), sind(45))</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),&zwsp;(0.7071067811865476,-0.7071067811865476),&zwsp;(1.4142135623730951,0))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>@-@</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total length. + Available for <type>lseg</type>, <type>path</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>@-@ path '[(0,0),(1,0),(1,1)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>@@</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the center point. + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>lseg</type>, + <type>polygon</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>@@ box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,1)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>#</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of points. + Available for <type>path</type>, <type>polygon</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal># path '((1,0),(0,1),(-1,0))'</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>#</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the point of intersection, or NULL if there is none. + Available for <type>lseg</type>, <type>line</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg '[(0,0),(1,1)]' # lseg '[(1,0),(0,1)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>(0.5,0.5)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>box</type> <literal>#</literal> <type>box</type> + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the intersection of two boxes, or NULL if there is none. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(2,2),(-1,-1)' # box '(1,1),(-2,-2)'</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,1),(-1,-1)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>##</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the closest point to the first object on the second object. + Available for these pairs of types: + (<type>point</type>, <type>box</type>), + (<type>point</type>, <type>lseg</type>), + (<type>point</type>, <type>line</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>box</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>lseg</type>), + (<type>line</type>, <type>lseg</type>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>point '(0,0)' ## lseg '[(2,0),(0,2)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,1)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal><-></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the distance between the objects. + Available for all geometric types except <type>polygon</type>, + for all combinations + of <type>point</type> with another geometric type, and for + these additional pairs of types: + (<type>box</type>, <type>lseg</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>line</type>), + (<type>polygon</type>, <type>circle</type>) + (and the commutator cases). + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle '<(0,0),1>' <-> circle '<(5,0),1>'</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>@></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first object contain second? + Available for these pairs of types: + (<literal>box</literal>, <literal>point</literal>), + (<literal>box</literal>, <literal>box</literal>), + (<literal>path</literal>, <literal>point</literal>), + (<literal>polygon</literal>, <literal>point</literal>), + (<literal>polygon</literal>, <literal>polygon</literal>), + (<literal>circle</literal>, <literal>point</literal>), + (<literal>circle</literal>, <literal>circle</literal>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle '<(0,0),2>' @> point '(1,1)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal><@</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object contained in or on second? + Available for these pairs of types: + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>box</literal>), + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>lseg</literal>), + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>line</literal>), + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>path</literal>), + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>polygon</literal>), + (<literal>point</literal>, <literal>circle</literal>), + (<literal>box</literal>, <literal>box</literal>), + (<literal>lseg</literal>, <literal>box</literal>), + (<literal>lseg</literal>, <literal>line</literal>), + (<literal>polygon</literal>, <literal>polygon</literal>), + (<literal>circle</literal>, <literal>circle</literal>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>point '(1,1)' <@ circle '<(0,0),2>'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>&&</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do these objects overlap? (One point in common makes this true.) + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(1,1),(0,0)' && box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal><<</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object strictly left of second? + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, + <type>polygon</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle '<(0,0),1>' << circle '<(5,0),1>'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>>></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object strictly right of second? + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, + <type>polygon</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle '<(5,0),1>' >> circle '<(0,0),1>'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>&<</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first object not extend to the right of second? + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(1,1),(0,0)' &< box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>&></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first object not extend to the left of second? + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(3,3),(0,0)' &> box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal><<|</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object strictly below second? + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(3,3),(0,0)' <<| box '(5,5),(3,4)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>|>></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object strictly above second? + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(5,5),(3,4)' |>> box '(3,3),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>&<|</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first object not extend above second? + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(1,1),(0,0)' &<| box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>|&></literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first object not extend below second? + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, + <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '(3,3),(0,0)' |&> box '(2,2),(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>box</type> <literal><^</literal> <type>box</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object below second (allows edges to touch)? + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '((1,1),(0,0))' <^ box '((2,2),(1,1))'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>box</type> <literal>>^</literal> <type>box</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first object above second (allows edges to touch)? + </para> + <para> + <literal>box '((2,2),(1,1))' >^ box '((1,1),(0,0))'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>?#</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do these objects intersect? + Available for these pairs of types: + (<type>box</type>, <type>box</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>box</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>lseg</type>), + (<type>lseg</type>, <type>line</type>), + (<type>line</type>, <type>box</type>), + (<type>line</type>, <type>line</type>), + (<type>path</type>, <type>path</type>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg '[(-1,0),(1,0)]' ?# box '(2,2),(-2,-2)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>?-</literal> <type>line</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <literal>?-</literal> <type>lseg</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is line horizontal? + </para> + <para> + <literal>?- lseg '[(-1,0),(1,0)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>point</type> <literal>?-</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are points horizontally aligned (that is, have same y coordinate)? + </para> + <para> + <literal>point '(1,0)' ?- point '(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>?|</literal> <type>line</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <literal>?|</literal> <type>lseg</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is line vertical? + </para> + <para> + <literal>?| lseg '[(-1,0),(1,0)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>point</type> <literal>?|</literal> <type>point</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are points vertically aligned (that is, have same x coordinate)? + </para> + <para> + <literal>point '(0,1)' ?| point '(0,0)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>line</type> <literal>?-|</literal> <type>line</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>lseg</type> <literal>?-|</literal> <type>lseg</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are lines perpendicular? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg '[(0,0),(0,1)]' ?-| lseg '[(0,0),(1,0)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>line</type> <literal>?||</literal> <type>line</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>lseg</type> <literal>?||</literal> <type>lseg</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are lines parallel? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg '[(-1,0),(1,0)]' ?|| lseg '[(-1,2),(1,2)]'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> <literal>~=</literal> <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are these objects the same? + Available for <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>, + <type>polygon</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>polygon '((0,0),(1,1))' ~= polygon '((1,1),(0,0))'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <caution> + <para> + Note that the <quote>same as</quote> operator, <literal>~=</literal>, + represents the usual notion of equality for the <type>point</type>, + <type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, and <type>circle</type> types. + Some of the geometric types also have an <literal>=</literal> operator, but + <literal>=</literal> compares for equal <emphasis>areas</emphasis> only. + The other scalar comparison operators (<literal><=</literal> and so + on), where available for these types, likewise compare areas. + </para> + </caution> + + <note> + <para> + Before <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 14, the point + is strictly below/above comparison operators <type>point</type> + <literal><<|</literal> <type>point</type> and <type>point</type> + <literal>|>></literal> <type>point</type> were respectively + called <literal><^</literal> and <literal>>^</literal>. These + names are still available, but are deprecated and will eventually be + removed. + </para> + </note> + + <table id="functions-geometry-func-table"> + <title>Geometric Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>area</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>area</function> ( <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes area. + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>path</type>, <type>circle</type>. + A <type>path</type> input must be closed, else NULL is returned. + Also, if the <type>path</type> is self-intersecting, the result may be + meaningless. + </para> + <para> + <literal>area(box '(2,2),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>center</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>center</function> ( <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes center point. + Available for <type>box</type>, <type>circle</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>center(box '(1,2),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>(0.5,1)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>diagonal</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>diagonal</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>lseg</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts box's diagonal as a line segment + (same as <function>lseg(box)</function>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>diagonal(box '(1,2),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[(1,2),(0,0)]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>diameter</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>diameter</function> ( <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes diameter of circle. + </para> + <para> + <literal>diameter(circle '<(0,0),2>')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>height</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>height</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes vertical size of box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>height(box '(1,2),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>isclosed</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>isclosed</function> ( <type>path</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is path closed? + </para> + <para> + <literal>isclosed(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>isopen</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>isopen</function> ( <type>path</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is path open? + </para> + <para> + <literal>isopen(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>length</function> ( <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total length. + Available for <type>lseg</type>, <type>path</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length(path '((-1,0),(1,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>npoints</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>npoints</function> ( <replaceable>geometric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of points. + Available for <type>path</type>, <type>polygon</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>npoints(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pclose</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pclose</function> ( <type>path</type> ) + <returnvalue>path</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts path to closed form. + </para> + <para> + <literal>pclose(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>popen</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>popen</function> ( <type>path</type> ) + <returnvalue>path</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts path to open form. + </para> + <para> + <literal>popen(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>radius</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>radius</function> ( <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes radius of circle. + </para> + <para> + <literal>radius(circle '<(0,0),2>')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>slope</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>slope</function> ( <type>point</type>, <type>point</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes slope of a line drawn through the two points. + </para> + <para> + <literal>slope(point '(0,0)', point '(2,1)')</literal> + <returnvalue>0.5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>width</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>width</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes horizontal size of box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>width(box '(1,2),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-geometry-conv-table"> + <title>Geometric Type Conversion Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>box</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>box</function> ( <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes box inscribed within the circle. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box(circle '<(0,0),2>')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1.414213562373095,1.414213562373095),&zwsp;(-1.414213562373095,-1.414213562373095)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>box</function> ( <type>point</type> ) + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts point to empty box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box(point '(1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,0),(1,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>box</function> ( <type>point</type>, <type>point</type> ) + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts any two corner points to box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box(point '(0,1)', point '(1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,1),(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>box</function> ( <type>polygon</type> ) + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes bounding box of polygon. + </para> + <para> + <literal>box(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>(2,1),(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bound_box</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bound_box</function> ( <type>box</type>, <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>box</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes bounding box of two boxes. + </para> + <para> + <literal>bound_box(box '(1,1),(0,0)', box '(4,4),(3,3)')</literal> + <returnvalue>(4,4),(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>circle</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>circle</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>circle</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes smallest circle enclosing box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle(box '(1,1),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue><(0.5,0.5),0.7071067811865476></returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>circle</function> ( <type>point</type>, <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>circle</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs circle from center and radius. + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle(point '(0,0)', 2.0)</literal> + <returnvalue><(0,0),2></returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>circle</function> ( <type>polygon</type> ) + <returnvalue>circle</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts polygon to circle. The circle's center is the mean of the + positions of the polygon's points, and the radius is the average + distance of the polygon's points from that center. + </para> + <para> + <literal>circle(polygon '((0,0),(1,3),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue><(1,1),1.6094757082487299></returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>line</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>line</function> ( <type>point</type>, <type>point</type> ) + <returnvalue>line</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts two points to the line through them. + </para> + <para> + <literal>line(point '(-1,0)', point '(1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>{0,-1,0}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lseg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lseg</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>lseg</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts box's diagonal as a line segment. + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg(box '(1,0),(-1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[(1,0),(-1,0)]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>lseg</function> ( <type>point</type>, <type>point</type> ) + <returnvalue>lseg</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs line segment from two endpoints. + </para> + <para> + <literal>lseg(point '(-1,0)', point '(1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[(-1,0),(1,0)]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>path</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>path</function> ( <type>polygon</type> ) + <returnvalue>path</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts polygon to a closed path with the same list of points. + </para> + <para> + <literal>path(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>point</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>point</function> ( <type>double precision</type>, <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs point from its coordinates. + </para> + <para> + <literal>point(23.4, -44.5)</literal> + <returnvalue>(23.4,-44.5)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>point</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes center of box. + </para> + <para> + <literal>point(box '(1,0),(-1,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>point</function> ( <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes center of circle. + </para> + <para> + <literal>point(circle '<(0,0),2>')</literal> + <returnvalue>(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>point</function> ( <type>lseg</type> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes center of line segment. + </para> + <para> + <literal>point(lseg '[(-1,0),(1,0)]')</literal> + <returnvalue>(0,0)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>point</function> ( <type>polygon</type> ) + <returnvalue>point</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes center of polygon (the mean of the + positions of the polygon's points). + </para> + <para> + <literal>point(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,0.3333333333333333)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>polygon</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>polygon</function> ( <type>box</type> ) + <returnvalue>polygon</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts box to a 4-point polygon. + </para> + <para> + <literal>polygon(box '(1,1),(0,0)')</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(0,1),(1,1),(1,0))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>polygon</function> ( <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>polygon</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts circle to a 12-point polygon. + </para> + <para> + <literal>polygon(circle '<(0,0),2>')</literal> + <returnvalue>((-2,0),&zwsp;(-1.7320508075688774,0.9999999999999999),&zwsp;(-1.0000000000000002,1.7320508075688772),&zwsp;(-1.2246063538223773e-16,2),&zwsp;(0.9999999999999996,1.7320508075688774),&zwsp;(1.732050807568877,1.0000000000000007),&zwsp;(2,2.4492127076447545e-16),&zwsp;(1.7320508075688776,-0.9999999999999994),&zwsp;(1.0000000000000009,-1.7320508075688767),&zwsp;(3.673819061467132e-16,-2),&zwsp;(-0.9999999999999987,-1.732050807568878),&zwsp;(-1.7320508075688767,-1.0000000000000009))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>polygon</function> ( <type>integer</type>, <type>circle</type> ) + <returnvalue>polygon</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts circle to an <replaceable>n</replaceable>-point polygon. + </para> + <para> + <literal>polygon(4, circle '<(3,0),1>')</literal> + <returnvalue>((2,0),&zwsp;(3,1),&zwsp;(4,1.2246063538223773e-16),&zwsp;(3,-1))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>polygon</function> ( <type>path</type> ) + <returnvalue>polygon</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts closed path to a polygon with the same list of points. + </para> + <para> + <literal>polygon(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal> + <returnvalue>((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + It is possible to access the two component numbers of a <type>point</type> + as though the point were an array with indexes 0 and 1. For example, if + <literal>t.p</literal> is a <type>point</type> column then + <literal>SELECT p[0] FROM t</literal> retrieves the X coordinate and + <literal>UPDATE t SET p[1] = ...</literal> changes the Y coordinate. + In the same way, a value of type <type>box</type> or <type>lseg</type> can be treated + as an array of two <type>point</type> values. + </para> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-net"> + <title>Network Address Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + The IP network address types, <type>cidr</type> and <type>inet</type>, + support the usual comparison operators shown in + <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> + as well as the specialized operators and functions shown in + <xref linkend="cidr-inet-operators-table"/> and + <xref linkend="cidr-inet-functions-table"/>. + </para> + + <para> + Any <type>cidr</type> value can be cast to <type>inet</type> implicitly; + therefore, the operators and functions shown below as operating on + <type>inet</type> also work on <type>cidr</type> values. (Where there are + separate functions for <type>inet</type> and <type>cidr</type>, it is + because the behavior should be different for the two cases.) + Also, it is permitted to cast an <type>inet</type> value + to <type>cidr</type>. When this is done, any bits to the right of the + netmask are silently zeroed to create a valid <type>cidr</type> value. + </para> + + <table id="cidr-inet-operators-table"> + <title>IP Address Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is subnet strictly contained by subnet? + This operator, and the next four, test for subnet inclusion. They + consider only the network parts of the two addresses (ignoring any + bits to the right of the netmasks) and determine whether one network + is identical to or a subnet of the other. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.5' << inet '192.168.1/24'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.0.5' << inet '192.168.1/24'</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' << inet '192.168.1/24'</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal><<=</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is subnet contained by or equal to subnet? + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' <<= inet '192.168.1/24'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does subnet strictly contain subnet? + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' >> inet '192.168.1.5'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>>>=</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does subnet contain or equal subnet? + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' >>= inet '192.168.1/24'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does either subnet contain or equal the other? + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' && inet '192.168.1.80/28'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1/24' && inet '192.168.2.0/28'</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>~</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes bitwise NOT. + </para> + <para> + <literal>~ inet '192.168.1.6'</literal> + <returnvalue>63.87.254.249</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>&</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes bitwise AND. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.6' & inet '0.0.0.255'</literal> + <returnvalue>0.0.0.6</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>|</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes bitwise OR. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.6' | inet '0.0.0.255'</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.255</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>bigint</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adds an offset to an address. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.6' + 25</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.31</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>bigint</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adds an offset to an address. + </para> + <para> + <literal>200 + inet '::ffff:fff0:1'</literal> + <returnvalue>::ffff:255.240.0.201</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>bigint</type> + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtracts an offset from an address. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.43' - 36</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.7</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>inet</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>inet</type> + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the difference of two addresses. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '192.168.1.43' - inet '192.168.1.19'</literal> + <returnvalue>24</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet '::1' - inet '::ffff:1'</literal> + <returnvalue>-4294901760</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="cidr-inet-functions-table"> + <title>IP Address Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>abbrev</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>abbrev</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Creates an abbreviated display format as text. + (The result is the same as the <type>inet</type> output function + produces; it is <quote>abbreviated</quote> only in comparison to the + result of an explicit cast to <type>text</type>, which for historical + reasons will never suppress the netmask part.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>abbrev(inet '10.1.0.0/32')</literal> + <returnvalue>10.1.0.0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>abbrev</function> ( <type>cidr</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Creates an abbreviated display format as text. + (The abbreviation consists of dropping all-zero octets to the right + of the netmask; more examples are in + <xref linkend="datatype-net-cidr-table"/>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>abbrev(cidr '10.1.0.0/16')</literal> + <returnvalue>10.1/16</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>broadcast</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>broadcast</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the broadcast address for the address's network. + </para> + <para> + <literal>broadcast(inet '192.168.1.5/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.255/24</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>family</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>family</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the address's family: <literal>4</literal> for IPv4, + <literal>6</literal> for IPv6. + </para> + <para> + <literal>family(inet '::1')</literal> + <returnvalue>6</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>host</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>host</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the IP address as text, ignoring the netmask. + </para> + <para> + <literal>host(inet '192.168.1.0/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>hostmask</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>hostmask</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the host mask for the address's network. + </para> + <para> + <literal>hostmask(inet '192.168.23.20/30')</literal> + <returnvalue>0.0.0.3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_merge</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_merge</function> ( <type>inet</type>, <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>cidr</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the smallest network that includes both of the given networks. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet_merge(inet '192.168.1.5/24', inet '192.168.2.5/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.0.0/22</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_same_family</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_same_family</function> ( <type>inet</type>, <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether the addresses belong to the same IP family. + </para> + <para> + <literal>inet_same_family(inet '192.168.1.5/24', inet '::1')</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>masklen</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>masklen</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the netmask length in bits. + </para> + <para> + <literal>masklen(inet '192.168.1.5/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>24</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>netmask</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>netmask</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the network mask for the address's network. + </para> + <para> + <literal>netmask(inet '192.168.1.5/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>255.255.255.0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>network</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>network</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>cidr</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the network part of the address, zeroing out + whatever is to the right of the netmask. + (This is equivalent to casting the value to <type>cidr</type>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>network(inet '192.168.1.5/24')</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.0/24</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>set_masklen</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>set_masklen</function> ( <type>inet</type>, <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the netmask length for an <type>inet</type> value. + The address part does not change. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_masklen(inet '192.168.1.5/24', 16)</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.5/16</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>set_masklen</function> ( <type>cidr</type>, <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>cidr</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the netmask length for a <type>cidr</type> value. + Address bits to the right of the new netmask are set to zero. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_masklen(cidr '192.168.1.0/24', 16)</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.0.0/16</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>text</function> ( <type>inet</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the unabbreviated IP address and netmask length as text. + (This has the same result as an explicit cast to <type>text</type>.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>text(inet '192.168.1.5')</literal> + <returnvalue>192.168.1.5/32</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <tip> + <para> + The <function>abbrev</function>, <function>host</function>, + and <function>text</function> functions are primarily intended to offer + alternative display formats for IP addresses. + </para> + </tip> + + <para> + The MAC address types, <type>macaddr</type> and <type>macaddr8</type>, + support the usual comparison operators shown in + <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> + as well as the specialized functions shown in + <xref linkend="macaddr-functions-table"/>. + In addition, they support the bitwise logical operators + <literal>~</literal>, <literal>&</literal> and <literal>|</literal> + (NOT, AND and OR), just as shown above for IP addresses. + </para> + + <table id="macaddr-functions-table"> + <title>MAC Address Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trunc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trunc</function> ( <type>macaddr</type> ) + <returnvalue>macaddr</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the last 3 bytes of the address to zero. The remaining prefix + can be associated with a particular manufacturer (using data not + included in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>trunc(macaddr '12:34:56:78:90:ab')</literal> + <returnvalue>12:34:56:00:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>trunc</function> ( <type>macaddr8</type> ) + <returnvalue>macaddr8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the last 5 bytes of the address to zero. The remaining prefix + can be associated with a particular manufacturer (using data not + included in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>trunc(macaddr8 '12:34:56:78:90:ab:cd:ef')</literal> + <returnvalue>12:34:56:00:00:00:00:00</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>macaddr8_set7bit</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>macaddr8_set7bit</function> ( <type>macaddr8</type> ) + <returnvalue>macaddr8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the 7th bit of the address to one, creating what is known as + modified EUI-64, for inclusion in an IPv6 address. + </para> + <para> + <literal>macaddr8_set7bit(macaddr8 '00:34:56:ab:cd:ef')</literal> + <returnvalue>02:34:56:ff:fe:ab:cd:ef</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-textsearch"> + <title>Text Search Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="datatype-textsearch"> + <primary>full text search</primary> + <secondary>functions and operators</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm zone="datatype-textsearch"> + <primary>text search</primary> + <secondary>functions and operators</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <xref linkend="textsearch-operators-table"/>, + <xref linkend="textsearch-functions-table"/> and + <xref linkend="textsearch-functions-debug-table"/> + summarize the functions and operators that are provided + for full text searching. See <xref linkend="textsearch"/> for a detailed + explanation of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s text search + facility. + </para> + + <table id="textsearch-operators-table"> + <title>Text Search Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsvector</type> <literal>@@</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal>@@</literal> <type>tsvector</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does <type>tsvector</type> match <type>tsquery</type>? + (The arguments can be given in either order.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsvector('fat cats ate rats') @@ to_tsquery('cat & rat')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>text</type> <literal>@@</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does text string, after implicit invocation + of <function>to_tsvector()</function>, match <type>tsquery</type>? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'fat cats ate rats' @@ to_tsquery('cat & rat')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsvector</type> <literal>@@@</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal>@@@</literal> <type>tsvector</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is a deprecated synonym for <literal>@@</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsvector('fat cats ate rats') @@@ to_tsquery('cat & rat')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsvector</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>tsvector</type> + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates two <type>tsvector</type>s. If both inputs contain + lexeme positions, the second input's positions are adjusted + accordingly. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'a:1 b:2'::tsvector || 'c:1 d:2 b:3'::tsvector</literal> + <returnvalue>'a':1 'b':2,5 'c':3 'd':4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + ANDs two <type>tsquery</type>s together, producing a query that + matches documents that match both input queries. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'fat | rat'::tsquery && 'cat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>( 'fat' | 'rat' ) & 'cat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + ORs two <type>tsquery</type>s together, producing a query that + matches documents that match either input query. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'fat | rat'::tsquery || 'cat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' | 'rat' | 'cat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>!!</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Negates a <type>tsquery</type>, producing a query that matches + documents that do not match the input query. + </para> + <para> + <literal>!! 'cat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>!'cat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal><-></literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs a phrase query, which matches if the two input queries + match at successive lexemes. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsquery('fat') <-> to_tsquery('rat')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' <-> 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does first <type>tsquery</type> contain the second? (This considers + only whether all the lexemes appearing in one query appear in the + other, ignoring the combining operators.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'cat'::tsquery @> 'cat & rat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>tsquery</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>tsquery</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is first <type>tsquery</type> contained in the second? (This + considers only whether all the lexemes appearing in one query appear + in the other, ignoring the combining operators.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'cat'::tsquery <@ 'cat & rat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'cat'::tsquery <@ '!cat & rat'::tsquery</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + In addition to these specialized operators, the usual comparison + operators shown in <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> are + available for types <type>tsvector</type> and <type>tsquery</type>. + These are not very + useful for text searching but allow, for example, unique indexes to be + built on columns of these types. + </para> + + <table id="textsearch-functions-table"> + <title>Text Search Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_to_tsvector</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_to_tsvector</function> ( <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts an array of lexemes to a <type>tsvector</type>. + The given strings are used as-is without further processing. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_to_tsvector('{fat,cat,rat}'::text[])</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat' 'fat' 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>get_current_ts_config</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>get_current_ts_config</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>regconfig</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the OID of the current default text search configuration + (as set by <xref linkend="guc-default-text-search-config"/>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>get_current_ts_config()</literal> + <returnvalue>english</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>length</function> ( <type>tsvector</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of lexemes in the <type>tsvector</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>length('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5A'::tsvector)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>numnode</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>numnode</function> ( <type>tsquery</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of lexemes plus operators in + the <type>tsquery</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>numnode('(fat & rat) | cat'::tsquery)</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>plainto_tsquery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>plainto_tsquery</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts text to a <type>tsquery</type>, normalizing words according to + the specified or default configuration. Any punctuation in the string + is ignored (it does not determine query operators). The resulting + query matches documents containing all non-stopwords in the text. + </para> + <para> + <literal>plainto_tsquery('english', 'The Fat Rats')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' & 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>phraseto_tsquery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>phraseto_tsquery</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts text to a <type>tsquery</type>, normalizing words according to + the specified or default configuration. Any punctuation in the string + is ignored (it does not determine query operators). The resulting + query matches phrases containing all non-stopwords in the text. + </para> + <para> + <literal>phraseto_tsquery('english', 'The Fat Rats')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' <-> 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>phraseto_tsquery('english', 'The Cat and Rats')</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat' <2> 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>websearch_to_tsquery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>websearch_to_tsquery</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts text to a <type>tsquery</type>, normalizing words according + to the specified or default configuration. Quoted word sequences are + converted to phrase tests. The word <quote>or</quote> is understood + as producing an OR operator, and a dash produces a NOT operator; + other punctuation is ignored. + This approximates the behavior of some common web search tools. + </para> + <para> + <literal>websearch_to_tsquery('english', '"fat rat" or cat dog')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' <-> 'rat' | 'cat' & 'dog'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>querytree</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>querytree</function> ( <type>tsquery</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Produces a representation of the indexable portion of + a <type>tsquery</type>. A result that is empty or + just <literal>T</literal> indicates a non-indexable query. + </para> + <para> + <literal>querytree('foo & ! bar'::tsquery)</literal> + <returnvalue>'foo'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>setweight</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>setweight</function> ( <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, <parameter>weight</parameter> <type>"char"</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Assigns the specified <parameter>weight</parameter> to each element + of the <parameter>vector</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>setweight('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5B'::tsvector, 'A')</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat':3A 'fat':2A,4A 'rat':5A</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>setweight</primary> + <secondary>setweight for specific lexeme(s)</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>setweight</function> ( <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, <parameter>weight</parameter> <type>"char"</type>, <parameter>lexemes</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Assigns the specified <parameter>weight</parameter> to elements + of the <parameter>vector</parameter> that are listed + in <parameter>lexemes</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>setweight('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5,6B'::tsvector, 'A', '{cat,rat}')</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat':3A 'fat':2,4 'rat':5A,6A</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>strip</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>strip</function> ( <type>tsvector</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes positions and weights from the <type>tsvector</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>strip('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5A'::tsvector)</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat' 'fat' 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_tsquery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_tsquery</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts text to a <type>tsquery</type>, normalizing words according to + the specified or default configuration. The words must be combined + by valid <type>tsquery</type> operators. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsquery('english', 'The & Fat & Rats')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' & 'rat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_tsvector</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_tsvector</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts text to a <type>tsvector</type>, normalizing words according + to the specified or default configuration. Position information is + included in the result. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsvector('english', 'The Fat Rats')</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat':2 'rat':3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_tsvector</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>to_tsvector</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts each string value in the JSON document to + a <type>tsvector</type>, normalizing words according to the specified + or default configuration. The results are then concatenated in + document order to produce the output. Position information is + generated as though one stopword exists between each pair of string + values. (Beware that <quote>document order</quote> of the fields of a + JSON object is implementation-dependent when the input + is <type>jsonb</type>; observe the difference in the examples.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsvector('english', '{"aa": "The Fat Rats", "b": "dog"}'::json)</literal> + <returnvalue>'dog':5 'fat':2 'rat':3</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_tsvector('english', '{"aa": "The Fat Rats", "b": "dog"}'::jsonb)</literal> + <returnvalue>'dog':1 'fat':4 'rat':5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_to_tsvector</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_to_tsvector</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>json</type>, + <parameter>filter</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_to_tsvector</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_to_tsvector</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, + <parameter>filter</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Selects each item in the JSON document that is requested by + the <parameter>filter</parameter> and converts each one to + a <type>tsvector</type>, normalizing words according to the specified + or default configuration. The results are then concatenated in + document order to produce the output. Position information is + generated as though one stopword exists between each pair of selected + items. (Beware that <quote>document order</quote> of the fields of a + JSON object is implementation-dependent when the input + is <type>jsonb</type>.) + The <parameter>filter</parameter> must be a <type>jsonb</type> + array containing zero or more of these keywords: + <literal>"string"</literal> (to include all string values), + <literal>"numeric"</literal> (to include all numeric values), + <literal>"boolean"</literal> (to include all boolean values), + <literal>"key"</literal> (to include all keys), or + <literal>"all"</literal> (to include all the above). + As a special case, the <parameter>filter</parameter> can also be a + simple JSON value that is one of these keywords. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_to_tsvector('english', '{"a": "The Fat Rats", "b": 123}'::json, '["string", "numeric"]')</literal> + <returnvalue>'123':5 'fat':2 'rat':3</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_to_tsvector('english', '{"cat": "The Fat Rats", "dog": 123}'::json, '"all"')</literal> + <returnvalue>'123':9 'cat':1 'dog':7 'fat':4 'rat':5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_delete</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_delete</function> ( <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, <parameter>lexeme</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes any occurrence of the given <parameter>lexeme</parameter> + from the <parameter>vector</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_delete('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5A'::tsvector, 'fat')</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat':3 'rat':5A</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_delete</function> ( <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, <parameter>lexemes</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes any occurrences of the lexemes + in <parameter>lexemes</parameter> + from the <parameter>vector</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_delete('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5A'::tsvector, ARRAY['fat','rat'])</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat':3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_filter</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_filter</function> ( <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, <parameter>weights</parameter> <type>"char"[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsvector</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Selects only elements with the given <parameter>weights</parameter> + from the <parameter>vector</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_filter('fat:2,4 cat:3b,7c rat:5A'::tsvector, '{a,b}')</literal> + <returnvalue>'cat':3B 'rat':5A</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_headline</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_headline</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> + <optional>, <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Displays, in an abbreviated form, the match(es) for + the <parameter>query</parameter> in + the <parameter>document</parameter>, which must be raw text not + a <type>tsvector</type>. Words in the document are normalized + according to the specified or default configuration before matching to + the query. Use of this function is discussed in + <xref linkend="textsearch-headline"/>, which also describes the + available <parameter>options</parameter>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_headline('The fat cat ate the rat.', 'cat')</literal> + <returnvalue>The fat <b>cat</b> ate the rat.</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_headline</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>json</type>, + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> + <optional>, <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_headline</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> + <optional>, <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Displays, in an abbreviated form, match(es) for + the <parameter>query</parameter> that occur in string values + within the JSON <parameter>document</parameter>. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-headline"/> for more details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_headline('{"cat":"raining cats and dogs"}'::jsonb, 'cat')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"cat": "raining <b>cats</b> and dogs"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_rank</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_rank</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>weights</parameter> <type>real[]</type>, </optional> + <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> + <optional>, <parameter>normalization</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>real</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes a score showing how well + the <parameter>vector</parameter> matches + the <parameter>query</parameter>. See + <xref linkend="textsearch-ranking"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_rank(to_tsvector('raining cats and dogs'), 'cat')</literal> + <returnvalue>0.06079271</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_rank_cd</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_rank_cd</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>weights</parameter> <type>real[]</type>, </optional> + <parameter>vector</parameter> <type>tsvector</type>, + <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> + <optional>, <parameter>normalization</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>real</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes a score showing how well + the <parameter>vector</parameter> matches + the <parameter>query</parameter>, using a cover density + algorithm. See <xref linkend="textsearch-ranking"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_rank_cd(to_tsvector('raining cats and dogs'), 'cat')</literal> + <returnvalue>0.1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_rewrite</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_rewrite</function> ( <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, + <parameter>target</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, + <parameter>substitute</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces occurrences of <parameter>target</parameter> + with <parameter>substitute</parameter> + within the <parameter>query</parameter>. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-query-rewriting"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_rewrite('a & b'::tsquery, 'a'::tsquery, 'foo|bar'::tsquery)</literal> + <returnvalue>'b' & ( 'foo' | 'bar' )</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_rewrite</function> ( <parameter>query</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, + <parameter>select</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces portions of the <parameter>query</parameter> according to + target(s) and substitute(s) obtained by executing + a <command>SELECT</command> command. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-query-rewriting"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>SELECT ts_rewrite('a & b'::tsquery, 'SELECT t,s FROM aliases')</literal> + <returnvalue>'b' & ( 'foo' | 'bar' )</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tsquery_phrase</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tsquery_phrase</function> ( <parameter>query1</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, <parameter>query2</parameter> <type>tsquery</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs a phrase query that searches + for matches of <parameter>query1</parameter> + and <parameter>query2</parameter> at successive lexemes (same + as <literal><-></literal> operator). + </para> + <para> + <literal>tsquery_phrase(to_tsquery('fat'), to_tsquery('cat'))</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' <-> 'cat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>tsquery_phrase</function> ( <parameter>query1</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, <parameter>query2</parameter> <type>tsquery</type>, <parameter>distance</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>tsquery</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs a phrase query that searches + for matches of <parameter>query1</parameter> and + <parameter>query2</parameter> that occur exactly + <parameter>distance</parameter> lexemes apart. + </para> + <para> + <literal>tsquery_phrase(to_tsquery('fat'), to_tsquery('cat'), 10)</literal> + <returnvalue>'fat' <10> 'cat'</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tsvector_to_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tsvector_to_array</function> ( <type>tsvector</type> ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a <type>tsvector</type> to an array of lexemes. + </para> + <para> + <literal>tsvector_to_array('fat:2,4 cat:3 rat:5A'::tsvector)</literal> + <returnvalue>{cat,fat,rat}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>unnest</primary> + <secondary>for tsvector</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>unnest</function> ( <type>tsvector</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lexeme</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>positions</parameter> <type>smallint[]</type>, + <parameter>weights</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Expands a <type>tsvector</type> into a set of rows, one per lexeme. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from unnest('cat:3 fat:2,4 rat:5A'::tsvector)</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + lexeme | positions | weights +--------+-----------+--------- + cat | {3} | {D} + fat | {2,4} | {D,D} + rat | {5} | {A} +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + All the text search functions that accept an optional <type>regconfig</type> + argument will use the configuration specified by + <xref linkend="guc-default-text-search-config"/> + when that argument is omitted. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + The functions in + <xref linkend="textsearch-functions-debug-table"/> + are listed separately because they are not usually used in everyday text + searching operations. They are primarily helpful for development and + debugging of new text search configurations. + </para> + + <table id="textsearch-functions-debug-table"> + <title>Text Search Debugging Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_debug</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_debug</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>config</parameter> <type>regconfig</type>, </optional> + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>alias</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>description</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>token</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>dictionaries</parameter> <type>regdictionary[]</type>, + <parameter>dictionary</parameter> <type>regdictionary</type>, + <parameter>lexemes</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Extracts and normalizes tokens from + the <parameter>document</parameter> according to the specified or + default text search configuration, and returns information about how + each token was processed. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-configuration-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_debug('english', 'The Brightest supernovaes')</literal> + <returnvalue>(asciiword,"Word, all ASCII",The,{english_stem},english_stem,{}) ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_lexize</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_lexize</function> ( <parameter>dict</parameter> <type>regdictionary</type>, <parameter>token</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array of replacement lexemes if the input token is known to + the dictionary, or an empty array if the token is known to the + dictionary but it is a stop word, or NULL if it is not a known word. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-dictionary-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_lexize('english_stem', 'stars')</literal> + <returnvalue>{star}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_parse</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_parse</function> ( <parameter>parser_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>tokid</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>token</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Extracts tokens from the <parameter>document</parameter> using the + named parser. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-parser-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_parse('default', 'foo - bar')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,foo) ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_parse</function> ( <parameter>parser_oid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>document</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>tokid</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>token</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Extracts tokens from the <parameter>document</parameter> using a + parser specified by OID. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-parser-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_parse(3722, 'foo - bar')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,foo) ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_token_type</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_token_type</function> ( <parameter>parser_name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>tokid</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>alias</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>description</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a table that describes each type of token the named parser can + recognize. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-parser-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_token_type('default')</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,asciiword,"Word, all ASCII") ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>ts_token_type</function> ( <parameter>parser_oid</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>tokid</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>alias</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>description</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a table that describes each type of token a parser specified + by OID can recognize. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-parser-testing"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_token_type(3722)</literal> + <returnvalue>(1,asciiword,"Word, all ASCII") ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ts_stat</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ts_stat</function> ( <parameter>sqlquery</parameter> <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>weights</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>word</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>ndoc</parameter> <type>integer</type>, + <parameter>nentry</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Executes the <parameter>sqlquery</parameter>, which must return a + single <type>tsvector</type> column, and returns statistics about each + distinct lexeme contained in the data. + See <xref linkend="textsearch-statistics"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>ts_stat('SELECT vector FROM apod')</literal> + <returnvalue>(foo,10,15) ...</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-uuid"> + <title>UUID Functions</title> + + <indexterm zone="datatype-uuid"> + <primary>UUID</primary> + <secondary>generating</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>gen_random_uuid</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> includes one function to generate a UUID: +<synopsis> +<function>gen_random_uuid</function> () <returnvalue>uuid</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + This function returns a version 4 (random) UUID. This is the most commonly + used type of UUID and is appropriate for most applications. + </para> + + <para> + The <xref linkend="uuid-ossp"/> module provides additional functions that + implement other standard algorithms for generating UUIDs. + </para> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> also provides the usual comparison + operators shown in <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> for + UUIDs. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-xml"> + + <title>XML Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>XML Functions</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The functions and function-like expressions described in this + section operate on values of type <type>xml</type>. See <xref + linkend="datatype-xml"/> for information about the <type>xml</type> + type. The function-like expressions <function>xmlparse</function> + and <function>xmlserialize</function> for converting to and from + type <type>xml</type> are documented there, not in this section. + </para> + + <para> + Use of most of these functions + requires <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> to have been built + with <command>configure --with-libxml</command>. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-producing-xml"> + <title>Producing XML Content</title> + + <para> + A set of functions and function-like expressions is available for + producing XML content from SQL data. As such, they are + particularly suitable for formatting query results into XML + documents for processing in client applications. + </para> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlcomment</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlcomment</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlcomment</function> ( <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xmlcomment</function> creates an XML value + containing an XML comment with the specified text as content. + The text cannot contain <quote><literal>--</literal></quote> or end with a + <quote><literal>-</literal></quote>, otherwise the resulting construct + would not be a valid XML comment. + If the argument is null, the result is null. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlcomment('hello'); + + xmlcomment +-------------- + <!--hello--> +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlconcat</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlconcat</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlconcat</function> ( <type>xml</type> <optional>, ...</optional> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xmlconcat</function> concatenates a list + of individual XML values to create a single value containing an + XML content fragment. Null values are omitted; the result is + only null if there are no nonnull arguments. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlconcat('<abc/>', '<bar>foo</bar>'); + + xmlconcat +---------------------- + <abc/><bar>foo</bar> +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + XML declarations, if present, are combined as follows. If all + argument values have the same XML version declaration, that + version is used in the result, else no version is used. If all + argument values have the standalone declaration value + <quote>yes</quote>, then that value is used in the result. If + all argument values have a standalone declaration value and at + least one is <quote>no</quote>, then that is used in the result. + Else the result will have no standalone declaration. If the + result is determined to require a standalone declaration but no + version declaration, a version declaration with version 1.0 will + be used because XML requires an XML declaration to contain a + version declaration. Encoding declarations are ignored and + removed in all cases. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlconcat('<?xml version="1.1"?><foo/>', '<?xml version="1.1" standalone="no"?><bar/>'); + + xmlconcat +----------------------------------- + <?xml version="1.1"?><foo/><bar/> +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlelement</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlelement</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlelement</function> ( <literal>NAME</literal> <replaceable>name</replaceable> <optional>, <literal>XMLATTRIBUTES</literal> ( <replaceable>attvalue</replaceable> <optional> <literal>AS</literal> <replaceable>attname</replaceable> </optional> <optional>, ...</optional> ) </optional> <optional>, <replaceable>content</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional></optional> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>xmlelement</function> expression produces an XML + element with the given name, attributes, and content. + The <replaceable>name</replaceable> + and <replaceable>attname</replaceable> items shown in the syntax are + simple identifiers, not values. The <replaceable>attvalue</replaceable> + and <replaceable>content</replaceable> items are expressions, which can + yield any <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> data type. The + argument(s) within <literal>XMLATTRIBUTES</literal> generate attributes + of the XML element; the <replaceable>content</replaceable> value(s) are + concatenated to form its content. + </para> + + <para> + Examples: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlelement(name foo); + + xmlelement +------------ + <foo/> + +SELECT xmlelement(name foo, xmlattributes('xyz' as bar)); + + xmlelement +------------------ + <foo bar="xyz"/> + +SELECT xmlelement(name foo, xmlattributes(current_date as bar), 'cont', 'ent'); + + xmlelement +------------------------------------- + <foo bar="2007-01-26">content</foo> +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + Element and attribute names that are not valid XML names are + escaped by replacing the offending characters by the sequence + <literal>_x<replaceable>HHHH</replaceable>_</literal>, where + <replaceable>HHHH</replaceable> is the character's Unicode + codepoint in hexadecimal notation. For example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlelement(name "foo$bar", xmlattributes('xyz' as "a&b")); + + xmlelement +---------------------------------- + <foo_x0024_bar a_x0026_b="xyz"/> +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + An explicit attribute name need not be specified if the attribute + value is a column reference, in which case the column's name will + be used as the attribute name by default. In other cases, the + attribute must be given an explicit name. So this example is + valid: +<screen> +CREATE TABLE test (a xml, b xml); +SELECT xmlelement(name test, xmlattributes(a, b)) FROM test; +</screen> + But these are not: +<screen> +SELECT xmlelement(name test, xmlattributes('constant'), a, b) FROM test; +SELECT xmlelement(name test, xmlattributes(func(a, b))) FROM test; +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + Element content, if specified, will be formatted according to + its data type. If the content is itself of type <type>xml</type>, + complex XML documents can be constructed. For example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlelement(name foo, xmlattributes('xyz' as bar), + xmlelement(name abc), + xmlcomment('test'), + xmlelement(name xyz)); + + xmlelement +---------------------------------------------- + <foo bar="xyz"><abc/><!--test--><xyz/></foo> +]]></screen> + + Content of other types will be formatted into valid XML character + data. This means in particular that the characters <, >, + and & will be converted to entities. Binary data (data type + <type>bytea</type>) will be represented in base64 or hex + encoding, depending on the setting of the configuration parameter + <xref linkend="guc-xmlbinary"/>. The particular behavior for + individual data types is expected to evolve in order to align the + PostgreSQL mappings with those specified in SQL:2006 and later, + as discussed in <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-casts"/>. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlforest</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlforest</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlforest</function> ( <replaceable>content</replaceable> <optional> <literal>AS</literal> <replaceable>name</replaceable> </optional> <optional>, ...</optional> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>xmlforest</function> expression produces an XML + forest (sequence) of elements using the given names and content. + As for <function>xmlelement</function>, + each <replaceable>name</replaceable> must be a simple identifier, while + the <replaceable>content</replaceable> expressions can have any data + type. + </para> + + <para> + Examples: +<screen> +SELECT xmlforest('abc' AS foo, 123 AS bar); + + xmlforest +------------------------------ + <foo>abc</foo><bar>123</bar> + + +SELECT xmlforest(table_name, column_name) +FROM information_schema.columns +WHERE table_schema = 'pg_catalog'; + + xmlforest +------------------------------------&zwsp;----------------------------------- + <table_name>pg_authid</table_name>&zwsp;<column_name>rolname</column_name> + <table_name>pg_authid</table_name>&zwsp;<column_name>rolsuper</column_name> + ... +</screen> + + As seen in the second example, the element name can be omitted if + the content value is a column reference, in which case the column + name is used by default. Otherwise, a name must be specified. + </para> + + <para> + Element names that are not valid XML names are escaped as shown + for <function>xmlelement</function> above. Similarly, content + data is escaped to make valid XML content, unless it is already + of type <type>xml</type>. + </para> + + <para> + Note that XML forests are not valid XML documents if they consist + of more than one element, so it might be useful to wrap + <function>xmlforest</function> expressions in + <function>xmlelement</function>. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlpi</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlpi</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlpi</function> ( <literal>NAME</literal> <replaceable>name</replaceable> <optional>, <replaceable>content</replaceable> </optional> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>xmlpi</function> expression creates an XML + processing instruction. + As for <function>xmlelement</function>, + the <replaceable>name</replaceable> must be a simple identifier, while + the <replaceable>content</replaceable> expression can have any data type. + The <replaceable>content</replaceable>, if present, must not contain the + character sequence <literal>?></literal>. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlpi(name php, 'echo "hello world";'); + + xmlpi +----------------------------- + <?php echo "hello world";?> +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>xmlroot</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlroot</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlroot</function> ( <type>xml</type>, <literal>VERSION</literal> {<type>text</type>|<literal>NO VALUE</literal>} <optional>, <literal>STANDALONE</literal> {<literal>YES</literal>|<literal>NO</literal>|<literal>NO VALUE</literal>} </optional> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>xmlroot</function> expression alters the properties + of the root node of an XML value. If a version is specified, + it replaces the value in the root node's version declaration; if a + standalone setting is specified, it replaces the value in the + root node's standalone declaration. + </para> + + <para> +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlroot(xmlparse(document '<?xml version="1.1"?><content>abc</content>'), + version '1.0', standalone yes); + + xmlroot +---------------------------------------- + <?xml version="1.0" standalone="yes"?> + <content>abc</content> +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="functions-xml-xmlagg"> + <title><literal>xmlagg</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlagg</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xmlagg</function> ( <type>xml</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xmlagg</function> is, unlike the other + functions described here, an aggregate function. It concatenates the + input values to the aggregate function call, + much like <function>xmlconcat</function> does, except that concatenation + occurs across rows rather than across expressions in a single row. + See <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/> for additional information + about aggregate functions. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +CREATE TABLE test (y int, x xml); +INSERT INTO test VALUES (1, '<foo>abc</foo>'); +INSERT INTO test VALUES (2, '<bar/>'); +SELECT xmlagg(x) FROM test; + xmlagg +---------------------- + <foo>abc</foo><bar/> +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + To determine the order of the concatenation, an <literal>ORDER BY</literal> + clause may be added to the aggregate call as described in + <xref linkend="syntax-aggregates"/>. For example: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlagg(x ORDER BY y DESC) FROM test; + xmlagg +---------------------- + <bar/><foo>abc</foo> +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + The following non-standard approach used to be recommended + in previous versions, and may still be useful in specific + cases: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlagg(x) FROM (SELECT * FROM test ORDER BY y DESC) AS tab; + xmlagg +---------------------- + <bar/><foo>abc</foo> +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-xml-predicates"> + <title>XML Predicates</title> + + <para> + The expressions described in this section check properties + of <type>xml</type> values. + </para> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>IS DOCUMENT</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IS DOCUMENT</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<type>xml</type> <literal>IS DOCUMENT</literal> <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The expression <literal>IS DOCUMENT</literal> returns true if the + argument XML value is a proper XML document, false if it is not + (that is, it is a content fragment), or null if the argument is + null. See <xref linkend="datatype-xml"/> about the difference + between documents and content fragments. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3> + <title><literal>IS NOT DOCUMENT</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT DOCUMENT</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<type>xml</type> <literal>IS NOT DOCUMENT</literal> <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The expression <literal>IS NOT DOCUMENT</literal> returns false if the + argument XML value is a proper XML document, true if it is not (that is, + it is a content fragment), or null if the argument is null. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="xml-exists"> + <title><literal>XMLEXISTS</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>XMLEXISTS</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>XMLEXISTS</function> ( <type>text</type> <literal>PASSING</literal> <optional><literal>BY</literal> {<literal>REF</literal>|<literal>VALUE</literal>}</optional> <type>xml</type> <optional><literal>BY</literal> {<literal>REF</literal>|<literal>VALUE</literal>}</optional> ) <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xmlexists</function> evaluates an XPath 1.0 + expression (the first argument), with the passed XML value as its context + item. The function returns false if the result of that evaluation + yields an empty node-set, true if it yields any other value. The + function returns null if any argument is null. A nonnull value + passed as the context item must be an XML document, not a content + fragment or any non-XML value. + </para> + + <para> + Example: + <screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlexists('//town[text() = ''Toronto'']' PASSING BY VALUE '<towns><town>Toronto</town><town>Ottawa</town></towns>'); + + xmlexists +------------ + t +(1 row) +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + The <literal>BY REF</literal> and <literal>BY VALUE</literal> clauses + are accepted in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, but are ignored, + as discussed in <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-postgresql"/>. + </para> + + <para> + In the SQL standard, the <function>xmlexists</function> function + evaluates an expression in the XML Query language, + but <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows only an XPath 1.0 + expression, as discussed in + <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-xpath1"/>. + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="xml-is-well-formed"> + <title><literal>xml_is_well_formed</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xml_is_well_formed</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xml_is_well_formed_document</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xml_is_well_formed_content</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xml_is_well_formed</function> ( <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +<function>xml_is_well_formed_document</function> ( <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +<function>xml_is_well_formed_content</function> ( <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + These functions check whether a <type>text</type> string represents + well-formed XML, returning a Boolean result. + <function>xml_is_well_formed_document</function> checks for a well-formed + document, while <function>xml_is_well_formed_content</function> checks + for well-formed content. <function>xml_is_well_formed</function> does + the former if the <xref linkend="guc-xmloption"/> configuration + parameter is set to <literal>DOCUMENT</literal>, or the latter if it is set to + <literal>CONTENT</literal>. This means that + <function>xml_is_well_formed</function> is useful for seeing whether + a simple cast to type <type>xml</type> will succeed, whereas the other two + functions are useful for seeing whether the corresponding variants of + <function>XMLPARSE</function> will succeed. + </para> + + <para> + Examples: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +SET xmloption TO DOCUMENT; +SELECT xml_is_well_formed('<>'); + xml_is_well_formed +-------------------- + f +(1 row) + +SELECT xml_is_well_formed('<abc/>'); + xml_is_well_formed +-------------------- + t +(1 row) + +SET xmloption TO CONTENT; +SELECT xml_is_well_formed('abc'); + xml_is_well_formed +-------------------- + t +(1 row) + +SELECT xml_is_well_formed_document('<pg:foo xmlns:pg="http://postgresql.org/stuff">bar</pg:foo>'); + xml_is_well_formed_document +----------------------------- + t +(1 row) + +SELECT xml_is_well_formed_document('<pg:foo xmlns:pg="http://postgresql.org/stuff">bar</my:foo>'); + xml_is_well_formed_document +----------------------------- + f +(1 row) +]]></screen> + + The last example shows that the checks include whether + namespaces are correctly matched. + </para> + </sect3> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-xml-processing"> + <title>Processing XML</title> + + <para> + To process values of data type <type>xml</type>, PostgreSQL offers + the functions <function>xpath</function> and + <function>xpath_exists</function>, which evaluate XPath 1.0 + expressions, and the <function>XMLTABLE</function> + table function. + </para> + + <sect3 id="functions-xml-processing-xpath"> + <title><literal>xpath</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>XPath</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xpath</function> ( <parameter>xpath</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>xml</parameter> <type>xml</type> <optional>, <parameter>nsarray</parameter> <type>text[]</type> </optional> ) <returnvalue>xml[]</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xpath</function> evaluates the XPath 1.0 + expression <parameter>xpath</parameter> (given as text) + against the XML value + <parameter>xml</parameter>. It returns an array of XML values + corresponding to the node-set produced by the XPath expression. + If the XPath expression returns a scalar value rather than a node-set, + a single-element array is returned. + </para> + + <para> + The second argument must be a well formed XML document. In particular, + it must have a single root node element. + </para> + + <para> + The optional third argument of the function is an array of namespace + mappings. This array should be a two-dimensional <type>text</type> array with + the length of the second axis being equal to 2 (i.e., it should be an + array of arrays, each of which consists of exactly 2 elements). + The first element of each array entry is the namespace name (alias), the + second the namespace URI. It is not required that aliases provided in + this array be the same as those being used in the XML document itself (in + other words, both in the XML document and in the <function>xpath</function> + function context, aliases are <emphasis>local</emphasis>). + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xpath('/my:a/text()', '<my:a xmlns:my="http://example.com">test</my:a>', + ARRAY[ARRAY['my', 'http://example.com']]); + + xpath +-------- + {test} +(1 row) +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + To deal with default (anonymous) namespaces, do something like this: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xpath('//mydefns:b/text()', '<a xmlns="http://example.com"><b>test</b></a>', + ARRAY[ARRAY['mydefns', 'http://example.com']]); + + xpath +-------- + {test} +(1 row) +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="functions-xml-processing-xpath-exists"> + <title><literal>xpath_exists</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xpath_exists</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>xpath_exists</function> ( <parameter>xpath</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>xml</parameter> <type>xml</type> <optional>, <parameter>nsarray</parameter> <type>text[]</type> </optional> ) <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The function <function>xpath_exists</function> is a specialized form + of the <function>xpath</function> function. Instead of returning the + individual XML values that satisfy the XPath 1.0 expression, this function + returns a Boolean indicating whether the query was satisfied or not + (specifically, whether it produced any value other than an empty node-set). + This function is equivalent to the <literal>XMLEXISTS</literal> predicate, + except that it also offers support for a namespace mapping argument. + </para> + + <para> + Example: +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xpath_exists('/my:a/text()', '<my:a xmlns:my="http://example.com">test</my:a>', + ARRAY[ARRAY['my', 'http://example.com']]); + + xpath_exists +-------------- + t +(1 row) +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="functions-xml-processing-xmltable"> + <title><literal>xmltable</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>xmltable</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm zone="functions-xml-processing-xmltable"> + <primary>table function</primary> + <secondary>XMLTABLE</secondary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>XMLTABLE</function> ( + <optional> <literal>XMLNAMESPACES</literal> ( <replaceable>namespace_uri</replaceable> <literal>AS</literal> <replaceable>namespace_name</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional> ), </optional> + <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable> <literal>PASSING</literal> <optional><literal>BY</literal> {<literal>REF</literal>|<literal>VALUE</literal>}</optional> <replaceable>document_expression</replaceable> <optional><literal>BY</literal> {<literal>REF</literal>|<literal>VALUE</literal>}</optional> + <literal>COLUMNS</literal> <replaceable>name</replaceable> { <replaceable>type</replaceable> <optional><literal>PATH</literal> <replaceable>column_expression</replaceable></optional> <optional><literal>DEFAULT</literal> <replaceable>default_expression</replaceable></optional> <optional><literal>NOT NULL</literal> | <literal>NULL</literal></optional> + | <literal>FOR ORDINALITY</literal> } + <optional>, ...</optional> +) <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>xmltable</function> expression produces a table based + on an XML value, an XPath filter to extract rows, and a + set of column definitions. + Although it syntactically resembles a function, it can only appear + as a table in a query's <literal>FROM</literal> clause. + </para> + + <para> + The optional <literal>XMLNAMESPACES</literal> clause gives a + comma-separated list of namespace definitions, where + each <replaceable>namespace_uri</replaceable> is a <type>text</type> + expression and each <replaceable>namespace_name</replaceable> is a simple + identifier. It specifies the XML namespaces used in the document and + their aliases. A default namespace specification is not currently + supported. + </para> + + <para> + The required <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable> argument is an + XPath 1.0 expression (given as <type>text</type>) that is evaluated, + passing the XML value <replaceable>document_expression</replaceable> as + its context item, to obtain a set of XML nodes. These nodes are what + <function>xmltable</function> transforms into output rows. No rows + will be produced if the <replaceable>document_expression</replaceable> + is null, nor if the <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable> produces + an empty node-set or any value other than a node-set. + </para> + + <para> + <replaceable>document_expression</replaceable> provides the context + item for the <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable>. It must be a + well-formed XML document; fragments/forests are not accepted. + The <literal>BY REF</literal> and <literal>BY VALUE</literal> clauses + are accepted but ignored, as discussed in + <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-postgresql"/>. + </para> + + <para> + In the SQL standard, the <function>xmltable</function> function + evaluates expressions in the XML Query language, + but <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows only XPath 1.0 + expressions, as discussed in + <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-xpath1"/>. + </para> + + <para> + The required <literal>COLUMNS</literal> clause specifies the + column(s) that will be produced in the output table. + See the syntax summary above for the format. + A name is required for each column, as is a data type + (unless <literal>FOR ORDINALITY</literal> is specified, in which case + type <type>integer</type> is implicit). The path, default and + nullability clauses are optional. + </para> + + <para> + A column marked <literal>FOR ORDINALITY</literal> will be populated + with row numbers, starting with 1, in the order of nodes retrieved from + the <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable>'s result node-set. + At most one column may be marked <literal>FOR ORDINALITY</literal>. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + XPath 1.0 does not specify an order for nodes in a node-set, so code + that relies on a particular order of the results will be + implementation-dependent. Details can be found in + <xref linkend="xml-xpath-1-specifics"/>. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + The <replaceable>column_expression</replaceable> for a column is an + XPath 1.0 expression that is evaluated for each row, with the current + node from the <replaceable>row_expression</replaceable> result as its + context item, to find the value of the column. If + no <replaceable>column_expression</replaceable> is given, then the + column name is used as an implicit path. + </para> + + <para> + If a column's XPath expression returns a non-XML value (which is limited + to string, boolean, or double in XPath 1.0) and the column has a + PostgreSQL type other than <type>xml</type>, the column will be set + as if by assigning the value's string representation to the PostgreSQL + type. (If the value is a boolean, its string representation is taken + to be <literal>1</literal> or <literal>0</literal> if the output + column's type category is numeric, otherwise <literal>true</literal> or + <literal>false</literal>.) + </para> + + <para> + If a column's XPath expression returns a non-empty set of XML nodes + and the column's PostgreSQL type is <type>xml</type>, the column will + be assigned the expression result exactly, if it is of document or + content form. + <footnote> + <para> + A result containing more than one element node at the top level, or + non-whitespace text outside of an element, is an example of content form. + An XPath result can be of neither form, for example if it returns an + attribute node selected from the element that contains it. Such a result + will be put into content form with each such disallowed node replaced by + its string value, as defined for the XPath 1.0 + <function>string</function> function. + </para> + </footnote> + </para> + + <para> + A non-XML result assigned to an <type>xml</type> output column produces + content, a single text node with the string value of the result. + An XML result assigned to a column of any other type may not have more than + one node, or an error is raised. If there is exactly one node, the column + will be set as if by assigning the node's string + value (as defined for the XPath 1.0 <function>string</function> function) + to the PostgreSQL type. + </para> + + <para> + The string value of an XML element is the concatenation, in document order, + of all text nodes contained in that element and its descendants. The string + value of an element with no descendant text nodes is an + empty string (not <literal>NULL</literal>). + Any <literal>xsi:nil</literal> attributes are ignored. + Note that the whitespace-only <literal>text()</literal> node between two non-text + elements is preserved, and that leading whitespace on a <literal>text()</literal> + node is not flattened. + The XPath 1.0 <function>string</function> function may be consulted for the + rules defining the string value of other XML node types and non-XML values. + </para> + + <para> + The conversion rules presented here are not exactly those of the SQL + standard, as discussed in <xref linkend="functions-xml-limits-casts"/>. + </para> + + <para> + If the path expression returns an empty node-set + (typically, when it does not match) + for a given row, the column will be set to <literal>NULL</literal>, unless + a <replaceable>default_expression</replaceable> is specified; then the + value resulting from evaluating that expression is used. + </para> + + <para> + A <replaceable>default_expression</replaceable>, rather than being + evaluated immediately when <function>xmltable</function> is called, + is evaluated each time a default is needed for the column. + If the expression qualifies as stable or immutable, the repeat + evaluation may be skipped. + This means that you can usefully use volatile functions like + <function>nextval</function> in + <replaceable>default_expression</replaceable>. + </para> + + <para> + Columns may be marked <literal>NOT NULL</literal>. If the + <replaceable>column_expression</replaceable> for a <literal>NOT + NULL</literal> column does not match anything and there is + no <literal>DEFAULT</literal> or + the <replaceable>default_expression</replaceable> also evaluates to null, + an error is reported. + </para> + + <para> + Examples: + <screen><![CDATA[ +CREATE TABLE xmldata AS SELECT +xml $$ +<ROWS> + <ROW id="1"> + <COUNTRY_ID>AU</COUNTRY_ID> + <COUNTRY_NAME>Australia</COUNTRY_NAME> + </ROW> + <ROW id="5"> + <COUNTRY_ID>JP</COUNTRY_ID> + <COUNTRY_NAME>Japan</COUNTRY_NAME> + <PREMIER_NAME>Shinzo Abe</PREMIER_NAME> + <SIZE unit="sq_mi">145935</SIZE> + </ROW> + <ROW id="6"> + <COUNTRY_ID>SG</COUNTRY_ID> + <COUNTRY_NAME>Singapore</COUNTRY_NAME> + <SIZE unit="sq_km">697</SIZE> + </ROW> +</ROWS> +$$ AS data; + +SELECT xmltable.* + FROM xmldata, + XMLTABLE('//ROWS/ROW' + PASSING data + COLUMNS id int PATH '@id', + ordinality FOR ORDINALITY, + "COUNTRY_NAME" text, + country_id text PATH 'COUNTRY_ID', + size_sq_km float PATH 'SIZE[@unit = "sq_km"]', + size_other text PATH + 'concat(SIZE[@unit!="sq_km"], " ", SIZE[@unit!="sq_km"]/@unit)', + premier_name text PATH 'PREMIER_NAME' DEFAULT 'not specified'); + + id | ordinality | COUNTRY_NAME | country_id | size_sq_km | size_other | premier_name +----+------------+--------------+------------+------------+--------------+--------------- + 1 | 1 | Australia | AU | | | not specified + 5 | 2 | Japan | JP | | 145935 sq_mi | Shinzo Abe + 6 | 3 | Singapore | SG | 697 | | not specified +]]></screen> + + The following example shows concatenation of multiple text() nodes, + usage of the column name as XPath filter, and the treatment of whitespace, + XML comments and processing instructions: + + <screen><![CDATA[ +CREATE TABLE xmlelements AS SELECT +xml $$ + <root> + <element> Hello<!-- xyxxz -->2a2<?aaaaa?> <!--x--> bbb<x>xxx</x>CC </element> + </root> +$$ AS data; + +SELECT xmltable.* + FROM xmlelements, XMLTABLE('/root' PASSING data COLUMNS element text); + element +------------------------- + Hello2a2 bbbxxxCC +]]></screen> + </para> + + <para> + The following example illustrates how + the <literal>XMLNAMESPACES</literal> clause can be used to specify + a list of namespaces + used in the XML document as well as in the XPath expressions: + + <screen><![CDATA[ +WITH xmldata(data) AS (VALUES (' +<example xmlns="http://example.com/myns" xmlns:B="http://example.com/b"> + <item foo="1" B:bar="2"/> + <item foo="3" B:bar="4"/> + <item foo="4" B:bar="5"/> +</example>'::xml) +) +SELECT xmltable.* + FROM XMLTABLE(XMLNAMESPACES('http://example.com/myns' AS x, + 'http://example.com/b' AS "B"), + '/x:example/x:item' + PASSING (SELECT data FROM xmldata) + COLUMNS foo int PATH '@foo', + bar int PATH '@B:bar'); + foo | bar +-----+----- + 1 | 2 + 3 | 4 + 4 | 5 +(3 rows) +]]></screen> + </para> + </sect3> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-xml-mapping"> + <title>Mapping Tables to XML</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-xml-mapping"> + <primary>XML export</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The following functions map the contents of relational tables to + XML values. They can be thought of as XML export functionality: +<synopsis> +<function>table_to_xml</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>query_to_xml</function> ( <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>cursor_to_xml</function> ( <parameter>cursor</parameter> <type>refcursor</type>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + <function>table_to_xml</function> maps the content of the named + table, passed as parameter <parameter>table</parameter>. The + <type>regclass</type> type accepts strings identifying tables using the + usual notation, including optional schema qualification and + double quotes (see <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/> for details). + <function>query_to_xml</function> executes the + query whose text is passed as parameter + <parameter>query</parameter> and maps the result set. + <function>cursor_to_xml</function> fetches the indicated number of + rows from the cursor specified by the parameter + <parameter>cursor</parameter>. This variant is recommended if + large tables have to be mapped, because the result value is built + up in memory by each function. + </para> + + <para> + If <parameter>tableforest</parameter> is false, then the resulting + XML document looks like this: +<screen><![CDATA[ +<tablename> + <row> + <columnname1>data</columnname1> + <columnname2>data</columnname2> + </row> + + <row> + ... + </row> + + ... +</tablename> +]]></screen> + + If <parameter>tableforest</parameter> is true, the result is an + XML content fragment that looks like this: +<screen><![CDATA[ +<tablename> + <columnname1>data</columnname1> + <columnname2>data</columnname2> +</tablename> + +<tablename> + ... +</tablename> + +... +]]></screen> + + If no table name is available, that is, when mapping a query or a + cursor, the string <literal>table</literal> is used in the first + format, <literal>row</literal> in the second format. + </para> + + <para> + The choice between these formats is up to the user. The first + format is a proper XML document, which will be important in many + applications. The second format tends to be more useful in the + <function>cursor_to_xml</function> function if the result values are to be + reassembled into one document later on. The functions for + producing XML content discussed above, in particular + <function>xmlelement</function>, can be used to alter the results + to taste. + </para> + + <para> + The data values are mapped in the same way as described for the + function <function>xmlelement</function> above. + </para> + + <para> + The parameter <parameter>nulls</parameter> determines whether null + values should be included in the output. If true, null values in + columns are represented as: +<screen><![CDATA[ +<columnname xsi:nil="true"/> +]]></screen> + where <literal>xsi</literal> is the XML namespace prefix for XML + Schema Instance. An appropriate namespace declaration will be + added to the result value. If false, columns containing null + values are simply omitted from the output. + </para> + + <para> + The parameter <parameter>targetns</parameter> specifies the + desired XML namespace of the result. If no particular namespace + is wanted, an empty string should be passed. + </para> + + <para> + The following functions return XML Schema documents describing the + mappings performed by the corresponding functions above: +<synopsis> +<function>table_to_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>query_to_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>cursor_to_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>cursor</parameter> <type>refcursor</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + It is essential that the same parameters are passed in order to + obtain matching XML data mappings and XML Schema documents. + </para> + + <para> + The following functions produce XML data mappings and the + corresponding XML Schema in one document (or forest), linked + together. They can be useful where self-contained and + self-describing results are wanted: +<synopsis> +<function>table_to_xml_and_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>query_to_xml_and_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>query</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + In addition, the following functions are available to produce + analogous mappings of entire schemas or the entire current + database: +<synopsis> +<function>schema_to_xml</function> ( <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>schema_to_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>schema_to_xml_and_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> + +<function>database_to_xml</function> ( <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>database_to_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +<function>database_to_xml_and_xmlschema</function> ( <parameter>nulls</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>targetns</parameter> <type>text</type> ) <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + These functions ignore tables that are not readable by the current user. + The database-wide functions additionally ignore schemas that the current + user does not have <literal>USAGE</literal> (lookup) privilege for. + </para> + + <para> + Note that these potentially produce a lot of data, which needs to + be built up in memory. When requesting content mappings of large + schemas or databases, it might be worthwhile to consider mapping the + tables separately instead, possibly even through a cursor. + </para> + + <para> + The result of a schema content mapping looks like this: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +<schemaname> + +table1-mapping + +table2-mapping + +... + +</schemaname>]]></screen> + + where the format of a table mapping depends on the + <parameter>tableforest</parameter> parameter as explained above. + </para> + + <para> + The result of a database content mapping looks like this: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +<dbname> + +<schema1name> + ... +</schema1name> + +<schema2name> + ... +</schema2name> + +... + +</dbname>]]></screen> + + where the schema mapping is as above. + </para> + + <para> + As an example of using the output produced by these functions, + <xref linkend="xslt-xml-html"/> shows an XSLT stylesheet that + converts the output of + <function>table_to_xml_and_xmlschema</function> to an HTML + document containing a tabular rendition of the table data. In a + similar manner, the results from these functions can be + converted into other XML-based formats. + </para> + + <example id="xslt-xml-html"> + <title>XSLT Stylesheet for Converting SQL/XML Output to HTML</title> +<programlisting><![CDATA[ +<?xml version="1.0"?> +<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" + xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform" + xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" + xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" +> + + <xsl:output method="xml" + doctype-system="http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" + doctype-public="-//W3C/DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + indent="yes"/> + + <xsl:template match="/*"> + <xsl:variable name="schema" select="//xsd:schema"/> + <xsl:variable name="tabletypename" + select="$schema/xsd:element[@name=name(current())]/@type"/> + <xsl:variable name="rowtypename" + select="$schema/xsd:complexType[@name=$tabletypename]/xsd:sequence/xsd:element[@name='row']/@type"/> + + <html> + <head> + <title><xsl:value-of select="name(current())"/></title> + </head> + <body> + <table> + <tr> + <xsl:for-each select="$schema/xsd:complexType[@name=$rowtypename]/xsd:sequence/xsd:element/@name"> + <th><xsl:value-of select="."/></th> + </xsl:for-each> + </tr> + + <xsl:for-each select="row"> + <tr> + <xsl:for-each select="*"> + <td><xsl:value-of select="."/></td> + </xsl:for-each> + </tr> + </xsl:for-each> + </table> + </body> + </html> + </xsl:template> + +</xsl:stylesheet> +]]></programlisting> + </example> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-json"> + <title>JSON Functions and Operators</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-json"> + <primary>JSON</primary> + <secondary>functions and operators</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes: + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + functions and operators for processing and creating JSON data + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + the SQL/JSON path language + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + <para> + To learn more about the SQL/JSON standard, see + <xref linkend="sqltr-19075-6"/>. For details on JSON types + supported in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, + see <xref linkend="datatype-json"/>. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-json-processing"> + <title>Processing and Creating JSON Data</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-json-op-table"/> shows the operators that + are available for use with JSON data types (see <xref + linkend="datatype-json"/>). + In addition, the usual comparison operators shown in <xref + linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> are available for + <type>jsonb</type>, though not for <type>json</type>. The comparison + operators follow the ordering rules for B-tree operations outlined in + <xref linkend="json-indexing"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-json-op-table"> + <title><type>json</type> and <type>jsonb</type> Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>-></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>-></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts <parameter>n</parameter>'th element of JSON array + (array elements are indexed from zero, but negative integers count + from the end). + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[{"a":"foo"},{"b":"bar"},{"c":"baz"}]'::json -> 2</literal> + <returnvalue>{"c":"baz"}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[{"a":"foo"},{"b":"bar"},{"c":"baz"}]'::json -> -3</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a":"foo"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>-></literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>-></literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON object field with the given key. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": {"b":"foo"}}'::json -> 'a'</literal> + <returnvalue>{"b":"foo"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>->></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>->></literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts <parameter>n</parameter>'th element of JSON array, + as <type>text</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[1,2,3]'::json ->> 2</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>->></literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>->></literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON object field with the given key, as <type>text</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":1,"b":2}'::json ->> 'b'</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>#></literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>#></literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON sub-object at the specified path, where path elements + can be either field keys or array indexes. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": {"b": ["foo","bar"]}}'::json #> '{a,b,1}'</literal> + <returnvalue>"bar"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>json</type> <literal>#>></literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>#>></literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON sub-object at the specified path as <type>text</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": {"b": ["foo","bar"]}}'::json #>> '{a,b,1}'</literal> + <returnvalue>bar</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + The field/element/path extraction operators return NULL, rather than + failing, if the JSON input does not have the right structure to match + the request; for example if no such key or array element exists. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + Some further operators exist only for <type>jsonb</type>, as shown + in <xref linkend="functions-jsonb-op-table"/>. + <xref linkend="json-indexing"/> + describes how these operators can be used to effectively search indexed + <type>jsonb</type> data. + </para> + + <table id="functions-jsonb-op-table"> + <title>Additional <type>jsonb</type> Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>jsonb</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first JSON value contain the second? + (See <xref linkend="json-containment"/> for details about containment.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":1, "b":2}'::jsonb @> '{"b":2}'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>jsonb</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first JSON value contained in the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"b":2}'::jsonb <@ '{"a":1, "b":2}'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>?</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the text string exist as a top-level key or array element within + the JSON value? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":1, "b":2}'::jsonb ? 'b'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", "b", "c"]'::jsonb ? 'b'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>?|</literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do any of the strings in the text array exist as top-level keys or + array elements? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":1, "b":2, "c":3}'::jsonb ?| array['b', 'd']</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>?&</literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do all of the strings in the text array exist as top-level keys or + array elements? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", "b", "c"]'::jsonb ?& array['a', 'b']</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>jsonb</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates two <type>jsonb</type> values. + Concatenating two arrays generates an array containing all the + elements of each input. Concatenating two objects generates an + object containing the union of their + keys, taking the second object's value when there are duplicate keys. + All other cases are treated by converting a non-array input into a + single-element array, and then proceeding as for two arrays. + Does not operate recursively: only the top-level array or object + structure is merged. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", "b"]'::jsonb || '["a", "d"]'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>["a", "b", "a", "d"]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": "b"}'::jsonb || '{"c": "d"}'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a": "b", "c": "d"}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[1, 2]'::jsonb || '3'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>[1, 2, 3]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": "b"}'::jsonb || '42'::jsonb</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"a": "b"}, 42]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + To append an array to another array as a single entry, wrap it + in an additional layer of array, for example: + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[1, 2]'::jsonb || jsonb_build_array('[3, 4]'::jsonb)</literal> + <returnvalue>[1, 2, [3, 4]]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>text</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes a key (and its value) from a JSON object, or matching string + value(s) from a JSON array. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": "b", "c": "d"}'::jsonb - 'a'</literal> + <returnvalue>{"c": "d"}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", "b", "c", "b"]'::jsonb - 'b'</literal> + <returnvalue>["a", "c"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes all matching keys or array elements from the left operand. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a": "b", "c": "d"}'::jsonb - '{a,c}'::text[]</literal> + <returnvalue>{}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>integer</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes the array element with specified index (negative + integers count from the end). Throws an error if JSON value + is not an array. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", "b"]'::jsonb - 1 </literal> + <returnvalue>["a"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>#-</literal> <type>text[]</type> + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes the field or array element at the specified path, where path + elements can be either field keys or array indexes. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'["a", {"b":1}]'::jsonb #- '{1,b}'</literal> + <returnvalue>["a", {}]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>@?</literal> <type>jsonpath</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does JSON path return any item for the specified JSON value? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}'::jsonb @? '$.a[*] ? (@ > 2)'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>jsonb</type> <literal>@@</literal> <type>jsonpath</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the result of a JSON path predicate check for the + specified JSON value. Only the first item of the result is taken into + account. If the result is not Boolean, then <literal>NULL</literal> + is returned. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}'::jsonb @@ '$.a[*] > 2'</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + The <type>jsonpath</type> operators <literal>@?</literal> + and <literal>@@</literal> suppress the following errors: missing object + field or array element, unexpected JSON item type, datetime and numeric + errors. The <type>jsonpath</type>-related functions described below can + also be told to suppress these types of errors. This behavior might be + helpful when searching JSON document collections of varying structure. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-json-creation-table"/> shows the functions that are + available for constructing <type>json</type> and <type>jsonb</type> values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-json-creation-table"> + <title>JSON Creation Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_json</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_json</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_jsonb</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_jsonb</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts any SQL value to <type>json</type> or <type>jsonb</type>. + Arrays and composites are converted recursively to arrays and + objects (multidimensional arrays become arrays of arrays in JSON). + Otherwise, if there is a cast from the SQL data type + to <type>json</type>, the cast function will be used to perform the + conversion;<footnote> + <para> + For example, the <xref linkend="hstore"/> extension has a cast + from <type>hstore</type> to <type>json</type>, so that + <type>hstore</type> values converted via the JSON creation functions + will be represented as JSON objects, not as primitive string values. + </para> + </footnote> + otherwise, a scalar JSON value is produced. For any scalar other than + a number, a Boolean, or a null value, the text representation will be + used, with escaping as necessary to make it a valid JSON string value. + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_json('Fred said "Hi."'::text)</literal> + <returnvalue>"Fred said \"Hi.\""</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>to_jsonb(row(42, 'Fred said "Hi."'::text))</literal> + <returnvalue>{"f1": 42, "f2": "Fred said \"Hi.\""}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_to_json</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_to_json</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> <optional>, <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts an SQL array to a JSON array. The behavior is the same + as <function>to_json</function> except that line feeds will be added + between top-level array elements if the optional boolean parameter is + true. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_to_json('{{1,5},{99,100}}'::int[])</literal> + <returnvalue>[[1,5],[99,100]]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>row_to_json</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>row_to_json</function> ( <type>record</type> <optional>, <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts an SQL composite value to a JSON object. The behavior is the + same as <function>to_json</function> except that line feeds will be + added between top-level elements if the optional boolean parameter is + true. + </para> + <para> + <literal>row_to_json(row(1,'foo'))</literal> + <returnvalue>{"f1":1,"f2":"foo"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_build_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_build_array</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_build_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_build_array</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Builds a possibly-heterogeneously-typed JSON array out of a variadic + argument list. Each argument is converted as + per <function>to_json</function> or <function>to_jsonb</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_build_array(1, 2, 'foo', 4, 5)</literal> + <returnvalue>[1, 2, "foo", 4, 5]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_build_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_build_object</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_build_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_build_object</function> ( <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Builds a JSON object out of a variadic argument list. By convention, + the argument list consists of alternating keys and values. Key + arguments are coerced to text; value arguments are converted as + per <function>to_json</function> or <function>to_jsonb</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_build_object('foo', 1, 2, row(3,'bar'))</literal> + <returnvalue>{"foo" : 1, "2" : {"f1":3,"f2":"bar"}}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_object</function> ( <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_object</function> ( <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Builds a JSON object out of a text array. The array must have either + exactly one dimension with an even number of members, in which case + they are taken as alternating key/value pairs, or two dimensions + such that each inner array has exactly two elements, which + are taken as a key/value pair. All values are converted to JSON + strings. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_object('{a, 1, b, "def", c, 3.5}')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a" : "1", "b" : "def", "c" : "3.5"}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para><literal>json_object('{{a, 1}, {b, "def"}, {c, 3.5}}')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a" : "1", "b" : "def", "c" : "3.5"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>json_object</function> ( <parameter>keys</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>values</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>jsonb_object</function> ( <parameter>keys</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>values</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This form of <function>json_object</function> takes keys and values + pairwise from separate text arrays. Otherwise it is identical to + the one-argument form. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_object('{a,b}', '{1,2}')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a": "1", "b": "2"}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-json-processing-table"/> shows the functions that + are available for processing <type>json</type> and <type>jsonb</type> values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-json-processing-table"> + <title>JSON Processing Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_array_elements</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_array_elements</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_array_elements</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_array_elements</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON array into a set of JSON values. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_array_elements('[1,true, [2,false]]')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + value +----------- + 1 + true + [2,false] +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_array_elements_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_array_elements_text</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_array_elements_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_array_elements_text</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON array into a set of <type>text</type> values. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_array_elements_text('["foo", "bar"]')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + value +----------- + foo + bar +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_array_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_array_length</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_array_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_array_length</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of elements in the top-level JSON array. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_array_length('[1,2,3,{"f1":1,"f2":[5,6]},4]')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_array_length('[]')</literal> + <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_each</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_each</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>value</parameter> <type>json</type> ) + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_each</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_each</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>value</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON object into a set of key/value pairs. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_each('{"a":"foo", "b":"bar"}')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + key | value +-----+------- + a | "foo" + b | "bar" +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_each_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_each_text</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>value</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_each_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_each_text</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>value</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON object into a set of key/value pairs. + The returned <parameter>value</parameter>s will be of + type <type>text</type>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_each_text('{"a":"foo", "b":"bar"}')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + key | value +-----+------- + a | foo + b | bar +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_extract_path</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_extract_path</function> ( <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>json</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>path_elems</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_extract_path</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_extract_path</function> ( <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>path_elems</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON sub-object at the specified path. + (This is functionally equivalent to the <literal>#></literal> + operator, but writing the path out as a variadic list can be more + convenient in some cases.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_extract_path('{"f2":{"f3":1},"f4":{"f5":99,"f6":"foo"}}', 'f4', 'f6')</literal> + <returnvalue>"foo"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_extract_path_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_extract_path_text</function> ( <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>json</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>path_elems</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_extract_path_text</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_extract_path_text</function> ( <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>path_elems</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts JSON sub-object at the specified path as <type>text</type>. + (This is functionally equivalent to the <literal>#>></literal> + operator.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_extract_path_text('{"f2":{"f3":1},"f4":{"f5":99,"f6":"foo"}}', 'f4', 'f6')</literal> + <returnvalue>foo</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_object_keys</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_object_keys</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_object_keys</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_object_keys</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the set of keys in the top-level JSON object. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_object_keys('{"f1":"abc","f2":{"f3":"a", "f4":"b"}}')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + json_object_keys +------------------ + f1 + f2 +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_populate_record</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_populate_record</function> ( <parameter>base</parameter> <type>anyelement</type>, <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_populate_record</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_populate_record</function> ( <parameter>base</parameter> <type>anyelement</type>, <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON object to a row having the composite type + of the <parameter>base</parameter> argument. The JSON object + is scanned for fields whose names match column names of the output row + type, and their values are inserted into those columns of the output. + (Fields that do not correspond to any output column name are ignored.) + In typical use, the value of <parameter>base</parameter> is just + <literal>NULL</literal>, which means that any output columns that do + not match any object field will be filled with nulls. However, + if <parameter>base</parameter> isn't <literal>NULL</literal> then + the values it contains will be used for unmatched columns. + </para> + <para> + To convert a JSON value to the SQL type of an output column, the + following rules are applied in sequence: + <itemizedlist spacing="compact"> + <listitem> + <para> + A JSON null value is converted to an SQL null in all cases. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + If the output column is of type <type>json</type> + or <type>jsonb</type>, the JSON value is just reproduced exactly. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + If the output column is a composite (row) type, and the JSON value + is a JSON object, the fields of the object are converted to columns + of the output row type by recursive application of these rules. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Likewise, if the output column is an array type and the JSON value + is a JSON array, the elements of the JSON array are converted to + elements of the output array by recursive application of these + rules. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Otherwise, if the JSON value is a string, the contents of the + string are fed to the input conversion function for the column's + data type. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Otherwise, the ordinary text representation of the JSON value is + fed to the input conversion function for the column's data type. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + <para> + While the example below uses a constant JSON value, typical use would + be to reference a <type>json</type> or <type>jsonb</type> column + laterally from another table in the query's <literal>FROM</literal> + clause. Writing <function>json_populate_record</function> in + the <literal>FROM</literal> clause is good practice, since all of the + extracted columns are available for use without duplicate function + calls. + </para> + <para> + <literal>create type subrowtype as (d int, e text);</literal> + <literal>create type myrowtype as (a int, b text[], c subrowtype);</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_populate_record(null::myrowtype, + '{"a": 1, "b": ["2", "a b"], "c": {"d": 4, "e": "a b c"}, "x": "foo"}')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + a | b | c +---+-----------+------------- + 1 | {2,"a b"} | (4,"a b c") +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_populate_recordset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_populate_recordset</function> ( <parameter>base</parameter> <type>anyelement</type>, <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_populate_recordset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_populate_recordset</function> ( <parameter>base</parameter> <type>anyelement</type>, <parameter>from_json</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON array of objects to a set of rows having + the composite type of the <parameter>base</parameter> argument. + Each element of the JSON array is processed as described above + for <function>json[b]_populate_record</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>create type twoints as (a int, b int);</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_populate_recordset(null::twoints, '[{"a":1,"b":2}, {"a":3,"b":4}]')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + a | b +---+--- + 1 | 2 + 3 | 4 +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_to_record</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_to_record</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_to_record</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_to_record</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON object to a row having the composite type + defined by an <literal>AS</literal> clause. (As with all functions + returning <type>record</type>, the calling query must explicitly + define the structure of the record with an <literal>AS</literal> + clause.) The output record is filled from fields of the JSON object, + in the same way as described above + for <function>json[b]_populate_record</function>. Since there is no + input record value, unmatched columns are always filled with nulls. + </para> + <para> + <literal>create type myrowtype as (a int, b text);</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_to_record('{"a":1,"b":[1,2,3],"c":[1,2,3],"e":"bar","r": {"a": 123, "b": "a b c"}}') as x(a int, b text, c int[], d text, r myrowtype)</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + a | b | c | d | r +---+---------+---------+---+--------------- + 1 | [1,2,3] | {1,2,3} | | (123,"a b c") +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_to_recordset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_to_recordset</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_to_recordset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_to_recordset</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands the top-level JSON array of objects to a set of rows having + the composite type defined by an <literal>AS</literal> clause. (As + with all functions returning <type>record</type>, the calling query + must explicitly define the structure of the record with + an <literal>AS</literal> clause.) Each element of the JSON array is + processed as described above + for <function>json[b]_populate_record</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from json_to_recordset('[{"a":1,"b":"foo"}, {"a":"2","c":"bar"}]') as x(a int, b text)</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + a | b +---+----- + 1 | foo + 2 | +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_set</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_set</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>new_value</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>create_if_missing</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>target</parameter> + with the item designated by <parameter>path</parameter> + replaced by <parameter>new_value</parameter>, or with + <parameter>new_value</parameter> added if + <parameter>create_if_missing</parameter> is true (which is the + default) and the item designated by <parameter>path</parameter> + does not exist. + All earlier steps in the path must exist, or + the <parameter>target</parameter> is returned unchanged. + As with the path oriented operators, negative integers that + appear in the <parameter>path</parameter> count from the end + of JSON arrays. + If the last path step is an array index that is out of range, + and <parameter>create_if_missing</parameter> is true, the new + value is added at the beginning of the array if the index is negative, + or at the end of the array if it is positive. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_set('[{"f1":1,"f2":null},2,null,3]', '{0,f1}', '[2,3,4]', false)</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"f1": [2, 3, 4], "f2": null}, 2, null, 3]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_set('[{"f1":1,"f2":null},2]', '{0,f3}', '[2,3,4]')</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"f1": 1, "f2": null, "f3": [2, 3, 4]}, 2]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_set_lax</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_set_lax</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>new_value</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>create_if_missing</parameter> <type>boolean</type> <optional>, <parameter>null_value_treatment</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + If <parameter>new_value</parameter> is not <literal>NULL</literal>, + behaves identically to <literal>jsonb_set</literal>. Otherwise behaves + according to the value + of <parameter>null_value_treatment</parameter> which must be one + of <literal>'raise_exception'</literal>, + <literal>'use_json_null'</literal>, <literal>'delete_key'</literal>, or + <literal>'return_target'</literal>. The default is + <literal>'use_json_null'</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_set_lax('[{"f1":1,"f2":null},2,null,3]', '{0,f1}', null)</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"f1":null,"f2":null},2,null,3]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_set_lax('[{"f1":99,"f2":null},2]', '{0,f3}', null, true, 'return_target')</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"f1": 99, "f2": null}, 2]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_insert</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_insert</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>new_value</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>insert_after</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>target</parameter> + with <parameter>new_value</parameter> inserted. If the item + designated by the <parameter>path</parameter> is an array + element, <parameter>new_value</parameter> will be inserted before + that item if <parameter>insert_after</parameter> is false (which + is the default), or after it + if <parameter>insert_after</parameter> is true. If the item + designated by the <parameter>path</parameter> is an object + field, <parameter>new_value</parameter> will be inserted only if + the object does not already contain that key. + All earlier steps in the path must exist, or + the <parameter>target</parameter> is returned unchanged. + As with the path oriented operators, negative integers that + appear in the <parameter>path</parameter> count from the end + of JSON arrays. + If the last path step is an array index that is out of range, the new + value is added at the beginning of the array if the index is negative, + or at the end of the array if it is positive. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_insert('{"a": [0,1,2]}', '{a, 1}', '"new_value"')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a": [0, "new_value", 1, 2]}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_insert('{"a": [0,1,2]}', '{a, 1}', '"new_value"', true)</literal> + <returnvalue>{"a": [0, 1, "new_value", 2]}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_strip_nulls</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_strip_nulls</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_strip_nulls</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_strip_nulls</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes all object fields that have null values from the given JSON + value, recursively. Null values that are not object fields are + untouched. + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_strip_nulls('[{"f1":1, "f2":null}, 2, null, 3]')</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"f1":1},2,null,3]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_exists</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_exists</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Checks whether the JSON path returns any item for the specified JSON + value. + If the <parameter>vars</parameter> argument is specified, it must + be a JSON object, and its fields provide named values to be + substituted into the <type>jsonpath</type> expression. + If the <parameter>silent</parameter> argument is specified and + is <literal>true</literal>, the function suppresses the same errors + as the <literal>@?</literal> and <literal>@@</literal> operators do. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_exists('{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}', '$.a[*] ? (@ >= $min && @ <= $max)', '{"min":2, "max":4}')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_match</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_match</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the result of a JSON path predicate check for the specified + JSON value. Only the first item of the result is taken into account. + If the result is not Boolean, then <literal>NULL</literal> is returned. + The optional <parameter>vars</parameter> + and <parameter>silent</parameter> arguments act the same as + for <function>jsonb_path_exists</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_match('{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}', 'exists($.a[*] ? (@ >= $min && @ <= $max))', '{"min":2, "max":4}')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns all JSON items returned by the JSON path for the specified + JSON value. + The optional <parameter>vars</parameter> + and <parameter>silent</parameter> arguments act the same as + for <function>jsonb_path_exists</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from jsonb_path_query('{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}', '$.a[*] ? (@ >= $min && @ <= $max)', '{"min":2, "max":4}')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + jsonb_path_query +------------------ + 2 + 3 + 4 +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query_array</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns all JSON items returned by the JSON path for the specified + JSON value, as a JSON array. + The optional <parameter>vars</parameter> + and <parameter>silent</parameter> arguments act the same as + for <function>jsonb_path_exists</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}', '$.a[*] ? (@ >= $min && @ <= $max)', '{"min":2, "max":4}')</literal> + <returnvalue>[2, 3, 4]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query_first</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query_first</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the first JSON item returned by the JSON path for the + specified JSON value. Returns <literal>NULL</literal> if there are no + results. + The optional <parameter>vars</parameter> + and <parameter>silent</parameter> arguments act the same as + for <function>jsonb_path_exists</function>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_first('{"a":[1,2,3,4,5]}', '$.a[*] ? (@ >= $min && @ <= $max)', '{"min":2, "max":4}')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_exists_tz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_exists_tz</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_match_tz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_match_tz</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query_tz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query_tz</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query_array_tz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query_array_tz</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_path_query_first_tz</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_path_query_first_tz</function> ( <parameter>target</parameter> <type>jsonb</type>, <parameter>path</parameter> <type>jsonpath</type> <optional>, <parameter>vars</parameter> <type>jsonb</type> <optional>, <parameter>silent</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + These functions act like their counterparts described above without + the <literal>_tz</literal> suffix, except that these functions support + comparisons of date/time values that require timezone-aware + conversions. The example below requires interpretation of the + date-only value <literal>2015-08-02</literal> as a timestamp with time + zone, so the result depends on the current + <xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> setting. Due to this dependency, these + functions are marked as stable, which means these functions cannot be + used in indexes. Their counterparts are immutable, and so can be used + in indexes; but they will throw errors if asked to make such + comparisons. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_exists_tz('["2015-08-01 12:00:00 -05"]', '$[*] ? (@.datetime() < "2015-08-02".datetime())')</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_pretty</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_pretty</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts the given JSON value to pretty-printed, indented text. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_pretty('[{"f1":1,"f2":null}, 2]')</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> +[ + { + "f1": 1, + "f2": null + }, + 2 +] +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_typeof</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_typeof</function> ( <type>json</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_typeof</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_typeof</function> ( <type>jsonb</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the type of the top-level JSON value as a text string. + Possible types are + <literal>object</literal>, <literal>array</literal>, + <literal>string</literal>, <literal>number</literal>, + <literal>boolean</literal>, and <literal>null</literal>. + (The <literal>null</literal> result should not be confused + with an SQL NULL; see the examples.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_typeof('-123.4')</literal> + <returnvalue>number</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_typeof('null'::json)</literal> + <returnvalue>null</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>json_typeof(NULL::json) IS NULL</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + See also <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/> for the aggregate + function <function>json_agg</function> which aggregates record + values as JSON, the aggregate function + <function>json_object_agg</function> which aggregates pairs of values + into a JSON object, and their <type>jsonb</type> equivalents, + <function>jsonb_agg</function> and <function>jsonb_object_agg</function>. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-sqljson-path"> + <title>The SQL/JSON Path Language</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-sqljson-path"> + <primary>SQL/JSON path language</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + SQL/JSON path expressions specify the items to be retrieved + from the JSON data, similar to XPath expressions used + for SQL access to XML. In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, + path expressions are implemented as the <type>jsonpath</type> + data type and can use any elements described in + <xref linkend="datatype-jsonpath"/>. + </para> + + <para> + JSON query functions and operators + pass the provided path expression to the <firstterm>path engine</firstterm> + for evaluation. If the expression matches the queried JSON data, + the corresponding JSON item, or set of items, is returned. + Path expressions are written in the SQL/JSON path language + and can include arithmetic expressions and functions. + </para> + + <para> + A path expression consists of a sequence of elements allowed + by the <type>jsonpath</type> data type. + The path expression is normally evaluated from left to right, but + you can use parentheses to change the order of operations. + If the evaluation is successful, a sequence of JSON items is produced, + and the evaluation result is returned to the JSON query function + that completes the specified computation. + </para> + + <para> + To refer to the JSON value being queried (the + <firstterm>context item</firstterm>), use the <literal>$</literal> variable + in the path expression. It can be followed by one or more + <link linkend="type-jsonpath-accessors">accessor operators</link>, + which go down the JSON structure level by level to retrieve sub-items + of the context item. Each operator that follows deals with the + result of the previous evaluation step. + </para> + + <para> + For example, suppose you have some JSON data from a GPS tracker that you + would like to parse, such as: +<programlisting> +{ + "track": { + "segments": [ + { + "location": [ 47.763, 13.4034 ], + "start time": "2018-10-14 10:05:14", + "HR": 73 + }, + { + "location": [ 47.706, 13.2635 ], + "start time": "2018-10-14 10:39:21", + "HR": 135 + } + ] + } +} +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + To retrieve the available track segments, you need to use the + <literal>.<replaceable>key</replaceable></literal> accessor + operator to descend through surrounding JSON objects: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + To retrieve the contents of an array, you typically use the + <literal>[*]</literal> operator. For example, + the following path will return the location coordinates for all + the available track segments: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*].location +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + To return the coordinates of the first segment only, you can + specify the corresponding subscript in the <literal>[]</literal> + accessor operator. Recall that JSON array indexes are 0-relative: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[0].location +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The result of each path evaluation step can be processed + by one or more <type>jsonpath</type> operators and methods + listed in <xref linkend="functions-sqljson-path-operators"/>. + Each method name must be preceded by a dot. For example, + you can get the size of an array: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments.size() +</programlisting> + More examples of using <type>jsonpath</type> operators + and methods within path expressions appear below in + <xref linkend="functions-sqljson-path-operators"/>. + </para> + + <para> + When defining a path, you can also use one or more + <firstterm>filter expressions</firstterm> that work similarly to the + <literal>WHERE</literal> clause in SQL. A filter expression begins with + a question mark and provides a condition in parentheses: + +<programlisting> +? (<replaceable>condition</replaceable>) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + Filter expressions must be written just after the path evaluation step + to which they should apply. The result of that step is filtered to include + only those items that satisfy the provided condition. SQL/JSON defines + three-valued logic, so the condition can be <literal>true</literal>, <literal>false</literal>, + or <literal>unknown</literal>. The <literal>unknown</literal> value + plays the same role as SQL <literal>NULL</literal> and can be tested + for with the <literal>is unknown</literal> predicate. Further path + evaluation steps use only those items for which the filter expression + returned <literal>true</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + The functions and operators that can be used in filter expressions are + listed in <xref linkend="functions-sqljson-filter-ex-table"/>. Within a + filter expression, the <literal>@</literal> variable denotes the value + being filtered (i.e., one result of the preceding path step). You can + write accessor operators after <literal>@</literal> to retrieve component + items. + </para> + + <para> + For example, suppose you would like to retrieve all heart rate values higher + than 130. You can achieve this using the following expression: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*].HR ? (@ > 130) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + To get the start times of segments with such values, you have to + filter out irrelevant segments before returning the start times, so the + filter expression is applied to the previous step, and the path used + in the condition is different: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*] ? (@.HR > 130)."start time" +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + You can use several filter expressions in sequence, if required. For + example, the following expression selects start times of all segments that + contain locations with relevant coordinates and high heart rate values: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*] ? (@.location[1] < 13.4) ? (@.HR > 130)."start time" +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + Using filter expressions at different nesting levels is also allowed. + The following example first filters all segments by location, and then + returns high heart rate values for these segments, if available: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*] ? (@.location[1] < 13.4).HR ? (@ > 130) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + You can also nest filter expressions within each other: +<programlisting> +$.track ? (exists(@.segments[*] ? (@.HR > 130))).segments.size() +</programlisting> + This expression returns the size of the track if it contains any + segments with high heart rate values, or an empty sequence otherwise. + </para> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s implementation of the SQL/JSON path + language has the following deviations from the SQL/JSON standard: + </para> + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + A path expression can be a Boolean predicate, although the SQL/JSON + standard allows predicates only in filters. This is necessary for + implementation of the <literal>@@</literal> operator. For example, + the following <type>jsonpath</type> expression is valid in + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>: +<programlisting> +$.track.segments[*].HR < 70 +</programlisting> + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + There are minor differences in the interpretation of regular + expression patterns used in <literal>like_regex</literal> filters, as + described in <xref linkend="jsonpath-regular-expressions"/>. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <sect3 id="strict-and-lax-modes"> + <title>Strict and Lax Modes</title> + <para> + When you query JSON data, the path expression may not match the + actual JSON data structure. An attempt to access a non-existent + member of an object or element of an array results in a + structural error. SQL/JSON path expressions have two modes + of handling structural errors: + </para> + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + lax (default) — the path engine implicitly adapts + the queried data to the specified path. + Any remaining structural errors are suppressed and converted + to empty SQL/JSON sequences. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + strict — if a structural error occurs, an error is raised. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <para> + The lax mode facilitates matching of a JSON document structure and path + expression if the JSON data does not conform to the expected schema. + If an operand does not match the requirements of a particular operation, + it can be automatically wrapped as an SQL/JSON array or unwrapped by + converting its elements into an SQL/JSON sequence before performing + this operation. Besides, comparison operators automatically unwrap their + operands in the lax mode, so you can compare SQL/JSON arrays + out-of-the-box. An array of size 1 is considered equal to its sole element. + Automatic unwrapping is not performed only when: + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + The path expression contains <literal>type()</literal> or + <literal>size()</literal> methods that return the type + and the number of elements in the array, respectively. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + The queried JSON data contain nested arrays. In this case, only + the outermost array is unwrapped, while all the inner arrays + remain unchanged. Thus, implicit unwrapping can only go one + level down within each path evaluation step. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para> + + <para> + For example, when querying the GPS data listed above, you can + abstract from the fact that it stores an array of segments + when using the lax mode: +<programlisting> +lax $.track.segments.location +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + In the strict mode, the specified path must exactly match the structure of + the queried JSON document to return an SQL/JSON item, so using this + path expression will cause an error. To get the same result as in + the lax mode, you have to explicitly unwrap the + <literal>segments</literal> array: +<programlisting> +strict $.track.segments[*].location +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The <literal>.**</literal> accessor can lead to surprising results + when using the lax mode. For instance, the following query selects every + <literal>HR</literal> value twice: +<programlisting> +lax $.**.HR +</programlisting> + This happens because the <literal>.**</literal> accessor selects both + the <literal>segments</literal> array and each of its elements, while + the <literal>.HR</literal> accessor automatically unwraps arrays when + using the lax mode. To avoid surprising results, we recommend using + the <literal>.**</literal> accessor only in the strict mode. The + following query selects each <literal>HR</literal> value just once: +<programlisting> +strict $.**.HR +</programlisting> + </para> + + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="functions-sqljson-path-operators"> + <title>SQL/JSON Path Operators and Methods</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-sqljson-op-table"/> shows the operators and + methods available in <type>jsonpath</type>. Note that while the unary + operators and methods can be applied to multiple values resulting from a + preceding path step, the binary operators (addition etc.) can only be + applied to single values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-sqljson-op-table"> + <title><type>jsonpath</type> Operators and Methods</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator/Method + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>+</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Addition + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[2]', '$[0] + 3')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>+</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Unary plus (no operation); unlike addition, this can iterate over + multiple values + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('{"x": [2,3,4]}', '+ $.x')</literal> + <returnvalue>[2, 3, 4]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>-</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Subtraction + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[2]', '7 - $[0]')</literal> + <returnvalue>5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>-</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Negation; unlike subtraction, this can iterate over + multiple values + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('{"x": [2,3,4]}', '- $.x')</literal> + <returnvalue>[-2, -3, -4]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>*</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Multiplication + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[4]', '2 * $[0]')</literal> + <returnvalue>8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>/</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Division + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[8.5]', '$[0] / 2')</literal> + <returnvalue>4.2500000000000000</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>%</literal> <replaceable>number</replaceable> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Modulo (remainder) + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[32]', '$[0] % 10')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>type()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>string</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Type of the JSON item (see <function>json_typeof</function>) + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, "2", {}]', '$[*].type()')</literal> + <returnvalue>["number", "string", "object"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>size()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Size of the JSON item (number of array elements, or 1 if not an + array) + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"m": [11, 15]}', '$.m.size()')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>double()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Approximate floating-point number converted from a JSON number or + string + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"len": "1.9"}', '$.len.double() * 2')</literal> + <returnvalue>3.8</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>ceiling()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Nearest integer greater than or equal to the given number + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"h": 1.3}', '$.h.ceiling()')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>floor()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Nearest integer less than or equal to the given number + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"h": 1.7}', '$.h.floor()')</literal> + <returnvalue>1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>number</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>abs()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>number</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Absolute value of the given number + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"z": -0.3}', '$.z.abs()')</literal> + <returnvalue>0.3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>string</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>datetime()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>datetime_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + (see note) + </para> + <para> + Date/time value converted from a string + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('["2015-8-1", "2015-08-12"]', '$[*] ? (@.datetime() < "2015-08-2".datetime())')</literal> + <returnvalue>"2015-8-1"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>string</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>datetime(<replaceable>template</replaceable>)</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>datetime_type</replaceable></returnvalue> + (see note) + </para> + <para> + Date/time value converted from a string using the + specified <function>to_timestamp</function> template + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('["12:30", "18:40"]', '$[*].datetime("HH24:MI")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["12:30:00", "18:40:00"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>object</replaceable> <literal>.</literal> <literal>keyvalue()</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>array</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + The object's key-value pairs, represented as an array of objects + containing three fields: <literal>"key"</literal>, + <literal>"value"</literal>, and <literal>"id"</literal>; + <literal>"id"</literal> is a unique identifier of the object the + key-value pair belongs to + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('{"x": "20", "y": 32}', '$.keyvalue()')</literal> + <returnvalue>[{"id": 0, "key": "x", "value": "20"}, {"id": 0, "key": "y", "value": 32}]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + The result type of the <literal>datetime()</literal> and + <literal>datetime(<replaceable>template</replaceable>)</literal> + methods can be <type>date</type>, <type>timetz</type>, <type>time</type>, + <type>timestamptz</type>, or <type>timestamp</type>. + Both methods determine their result type dynamically. + </para> + <para> + The <literal>datetime()</literal> method sequentially tries to + match its input string to the ISO formats + for <type>date</type>, <type>timetz</type>, <type>time</type>, + <type>timestamptz</type>, and <type>timestamp</type>. It stops on + the first matching format and emits the corresponding data type. + </para> + <para> + The <literal>datetime(<replaceable>template</replaceable>)</literal> + method determines the result type according to the fields used in the + provided template string. + </para> + <para> + The <literal>datetime()</literal> and + <literal>datetime(<replaceable>template</replaceable>)</literal> methods + use the same parsing rules as the <literal>to_timestamp</literal> SQL + function does (see <xref linkend="functions-formatting"/>), with three + exceptions. First, these methods don't allow unmatched template + patterns. Second, only the following separators are allowed in the + template string: minus sign, period, solidus (slash), comma, apostrophe, + semicolon, colon and space. Third, separators in the template string + must exactly match the input string. + </para> + <para> + If different date/time types need to be compared, an implicit cast is + applied. A <type>date</type> value can be cast to <type>timestamp</type> + or <type>timestamptz</type>, <type>timestamp</type> can be cast to + <type>timestamptz</type>, and <type>time</type> to <type>timetz</type>. + However, all but the first of these conversions depend on the current + <xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> setting, and thus can only be performed + within timezone-aware <type>jsonpath</type> functions. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-sqljson-filter-ex-table"/> shows the available + filter expression elements. + </para> + + <table id="functions-sqljson-filter-ex-table"> + <title><type>jsonpath</type> Filter Expression Elements</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Predicate/Value + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>==</literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Equality comparison (this, and the other comparison operators, work on + all JSON scalar values) + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, "a", 1, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ == 1)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[1, 1]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, "a", 1, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ == "a")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["a"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>!=</literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal><></literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Non-equality comparison + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, 2, 1, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ != 1)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[2, 3]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('["a", "b", "c"]', '$[*] ? (@ <> "b")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["a", "c"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal><</literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Less-than comparison + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, 2, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ < 2)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[1]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal><=</literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Less-than-or-equal-to comparison + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('["a", "b", "c"]', '$[*] ? (@ <= "b")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["a", "b"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>></literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Greater-than comparison + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, 2, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ > 2)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[3]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>value</replaceable> <literal>>=</literal> <replaceable>value</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Greater-than-or-equal-to comparison + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('[1, 2, 3]', '$[*] ? (@ >= 2)')</literal> + <returnvalue>[2, 3]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>true</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + JSON constant <literal>true</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[{"name": "John", "parent": false}, {"name": "Chris", "parent": true}]', '$[*] ? (@.parent == true)')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"name": "Chris", "parent": true}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>false</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + JSON constant <literal>false</literal> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[{"name": "John", "parent": false}, {"name": "Chris", "parent": true}]', '$[*] ? (@.parent == false)')</literal> + <returnvalue>{"name": "John", "parent": false}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>null</literal> + <returnvalue><replaceable>value</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + JSON constant <literal>null</literal> (note that, unlike in SQL, + comparison to <literal>null</literal> works normally) + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[{"name": "Mary", "job": null}, {"name": "Michael", "job": "driver"}]', '$[*] ? (@.job == null) .name')</literal> + <returnvalue>"Mary"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> <literal>&&</literal> <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Boolean AND + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[1, 3, 7]', '$[*] ? (@ > 1 && @ < 5)')</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> <literal>||</literal> <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Boolean OR + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[1, 3, 7]', '$[*] ? (@ < 1 || @ > 5)')</literal> + <returnvalue>7</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>!</literal> <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Boolean NOT + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[1, 3, 7]', '$[*] ? (!(@ < 5))')</literal> + <returnvalue>7</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>boolean</replaceable> <literal>is unknown</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether a Boolean condition is <literal>unknown</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('[-1, 2, 7, "foo"]', '$[*] ? ((@ > 0) is unknown)')</literal> + <returnvalue>"foo"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>string</replaceable> <literal>like_regex</literal> <replaceable>string</replaceable> <optional> <literal>flag</literal> <replaceable>string</replaceable> </optional> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether the first operand matches the regular expression + given by the second operand, optionally with modifications + described by a string of <literal>flag</literal> characters (see + <xref linkend="jsonpath-regular-expressions"/>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('["abc", "abd", "aBdC", "abdacb", "babc"]', '$[*] ? (@ like_regex "^ab.*c")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["abc", "abdacb"]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('["abc", "abd", "aBdC", "abdacb", "babc"]', '$[*] ? (@ like_regex "^ab.*c" flag "i")')</literal> + <returnvalue>["abc", "aBdC", "abdacb"]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <replaceable>string</replaceable> <literal>starts with</literal> <replaceable>string</replaceable> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether the second operand is an initial substring of the first + operand. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('["John Smith", "Mary Stone", "Bob Johnson"]', '$[*] ? (@ starts with "John")')</literal> + <returnvalue>"John Smith"</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <literal>exists</literal> <literal>(</literal> <replaceable>path_expression</replaceable> <literal>)</literal> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether a path expression matches at least one SQL/JSON item. + Returns <literal>unknown</literal> if the path expression would result + in an error; the second example uses this to avoid a no-such-key error + in strict mode. + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query('{"x": [1, 2], "y": [2, 4]}', 'strict $.* ? (exists (@ ? (@[*] > 2)))')</literal> + <returnvalue>[2, 4]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>jsonb_path_query_array('{"value": 41}', 'strict $ ? (exists (@.name)) .name')</literal> + <returnvalue>[]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect3> + + <sect3 id="jsonpath-regular-expressions"> + <title>SQL/JSON Regular Expressions</title> + + <indexterm zone="jsonpath-regular-expressions"> + <primary><literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal></primary> + <secondary>in SQL/JSON</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + SQL/JSON path expressions allow matching text to a regular expression + with the <literal>like_regex</literal> filter. For example, the + following SQL/JSON path query would case-insensitively match all + strings in an array that start with an English vowel: +<programlisting> +$[*] ? (@ like_regex "^[aeiou]" flag "i") +</programlisting> + </para> + + <para> + The optional <literal>flag</literal> string may include one or more of + the characters + <literal>i</literal> for case-insensitive match, + <literal>m</literal> to allow <literal>^</literal> + and <literal>$</literal> to match at newlines, + <literal>s</literal> to allow <literal>.</literal> to match a newline, + and <literal>q</literal> to quote the whole pattern (reducing the + behavior to a simple substring match). + </para> + + <para> + The SQL/JSON standard borrows its definition for regular expressions + from the <literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal> operator, which in turn uses the + XQuery standard. PostgreSQL does not currently support the + <literal>LIKE_REGEX</literal> operator. Therefore, + the <literal>like_regex</literal> filter is implemented using the + POSIX regular expression engine described in + <xref linkend="functions-posix-regexp"/>. This leads to various minor + discrepancies from standard SQL/JSON behavior, which are cataloged in + <xref linkend="posix-vs-xquery"/>. + Note, however, that the flag-letter incompatibilities described there + do not apply to SQL/JSON, as it translates the XQuery flag letters to + match what the POSIX engine expects. + </para> + + <para> + Keep in mind that the pattern argument of <literal>like_regex</literal> + is a JSON path string literal, written according to the rules given in + <xref linkend="datatype-jsonpath"/>. This means in particular that any + backslashes you want to use in the regular expression must be doubled. + For example, to match string values of the root document that contain + only digits: +<programlisting> +$.* ? (@ like_regex "^\\d+$") +</programlisting> + </para> + </sect3> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-sequence"> + <title>Sequence Manipulation Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>sequence</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes functions for operating on <firstterm>sequence + objects</firstterm>, also called sequence generators or just sequences. + Sequence objects are special single-row tables created with <xref + linkend="sql-createsequence"/>. + Sequence objects are commonly used to generate unique identifiers + for rows of a table. The sequence functions, listed in <xref + linkend="functions-sequence-table"/>, provide simple, multiuser-safe + methods for obtaining successive sequence values from sequence + objects. + </para> + + <table id="functions-sequence-table"> + <title>Sequence Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>nextval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>nextval</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Advances the sequence object to its next value and returns that value. + This is done atomically: even if multiple sessions + execute <function>nextval</function> concurrently, each will safely + receive a distinct sequence value. + If the sequence object has been created with default parameters, + successive <function>nextval</function> calls will return successive + values beginning with 1. Other behaviors can be obtained by using + appropriate parameters in the <xref linkend="sql-createsequence"/> + command. + </para> + <para> + This function requires <literal>USAGE</literal> + or <literal>UPDATE</literal> privilege on the sequence. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>setval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>setval</function> ( <type>regclass</type>, <type>bigint</type> <optional>, <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the sequence object's current value, and optionally + its <literal>is_called</literal> flag. The two-parameter + form sets the sequence's <literal>last_value</literal> field to the + specified value and sets its <literal>is_called</literal> field to + <literal>true</literal>, meaning that the next + <function>nextval</function> will advance the sequence before + returning a value. The value that will be reported + by <function>currval</function> is also set to the specified value. + In the three-parameter form, <literal>is_called</literal> can be set + to either <literal>true</literal> + or <literal>false</literal>. <literal>true</literal> has the same + effect as the two-parameter form. If it is set + to <literal>false</literal>, the next <function>nextval</function> + will return exactly the specified value, and sequence advancement + commences with the following <function>nextval</function>. + Furthermore, the value reported by <function>currval</function> is not + changed in this case. For example, +<programlisting> +SELECT setval('myseq', 42); <lineannotation>Next <function>nextval</function> will return 43</lineannotation> +SELECT setval('myseq', 42, true); <lineannotation>Same as above</lineannotation> +SELECT setval('myseq', 42, false); <lineannotation>Next <function>nextval</function> will return 42</lineannotation> +</programlisting> + The result returned by <function>setval</function> is just the value of its + second argument. + </para> + <para> + This function requires <literal>UPDATE</literal> privilege on the + sequence. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>currval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>currval</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the value most recently obtained + by <function>nextval</function> for this sequence in the current + session. (An error is reported if <function>nextval</function> has + never been called for this sequence in this session.) Because this is + returning a session-local value, it gives a predictable answer whether + or not other sessions have executed <function>nextval</function> since + the current session did. + </para> + <para> + This function requires <literal>USAGE</literal> + or <literal>SELECT</literal> privilege on the sequence. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lastval</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lastval</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the value most recently returned by + <function>nextval</function> in the current session. This function is + identical to <function>currval</function>, except that instead + of taking the sequence name as an argument it refers to whichever + sequence <function>nextval</function> was most recently applied to + in the current session. It is an error to call + <function>lastval</function> if <function>nextval</function> + has not yet been called in the current session. + </para> + <para> + This function requires <literal>USAGE</literal> + or <literal>SELECT</literal> privilege on the last used sequence. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <caution> + <para> + To avoid blocking concurrent transactions that obtain numbers from + the same sequence, the value obtained by <function>nextval</function> + is not reclaimed for re-use if the calling transaction later aborts. + This means that transaction aborts or database crashes can result in + gaps in the sequence of assigned values. That can happen without a + transaction abort, too. For example an <command>INSERT</command> with + an <literal>ON CONFLICT</literal> clause will compute the to-be-inserted + tuple, including doing any required <function>nextval</function> + calls, before detecting any conflict that would cause it to follow + the <literal>ON CONFLICT</literal> rule instead. + Thus, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> sequence + objects <emphasis>cannot be used to obtain <quote>gapless</quote> + sequences</emphasis>. + </para> + + <para> + Likewise, sequence state changes made by <function>setval</function> + are immediately visible to other transactions, and are not undone if + the calling transaction rolls back. + </para> + + <para> + If the database cluster crashes before committing a transaction + containing a <function>nextval</function> + or <function>setval</function> call, the sequence state change might + not have made its way to persistent storage, so that it is uncertain + whether the sequence will have its original or updated state after the + cluster restarts. This is harmless for usage of the sequence within + the database, since other effects of uncommitted transactions will not + be visible either. However, if you wish to use a sequence value for + persistent outside-the-database purposes, make sure that the + <function>nextval</function> call has been committed before doing so. + </para> + </caution> + + <para> + The sequence to be operated on by a sequence function is specified by + a <type>regclass</type> argument, which is simply the OID of the sequence in the + <structname>pg_class</structname> system catalog. You do not have to look up the + OID by hand, however, since the <type>regclass</type> data type's input + converter will do the work for you. See <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/> + for details. + </para> + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-conditional"> + <title>Conditional Expressions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>CASE</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>conditional expression</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes the <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant conditional expressions + available in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>. + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + If your needs go beyond the capabilities of these conditional + expressions, you might want to consider writing a server-side function + in a more expressive programming language. + </para> + </tip> + + <note> + <para> + Although <token>COALESCE</token>, <token>GREATEST</token>, and + <token>LEAST</token> are syntactically similar to functions, they are + not ordinary functions, and thus cannot be used with explicit + <token>VARIADIC</token> array arguments. + </para> + </note> + + <sect2 id="functions-case"> + <title><literal>CASE</literal></title> + + <para> + The <acronym>SQL</acronym> <token>CASE</token> expression is a + generic conditional expression, similar to if/else statements in + other programming languages: + +<synopsis> +CASE WHEN <replaceable>condition</replaceable> THEN <replaceable>result</replaceable> + <optional>WHEN ...</optional> + <optional>ELSE <replaceable>result</replaceable></optional> +END +</synopsis> + + <token>CASE</token> clauses can be used wherever + an expression is valid. Each <replaceable>condition</replaceable> is an + expression that returns a <type>boolean</type> result. If the condition's + result is true, the value of the <token>CASE</token> expression is the + <replaceable>result</replaceable> that follows the condition, and the + remainder of the <token>CASE</token> expression is not processed. If the + condition's result is not true, any subsequent <token>WHEN</token> clauses + are examined in the same manner. If no <token>WHEN</token> + <replaceable>condition</replaceable> yields true, the value of the + <token>CASE</token> expression is the <replaceable>result</replaceable> of the + <token>ELSE</token> clause. If the <token>ELSE</token> clause is + omitted and no condition is true, the result is null. + </para> + + <para> + An example: +<screen> +SELECT * FROM test; + + a +--- + 1 + 2 + 3 + + +SELECT a, + CASE WHEN a=1 THEN 'one' + WHEN a=2 THEN 'two' + ELSE 'other' + END + FROM test; + + a | case +---+------- + 1 | one + 2 | two + 3 | other +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + The data types of all the <replaceable>result</replaceable> + expressions must be convertible to a single output type. + See <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"/> for more details. + </para> + + <para> + There is a <quote>simple</quote> form of <token>CASE</token> expression + that is a variant of the general form above: + +<synopsis> +CASE <replaceable>expression</replaceable> + WHEN <replaceable>value</replaceable> THEN <replaceable>result</replaceable> + <optional>WHEN ...</optional> + <optional>ELSE <replaceable>result</replaceable></optional> +END +</synopsis> + + The first + <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is computed, then compared to + each of the <replaceable>value</replaceable> expressions in the + <token>WHEN</token> clauses until one is found that is equal to it. If + no match is found, the <replaceable>result</replaceable> of the + <token>ELSE</token> clause (or a null value) is returned. This is similar + to the <function>switch</function> statement in C. + </para> + + <para> + The example above can be written using the simple + <token>CASE</token> syntax: +<screen> +SELECT a, + CASE a WHEN 1 THEN 'one' + WHEN 2 THEN 'two' + ELSE 'other' + END + FROM test; + + a | case +---+------- + 1 | one + 2 | two + 3 | other +</screen> + </para> + + <para> + A <token>CASE</token> expression does not evaluate any subexpressions + that are not needed to determine the result. For example, this is a + possible way of avoiding a division-by-zero failure: +<programlisting> +SELECT ... WHERE CASE WHEN x <> 0 THEN y/x > 1.5 ELSE false END; +</programlisting> + </para> + + <note> + <para> + As described in <xref linkend="syntax-express-eval"/>, there are various + situations in which subexpressions of an expression are evaluated at + different times, so that the principle that <quote><token>CASE</token> + evaluates only necessary subexpressions</quote> is not ironclad. For + example a constant <literal>1/0</literal> subexpression will usually result in + a division-by-zero failure at planning time, even if it's within + a <token>CASE</token> arm that would never be entered at run time. + </para> + </note> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-coalesce-nvl-ifnull"> + <title><literal>COALESCE</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>COALESCE</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>NVL</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IFNULL</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>COALESCE</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>COALESCE</function> function returns the first of its + arguments that is not null. Null is returned only if all arguments + are null. It is often used to substitute a default value for + null values when data is retrieved for display, for example: +<programlisting> +SELECT COALESCE(description, short_description, '(none)') ... +</programlisting> + This returns <varname>description</varname> if it is not null, otherwise + <varname>short_description</varname> if it is not null, otherwise <literal>(none)</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + The arguments must all be convertible to a common data type, which + will be the type of the result (see + <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"/> for details). + </para> + + <para> + Like a <token>CASE</token> expression, <function>COALESCE</function> only + evaluates the arguments that are needed to determine the result; + that is, arguments to the right of the first non-null argument are + not evaluated. This SQL-standard function provides capabilities similar + to <function>NVL</function> and <function>IFNULL</function>, which are used in some other + database systems. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-nullif"> + <title><literal>NULLIF</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>NULLIF</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>NULLIF</function>(<replaceable>value1</replaceable>, <replaceable>value2</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>NULLIF</function> function returns a null value if + <replaceable>value1</replaceable> equals <replaceable>value2</replaceable>; + otherwise it returns <replaceable>value1</replaceable>. + This can be used to perform the inverse operation of the + <function>COALESCE</function> example given above: +<programlisting> +SELECT NULLIF(value, '(none)') ... +</programlisting> + In this example, if <literal>value</literal> is <literal>(none)</literal>, + null is returned, otherwise the value of <literal>value</literal> + is returned. + </para> + + <para> + The two arguments must be of comparable types. + To be specific, they are compared exactly as if you had + written <literal><replaceable>value1</replaceable> + = <replaceable>value2</replaceable></literal>, so there must be a + suitable <literal>=</literal> operator available. + </para> + + <para> + The result has the same type as the first argument — but there is + a subtlety. What is actually returned is the first argument of the + implied <literal>=</literal> operator, and in some cases that will have + been promoted to match the second argument's type. For + example, <literal>NULLIF(1, 2.2)</literal> yields <type>numeric</type>, + because there is no <type>integer</type> <literal>=</literal> + <type>numeric</type> operator, + only <type>numeric</type> <literal>=</literal> <type>numeric</type>. + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-greatest-least"> + <title><literal>GREATEST</literal> and <literal>LEAST</literal></title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>GREATEST</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>LEAST</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>GREATEST</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>) +</synopsis> +<synopsis> +<function>LEAST</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The <function>GREATEST</function> and <function>LEAST</function> functions select the + largest or smallest value from a list of any number of expressions. + The expressions must all be convertible to a common data type, which + will be the type of the result + (see <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"/> for details). NULL values + in the list are ignored. The result will be NULL only if all the + expressions evaluate to NULL. + </para> + + <para> + Note that <function>GREATEST</function> and <function>LEAST</function> are not in + the SQL standard, but are a common extension. Some other databases + make them return NULL if any argument is NULL, rather than only when + all are NULL. + </para> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-array"> + <title>Array Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="array-operators-table"/> shows the specialized operators + available for array types. + In addition to those, the usual comparison operators shown in <xref + linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> are available for + arrays. The comparison operators compare the array contents + element-by-element, using the default B-tree comparison function for + the element data type, and sort based on the first difference. + In multidimensional arrays the elements are visited in row-major order + (last subscript varies most rapidly). + If the contents of two arrays are equal but the dimensionality is + different, the first difference in the dimensionality information + determines the sort order. + </para> + + <table id="array-operators-table"> + <title>Array Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyarray</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anyarray</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first array contain the second, that is, does each element + appearing in the second array equal some element of the first array? + (Duplicates are not treated specially, + thus <literal>ARRAY[1]</literal> and <literal>ARRAY[1,1]</literal> are + each considered to contain the other.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[1,4,3] @> ARRAY[3,1,3]</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyarray</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anyarray</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first array contained by the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[2,2,7] <@ ARRAY[1,7,4,2,6]</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyarray</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>anyarray</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do the arrays overlap, that is, have any elements in common? + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[1,4,3] && ARRAY[2,1]</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anycompatiblearray</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatiblearray</type> + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the two arrays. Concatenating a null or empty array is a + no-op; otherwise the arrays must have the same number of dimensions + (as illustrated by the first example) or differ in number of + dimensions by one (as illustrated by the second). + If the arrays are not of identical element types, they will be coerced + to a common type (see <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"/>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] || ARRAY[4,5,6,7]</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] || ARRAY[[4,5,6],[7,8,9.9]]</literal> + <returnvalue>{{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9.9}}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anycompatible</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatiblearray</type> + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates an element onto the front of an array (which must be + empty or one-dimensional). + </para> + <para> + <literal>3 || ARRAY[4,5,6]</literal> + <returnvalue>{3,4,5,6}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anycompatiblearray</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatible</type> + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates an element onto the end of an array (which must be + empty or one-dimensional). + </para> + <para> + <literal>ARRAY[4,5,6] || 7</literal> + <returnvalue>{4,5,6,7}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + See <xref linkend="arrays"/> for more details about array operator + behavior. See <xref linkend="indexes-types"/> for more details about + which operators support indexed operations. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="array-functions-table"/> shows the functions + available for use with array types. See <xref linkend="arrays"/> + for more information and examples of the use of these functions. + </para> + + <table id="array-functions-table"> + <title>Array Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_append</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_append</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatible</type> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Appends an element to the end of an array (same as + the <type>anycompatiblearray</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatible</type> + operator). + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_append(ARRAY[1,2], 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_cat</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_cat</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatiblearray</type> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates two arrays (same as + the <type>anycompatiblearray</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatiblearray</type> + operator). + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_cat(ARRAY[1,2,3], ARRAY[4,5])</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3,4,5}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_dims</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_dims</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a text representation of the array's dimensions. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_dims(ARRAY[[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])</literal> + <returnvalue>[1:2][1:3]</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_fill</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_fill</function> ( <type>anyelement</type>, <type>integer[]</type> + <optional>, <type>integer[]</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array filled with copies of the given value, having + dimensions of the lengths specified by the second argument. + The optional third argument supplies lower-bound values for each + dimension (which default to all <literal>1</literal>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_fill(11, ARRAY[2,3])</literal> + <returnvalue>{{11,11,11},{11,11,11}}</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_fill(7, ARRAY[3], ARRAY[2])</literal> + <returnvalue>[2:4]={7,7,7}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_length</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_length</function> ( <type>anyarray</type>, <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the length of the requested array dimension. + (Produces NULL instead of 0 for empty or missing array dimensions.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_length(array[1,2,3], 1)</literal> + <returnvalue>3</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_length(array[]::int[], 1)</literal> + <returnvalue>NULL</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_length(array['text'], 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>NULL</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_lower</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_lower</function> ( <type>anyarray</type>, <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the lower bound of the requested array dimension. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_lower('[0:2]={1,2,3}'::integer[], 1)</literal> + <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_ndims</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_ndims</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of dimensions of the array. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_ndims(ARRAY[[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_position</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_position</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatible</type> <optional>, <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the subscript of the first occurrence of the second argument + in the array, or <literal>NULL</literal> if it's not present. + If the third argument is given, the search begins at that subscript. + The array must be one-dimensional. + Comparisons are done using <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</literal> + semantics, so it is possible to search for <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_position(ARRAY['sun', 'mon', 'tue', 'wed', 'thu', 'fri', 'sat'], 'mon')</literal> + <returnvalue>2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_positions</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_positions</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatible</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array of the subscripts of all occurrences of the second + argument in the array given as first argument. + The array must be one-dimensional. + Comparisons are done using <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</literal> + semantics, so it is possible to search for <literal>NULL</literal>. + <literal>NULL</literal> is returned only if the array + is <literal>NULL</literal>; if the value is not found in the array, an + empty array is returned. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_positions(ARRAY['A','A','B','A'], 'A')</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,4}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_prepend</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_prepend</function> ( <type>anycompatible</type>, <type>anycompatiblearray</type> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Prepends an element to the beginning of an array (same as + the <type>anycompatible</type> <literal>||</literal> <type>anycompatiblearray</type> + operator). + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_prepend(1, ARRAY[2,3])</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_remove</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_remove</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatible</type> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes all elements equal to the given value from the array. + The array must be one-dimensional. + Comparisons are done using <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</literal> + semantics, so it is possible to remove <literal>NULL</literal>s. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_remove(ARRAY[1,2,3,2], 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,3}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_replace</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_replace</function> ( <type>anycompatiblearray</type>, <type>anycompatible</type>, <type>anycompatible</type> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatiblearray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Replaces each array element equal to the second argument with the + third argument. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_replace(ARRAY[1,2,5,4], 5, 3)</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3,4}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_to_string</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_to_string</function> ( <parameter>array</parameter> <type>anyarray</type>, <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>null_string</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts each array element to its text representation, and + concatenates those separated by + the <parameter>delimiter</parameter> string. + If <parameter>null_string</parameter> is given and is + not <literal>NULL</literal>, then <literal>NULL</literal> array + entries are represented by that string; otherwise, they are omitted. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_to_string(ARRAY[1, 2, 3, NULL, 5], ',', '*')</literal> + <returnvalue>1,2,3,*,5</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_upper</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_upper</function> ( <type>anyarray</type>, <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the upper bound of the requested array dimension. + </para> + <para> + <literal>array_upper(ARRAY[1,8,3,7], 1)</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cardinality</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cardinality</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the total number of elements in the array, or 0 if the array + is empty. + </para> + <para> + <literal>cardinality(ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]])</literal> + <returnvalue>4</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>trim_array</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>trim_array</function> ( <parameter>array</parameter> <type>anyarray</type>, <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Trims an array by removing the last <parameter>n</parameter> elements. + If the array is multidimensional, only the first dimension is trimmed. + </para> + <para> + <literal>trim_array(ARRAY[1,2,3,4,5,6], 2)</literal> + <returnvalue>{1,2,3,4}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>unnest</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>unnest</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands an array into a set of rows. + The array's elements are read out in storage order. + </para> + <para> + <literal>unnest(ARRAY[1,2])</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + 1 + 2 +</programlisting> + </para> + <para> + <literal>unnest(ARRAY[['foo','bar'],['baz','quux']])</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + foo + bar + baz + quux +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>unnest</function> ( <type>anyarray</type>, <type>anyarray</type> <optional>, ... </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof anyelement, anyelement [, ... ]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands multiple arrays (possibly of different data types) into a set of + rows. If the arrays are not all the same length then the shorter ones + are padded with <literal>NULL</literal>s. This form is only allowed + in a query's FROM clause; see <xref linkend="queries-tablefunctions"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>select * from unnest(ARRAY[1,2], ARRAY['foo','bar','baz']) as x(a,b)</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + a | b +---+----- + 1 | foo + 2 | bar + | baz +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + There are two differences in the behavior of <function>string_to_array</function> + from pre-9.1 versions of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>. + First, it will return an empty (zero-element) array rather + than <literal>NULL</literal> when the input string is of zero length. + Second, if the delimiter string is <literal>NULL</literal>, the function + splits the input into individual characters, rather than + returning <literal>NULL</literal> as before. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + See also <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/> about the aggregate + function <function>array_agg</function> for use with arrays. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-range"> + <title>Range/Multirange Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + See <xref linkend="rangetypes"/> for an overview of range types. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="range-operators-table"/> shows the specialized operators + available for range types. + <xref linkend="multirange-operators-table"/> shows the specialized operators + available for multirange types. + In addition to those, the usual comparison operators shown in + <xref linkend="functions-comparison-op-table"/> are available for range + and multirange types. The comparison operators order first by the range lower + bounds, and only if those are equal do they compare the upper bounds. The + multirange operators compare each range until one is unequal. This + does not usually result in a useful overall ordering, but the operators are + provided to allow unique indexes to be constructed on ranges. + </para> + + <table id="range-operators-table"> + <title>Range Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first range contain the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int4range(2,4) @> int4range(2,3)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anyelement</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the range contain the element? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[2011-01-01,2011-03-01)'::tsrange @> '2011-01-10'::timestamp</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first range contained by the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int4range(2,4) <@ int4range(1,7)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyelement</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the element contained in the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>42 <@ int4range(1,7)</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do the ranges overlap, that is, have any elements in common? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(3,7) && int8range(4,12)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first range strictly left of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(1,10) << int8range(100,110)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first range strictly right of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(50,60) >> int8range(20,30)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&<</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first range not extend to the right of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(1,20) &< int8range(18,20)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first range not extend to the left of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(7,20) &> int8range(5,10)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>-|-</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are the ranges adjacent? + </para> + <para> + <literal>numrange(1.1,2.2) -|- numrange(2.2,3.3)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the union of the ranges. The ranges must overlap or be + adjacent, so that the union is a single range (but + see <function>range_merge()</function>). + </para> + <para> + <literal>numrange(5,15) + numrange(10,20)</literal> + <returnvalue>[5,20)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>*</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the intersection of the ranges. + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(5,15) * int8range(10,20)</literal> + <returnvalue>[10,15)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the difference of the ranges. The second range must not be + contained in the first in such a way that the difference would not be + a single range. + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(5,15) - int8range(10,20)</literal> + <returnvalue>[5,10)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="multirange-operators-table"> + <title>Multirange Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first multirange contain the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[2,4)}'::int4multirange @> '{[2,3)}'::int4multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the multirange contain the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[2,4)}'::int4multirange @> int4range(2,3)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anyelement</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the multirange contain the element? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[2011-01-01,2011-03-01)}'::tsmultirange @> '2011-01-10'::timestamp</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the range contain the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'[2,4)'::int4range @> '{[2,3)}'::int4multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first multirange contained by the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[2,4)}'::int4multirange <@ '{[1,7)}'::int4multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange contained by the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[2,4)}'::int4multirange <@ int4range(1,7)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range contained by the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int4range(2,4) <@ '{[1,7)}'::int4multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyelement</type> <literal><@</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the element contained by the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>4 <@ '{[1,7)}'::int4multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Do the multiranges overlap, that is, have any elements in common? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[3,7)}'::int8multirange && '{[4,12)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the multirange overlap the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[3,7)}'::int8multirange && int8range(4,12)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&&</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the range overlap the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(3,7) && '{[4,12)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first multirange strictly left of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1,10)}'::int8multirange << '{[100,110)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange strictly left of the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1,10)}'::int8multirange << int8range(100,110)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal><<</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range strictly left of the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(1,10) << '{[100,110)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the first multirange strictly right of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[50,60)}'::int8multirange >> '{[20,30)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange strictly right of the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[50,60)}'::int8multirange >> int8range(20,30)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>>></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range strictly right of the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(50,60) >> '{[20,30)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&<</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first multirange not extend to the right of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1,20)}'::int8multirange &< '{[18,20)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&<</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the multirange not extend to the right of the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1,20)}'::int8multirange &< int8range(18,20)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&<</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the range not extend to the right of the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(1,20) &< '{[18,20)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the first multirange not extend to the left of the second? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[7,20)}'::int8multirange &> '{[5,10)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>&></literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the multirange not extend to the left of the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[7,20)}'::int8multirange &> int8range(5,10)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>&></literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does the range not extend to the left of the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>int8range(7,20) &> '{[5,10)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>-|-</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are the multiranges adjacent? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange -|- '{[2.2,3.3)}'::nummultirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>-|-</literal> <type>anyrange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange adjacent to the range? + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange -|- numrange(2.2,3.3)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anyrange</type> <literal>-|-</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range adjacent to the multirange? + </para> + <para> + <literal>numrange(1.1,2.2) -|- '{[2.2,3.3)}'::nummultirange</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>+</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the union of the multiranges. The multiranges need not overlap + or be adjacent. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[5,10)}'::nummultirange + '{[15,20)}'::nummultirange</literal> + <returnvalue>{[5,10), [15,20)}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>*</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the intersection of the multiranges. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[5,15)}'::int8multirange * '{[10,20)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>{[10,15)}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>anymultirange</type> <literal>-</literal> <type>anymultirange</type> + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the difference of the multiranges. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{[5,20)}'::int8multirange - '{[10,15)}'::int8multirange</literal> + <returnvalue>{[5,10), [15,20)}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The left-of/right-of/adjacent operators always return false when an empty + range or multirange is involved; that is, an empty range is not considered to + be either before or after any other range. + </para> + + <para> + Elsewhere empty ranges and multiranges are treated as the additive identity: + anything unioned with an empty value is itself. Anything minus an empty + value is itself. An empty multirange has exactly the same points as an empty + range. Every range contains the empty range. Every multirange contains as many + empty ranges as you like. + </para> + + <para> + The range union and difference operators will fail if the resulting range would + need to contain two disjoint sub-ranges, as such a range cannot be + represented. There are separate operators for union and difference that take + multirange parameters and return a multirange, and they do not fail even if + their arguments are disjoint. So if you need a union or difference operation + for ranges that may be disjoint, you can avoid errors by first casting your + ranges to multiranges. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="range-functions-table"/> shows the functions + available for use with range types. + <xref linkend="multirange-functions-table"/> shows the functions + available for use with multirange types. + </para> + + <table id="range-functions-table"> + <title>Range Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the lower bound of the range (<literal>NULL</literal> if the + range is empty or the lower bound is infinite). + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower(numrange(1.1,2.2))</literal> + <returnvalue>1.1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the upper bound of the range (<literal>NULL</literal> if the + range is empty or the upper bound is infinite). + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper(numrange(1.1,2.2))</literal> + <returnvalue>2.2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>isempty</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>isempty</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range empty? + </para> + <para> + <literal>isempty(numrange(1.1,2.2))</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower_inc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower_inc</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range's lower bound inclusive? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower_inc(numrange(1.1,2.2))</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper_inc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper_inc</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range's upper bound inclusive? + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper_inc(numrange(1.1,2.2))</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower_inf</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower_inf</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range's lower bound infinite? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower_inf('(,)'::daterange)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper_inf</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper_inf</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the range's upper bound infinite? + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper_inf('(,)'::daterange)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>range_merge</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>range_merge</function> ( <type>anyrange</type>, <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the smallest range that includes both of the given ranges. + </para> + <para> + <literal>range_merge('[1,2)'::int4range, '[3,4)'::int4range)</literal> + <returnvalue>[1,4)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="multirange-functions-table"> + <title>Multirange Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the lower bound of the multirange (<literal>NULL</literal> if the + multirange is empty or the lower bound is infinite). + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower('{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>1.1</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Extracts the upper bound of the multirange (<literal>NULL</literal> if the + multirange is empty or the upper bound is infinite). + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper('{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>2.2</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>isempty</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>isempty</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange empty? + </para> + <para> + <literal>isempty('{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower_inc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower_inc</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange's lower bound inclusive? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower_inc('{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper_inc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper_inc</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange's upper bound inclusive? + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper_inc('{[1.1,2.2)}'::nummultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lower_inf</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lower_inf</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange's lower bound infinite? + </para> + <para> + <literal>lower_inf('{(,)}'::datemultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>upper_inf</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>upper_inf</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the multirange's upper bound infinite? + </para> + <para> + <literal>upper_inf('{(,)}'::datemultirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>range_merge</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>range_merge</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the smallest range that includes the entire multirange. + </para> + <para> + <literal>range_merge('{[1,2), [3,4)}'::int4multirange)</literal> + <returnvalue>[1,4)</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>multirange (function)</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>multirange</function> ( <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a multirange containing just the given range. + </para> + <para> + <literal>multirange('[1,2)'::int4range)</literal> + <returnvalue>{[1,2)}</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>unnest</primary> + <secondary>for multirange</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>unnest</function> ( <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Expands a multirange into a set of ranges. + The ranges are read out in storage order (ascending). + </para> + <para> + <literal>unnest('{[1,2), [3,4)}'::int4multirange)</literal> + <returnvalue></returnvalue> +<programlisting> + [1,2) + [3,4) +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The <function>lower_inc</function>, <function>upper_inc</function>, + <function>lower_inf</function>, and <function>upper_inf</function> + functions all return false for an empty range or multirange. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-aggregate"> + <title>Aggregate Functions</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-aggregate"> + <primary>aggregate function</primary> + <secondary>built-in</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <firstterm>Aggregate functions</firstterm> compute a single result + from a set of input values. The built-in general-purpose aggregate + functions are listed in <xref linkend="functions-aggregate-table"/> + while statistical aggregates are in <xref + linkend="functions-aggregate-statistics-table"/>. + The built-in within-group ordered-set aggregate functions + are listed in <xref linkend="functions-orderedset-table"/> + while the built-in within-group hypothetical-set ones are in <xref + linkend="functions-hypothetical-table"/>. Grouping operations, + which are closely related to aggregate functions, are listed in + <xref linkend="functions-grouping-table"/>. + The special syntax considerations for aggregate + functions are explained in <xref linkend="syntax-aggregates"/>. + Consult <xref linkend="tutorial-agg"/> for additional introductory + information. + </para> + + <para> + Aggregate functions that support <firstterm>Partial Mode</firstterm> + are eligible to participate in various optimizations, such as parallel + aggregation. + </para> + + <table id="functions-aggregate-table"> + <title>General-Purpose Aggregate Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <colspec colname="col1" colwidth="10*"/> + <colspec colname="col2" colwidth="1*"/> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + <entry>Partial Mode</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>array_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>array_agg</function> ( <type>anynonarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Collects all the input values, including nulls, into an array. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>array_agg</function> ( <type>anyarray</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates all the input arrays into an array of one higher + dimension. (The inputs must all have the same dimensionality, and + cannot be empty or null.) + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>average</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>avg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>smallint</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>real</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>avg</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the average (arithmetic mean) of all the non-null input + values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_and</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_and</function> ( <type>smallint</type> ) + <returnvalue>smallint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_and</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_and</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_and</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the bitwise AND of all non-null input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_or</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_or</function> ( <type>smallint</type> ) + <returnvalue>smallint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_or</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_or</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_or</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the bitwise OR of all non-null input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bit_xor</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bit_xor</function> ( <type>smallint</type> ) + <returnvalue>smallint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_xor</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_xor</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>bit_xor</function> ( <type>bit</type> ) + <returnvalue>bit</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the bitwise exclusive OR of all non-null input values. + Can be useful as a checksum for an unordered set of values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bool_and</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bool_and</function> ( <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if all non-null input values are true, otherwise false. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>bool_or</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>bool_or</function> ( <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if any non-null input value is true, otherwise false. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>count</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>count</function> ( <literal>*</literal> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the number of input rows. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>count</function> ( <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the number of input rows in which the input value is not + null. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>every</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>every</function> ( <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is the SQL standard's equivalent to <function>bool_and</function>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_agg</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_agg</function> ( <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Collects all the input values, including nulls, into a JSON array. + Values are converted to JSON as per <function>to_json</function> + or <function>to_jsonb</function>. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>json_object_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>json_object_agg</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> + <type>"any"</type>, <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>json</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>jsonb_object_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>jsonb_object_agg</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> + <type>"any"</type>, <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>jsonb</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Collects all the key/value pairs into a JSON object. Key arguments + are coerced to text; value arguments are converted as + per <function>to_json</function> or <function>to_jsonb</function>. + Values can be null, but not keys. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>max</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>max</function> ( <replaceable>see text</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>same as input type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the maximum of the non-null input + values. Available for any numeric, string, date/time, or enum type, + as well as <type>inet</type>, <type>interval</type>, + <type>money</type>, <type>oid</type>, <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <type>tid</type>, + and arrays of any of these types. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>min</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>min</function> ( <replaceable>see text</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue><replaceable>same as input type</replaceable></returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the minimum of the non-null input + values. Available for any numeric, string, date/time, or enum type, + as well as <type>inet</type>, <type>interval</type>, + <type>money</type>, <type>oid</type>, <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <type>tid</type>, + and arrays of any of these types. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>range_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>range_agg</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the union of the non-null input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>range_intersect_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>range_intersect_agg</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>anyrange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyrange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>range_intersect_agg</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>anymultirange</type> ) + <returnvalue>anymultirange</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the intersection of the non-null input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>string_agg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>string_agg</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>text</type>, <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>string_agg</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> + <type>bytea</type>, <parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the non-null input values into a string. Each value + after the first is preceded by the + corresponding <parameter>delimiter</parameter> (if it's not null). + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>sum</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>smallint</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>real</type> ) + <returnvalue>real</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>sum</function> ( <type>money</type> ) + <returnvalue>money</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the sum of the non-null input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>xmlagg</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>xmlagg</function> ( <type>xml</type> ) + <returnvalue>xml</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Concatenates the non-null XML input values (see + <xref linkend="functions-xml-xmlagg"/>). + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + It should be noted that except for <function>count</function>, + these functions return a null value when no rows are selected. In + particular, <function>sum</function> of no rows returns null, not + zero as one might expect, and <function>array_agg</function> + returns null rather than an empty array when there are no input + rows. The <function>coalesce</function> function can be used to + substitute zero or an empty array for null when necessary. + </para> + + <para> + The aggregate functions <function>array_agg</function>, + <function>json_agg</function>, <function>jsonb_agg</function>, + <function>json_object_agg</function>, <function>jsonb_object_agg</function>, + <function>string_agg</function>, + and <function>xmlagg</function>, as well as similar user-defined + aggregate functions, produce meaningfully different result values + depending on the order of the input values. This ordering is + unspecified by default, but can be controlled by writing an + <literal>ORDER BY</literal> clause within the aggregate call, as shown in + <xref linkend="syntax-aggregates"/>. + Alternatively, supplying the input values from a sorted subquery + will usually work. For example: + +<screen><![CDATA[ +SELECT xmlagg(x) FROM (SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY y DESC) AS tab; +]]></screen> + + Beware that this approach can fail if the outer query level contains + additional processing, such as a join, because that might cause the + subquery's output to be reordered before the aggregate is computed. + </para> + + <note> + <indexterm> + <primary>ANY</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>SOME</primary> + </indexterm> + <para> + The boolean aggregates <function>bool_and</function> and + <function>bool_or</function> correspond to the standard SQL aggregates + <function>every</function> and <function>any</function> or + <function>some</function>. + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + supports <function>every</function>, but not <function>any</function> + or <function>some</function>, because there is an ambiguity built into + the standard syntax: +<programlisting> +SELECT b1 = ANY((SELECT b2 FROM t2 ...)) FROM t1 ...; +</programlisting> + Here <function>ANY</function> can be considered either as introducing + a subquery, or as being an aggregate function, if the subquery + returns one row with a Boolean value. + Thus the standard name cannot be given to these aggregates. + </para> + </note> + + <note> + <para> + Users accustomed to working with other SQL database management + systems might be disappointed by the performance of the + <function>count</function> aggregate when it is applied to the + entire table. A query like: +<programlisting> +SELECT count(*) FROM sometable; +</programlisting> + will require effort proportional to the size of the table: + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will need to scan either the + entire table or the entirety of an index that includes all rows in + the table. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-aggregate-statistics-table"/> shows + aggregate functions typically used in statistical analysis. + (These are separated out merely to avoid cluttering the listing + of more-commonly-used aggregates.) Functions shown as + accepting <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> are available for all + the types <type>smallint</type>, <type>integer</type>, + <type>bigint</type>, <type>numeric</type>, <type>real</type>, + and <type>double precision</type>. + Where the description mentions + <parameter>N</parameter>, it means the + number of input rows for which all the input expressions are non-null. + In all cases, null is returned if the computation is meaningless, + for example when <parameter>N</parameter> is zero. + </para> + + <indexterm> + <primary>statistics</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>linear regression</primary> + </indexterm> + + <table id="functions-aggregate-statistics-table"> + <title>Aggregate Functions for Statistics</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <colspec colname="col1" colwidth="10*"/> + <colspec colname="col2" colwidth="1*"/> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + <entry>Partial Mode</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>correlation</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>corr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>corr</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the correlation coefficient. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>covariance</primary> + <secondary>population</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>covar_pop</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>covar_pop</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the population covariance. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>covariance</primary> + <secondary>sample</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>covar_samp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>covar_samp</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the sample covariance. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_avgx</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_avgx</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the average of the independent variable, + <literal>sum(<parameter>X</parameter>)/<parameter>N</parameter></literal>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_avgy</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_avgy</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the average of the dependent variable, + <literal>sum(<parameter>Y</parameter>)/<parameter>N</parameter></literal>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_count</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_count</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the number of rows in which both inputs are non-null. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regression intercept</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_intercept</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_intercept</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the y-intercept of the least-squares-fit linear equation + determined by the + (<parameter>X</parameter>, <parameter>Y</parameter>) pairs. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_r2</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_r2</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the square of the correlation coefficient. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regression slope</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_slope</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_slope</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the slope of the least-squares-fit linear equation determined + by the (<parameter>X</parameter>, <parameter>Y</parameter>) + pairs. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_sxx</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_sxx</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <quote>sum of squares</quote> of the independent + variable, + <literal>sum(<parameter>X</parameter>^2) - sum(<parameter>X</parameter>)^2/<parameter>N</parameter></literal>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_sxy</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_sxy</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <quote>sum of products</quote> of independent times + dependent variables, + <literal>sum(<parameter>X</parameter>*<parameter>Y</parameter>) - sum(<parameter>X</parameter>) * sum(<parameter>Y</parameter>)/<parameter>N</parameter></literal>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>regr_syy</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>regr_syy</function> ( <parameter>Y</parameter> <type>double precision</type>, <parameter>X</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <quote>sum of squares</quote> of the dependent + variable, + <literal>sum(<parameter>Y</parameter>^2) - sum(<parameter>Y</parameter>)^2/<parameter>N</parameter></literal>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>standard deviation</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>stddev</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>stddev</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + This is a historical alias for <function>stddev_samp</function>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>standard deviation</primary> + <secondary>population</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>stddev_pop</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>stddev_pop</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + Computes the population standard deviation of the input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>standard deviation</primary> + <secondary>sample</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>stddev_samp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>stddev_samp</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + Computes the sample standard deviation of the input values. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>variance</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>variance</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + This is a historical alias for <function>var_samp</function>. + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>variance</primary> + <secondary>population</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>var_pop</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>var_pop</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + Computes the population variance of the input values (square of the + population standard deviation). + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>variance</primary> + <secondary>sample</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>var_samp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>var_samp</function> ( <replaceable>numeric_type</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue></returnvalue> <type>double precision</type> + for <type>real</type> or <type>double precision</type>, + otherwise <type>numeric</type> + </para> + <para> + Computes the sample variance of the input values (square of the sample + standard deviation). + </para></entry> + <entry>Yes</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-orderedset-table"/> shows some + aggregate functions that use the <firstterm>ordered-set aggregate</firstterm> + syntax. These functions are sometimes referred to as <quote>inverse + distribution</quote> functions. Their aggregated input is introduced by + <literal>ORDER BY</literal>, and they may also take a <firstterm>direct + argument</firstterm> that is not aggregated, but is computed only once. + All these functions ignore null values in their aggregated input. + For those that take a <parameter>fraction</parameter> parameter, the + fraction value must be between 0 and 1; an error is thrown if not. + However, a null <parameter>fraction</parameter> value simply produces a + null result. + </para> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ordered-set aggregate</primary> + <secondary>built-in</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>inverse distribution</primary> + </indexterm> + + <table id="functions-orderedset-table"> + <title>Ordered-Set Aggregate Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <colspec colname="col1" colwidth="10*"/> + <colspec colname="col2" colwidth="1*"/> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + <entry>Partial Mode</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>mode</primary> + <secondary>statistical</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>mode</function> () <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <firstterm>mode</firstterm>, the most frequent + value of the aggregated argument (arbitrarily choosing the first one + if there are multiple equally-frequent values). The aggregated + argument must be of a sortable type. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>percentile</primary> + <secondary>continuous</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>percentile_cont</function> ( <parameter>fraction</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>percentile_cont</function> ( <parameter>fraction</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <firstterm>continuous percentile</firstterm>, a value + corresponding to the specified <parameter>fraction</parameter> + within the ordered set of aggregated argument values. This will + interpolate between adjacent input items if needed. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>percentile_cont</function> ( <parameter>fractions</parameter> <type>double precision[]</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>double precision</type> ) + <returnvalue>double precision[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>percentile_cont</function> ( <parameter>fractions</parameter> <type>double precision[]</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>interval[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes multiple continuous percentiles. The result is an array of + the same dimensions as the <parameter>fractions</parameter> + parameter, with each non-null element replaced by the (possibly + interpolated) value corresponding to that percentile. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>percentile</primary> + <secondary>discrete</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>percentile_disc</function> ( <parameter>fraction</parameter> <type>double precision</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the <firstterm>discrete percentile</firstterm>, the first + value within the ordered set of aggregated argument values whose + position in the ordering equals or exceeds the + specified <parameter>fraction</parameter>. The aggregated + argument must be of a sortable type. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>percentile_disc</function> ( <parameter>fractions</parameter> <type>double precision[]</type> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyarray</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes multiple discrete percentiles. The result is an array of the + same dimensions as the <parameter>fractions</parameter> parameter, + with each non-null element replaced by the input value corresponding + to that percentile. + The aggregated argument must be of a sortable type. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <indexterm> + <primary>hypothetical-set aggregate</primary> + <secondary>built-in</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + Each of the <quote>hypothetical-set</quote> aggregates listed in + <xref linkend="functions-hypothetical-table"/> is associated with a + window function of the same name defined in + <xref linkend="functions-window"/>. In each case, the aggregate's result + is the value that the associated window function would have + returned for the <quote>hypothetical</quote> row constructed from + <replaceable>args</replaceable>, if such a row had been added to the sorted + group of rows represented by the <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable>. + For each of these functions, the list of direct arguments + given in <replaceable>args</replaceable> must match the number and types of + the aggregated arguments given in <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable>. + Unlike most built-in aggregates, these aggregates are not strict, that is + they do not drop input rows containing nulls. Null values sort according + to the rule specified in the <literal>ORDER BY</literal> clause. + </para> + + <table id="functions-hypothetical-table"> + <title>Hypothetical-Set Aggregate Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <colspec colname="col1" colwidth="10*"/> + <colspec colname="col2" colwidth="1*"/> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + <entry>Partial Mode</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>rank</primary> + <secondary>hypothetical</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>rank</function> ( <replaceable>args</replaceable> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the rank of the hypothetical row, with gaps; that is, the row + number of the first row in its peer group. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>dense_rank</primary> + <secondary>hypothetical</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>dense_rank</function> ( <replaceable>args</replaceable> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the rank of the hypothetical row, without gaps; this function + effectively counts peer groups. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>percent_rank</primary> + <secondary>hypothetical</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>percent_rank</function> ( <replaceable>args</replaceable> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the relative rank of the hypothetical row, that is + (<function>rank</function> - 1) / (total rows - 1). + The value thus ranges from 0 to 1 inclusive. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cume_dist</primary> + <secondary>hypothetical</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>cume_dist</function> ( <replaceable>args</replaceable> ) <literal>WITHIN GROUP</literal> ( <literal>ORDER BY</literal> <replaceable>sorted_args</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the cumulative distribution, that is (number of rows + preceding or peers with hypothetical row) / (total rows). The value + thus ranges from 1/<parameter>N</parameter> to 1. + </para></entry> + <entry>No</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-grouping-table"> + <title>Grouping Operations</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>GROUPING</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>GROUPING</function> ( <replaceable>group_by_expression(s)</replaceable> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a bit mask indicating which <literal>GROUP BY</literal> + expressions are not included in the current grouping set. + Bits are assigned with the rightmost argument corresponding to the + least-significant bit; each bit is 0 if the corresponding expression + is included in the grouping criteria of the grouping set generating + the current result row, and 1 if it is not included. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The grouping operations shown in + <xref linkend="functions-grouping-table"/> are used in conjunction with + grouping sets (see <xref linkend="queries-grouping-sets"/>) to distinguish + result rows. The arguments to the <literal>GROUPING</literal> function + are not actually evaluated, but they must exactly match expressions given + in the <literal>GROUP BY</literal> clause of the associated query level. + For example: +<screen> +<prompt>=></prompt> <userinput>SELECT * FROM items_sold;</userinput> + make | model | sales +-------+-------+------- + Foo | GT | 10 + Foo | Tour | 20 + Bar | City | 15 + Bar | Sport | 5 +(4 rows) + +<prompt>=></prompt> <userinput>SELECT make, model, GROUPING(make,model), sum(sales) FROM items_sold GROUP BY ROLLUP(make,model);</userinput> + make | model | grouping | sum +-------+-------+----------+----- + Foo | GT | 0 | 10 + Foo | Tour | 0 | 20 + Bar | City | 0 | 15 + Bar | Sport | 0 | 5 + Foo | | 1 | 30 + Bar | | 1 | 20 + | | 3 | 50 +(7 rows) +</screen> + Here, the <literal>grouping</literal> value <literal>0</literal> in the + first four rows shows that those have been grouped normally, over both the + grouping columns. The value <literal>1</literal> indicates + that <literal>model</literal> was not grouped by in the next-to-last two + rows, and the value <literal>3</literal> indicates that + neither <literal>make</literal> nor <literal>model</literal> was grouped + by in the last row (which therefore is an aggregate over all the input + rows). + </para> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-window"> + <title>Window Functions</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-window"> + <primary>window function</primary> + <secondary>built-in</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <firstterm>Window functions</firstterm> provide the ability to perform + calculations across sets of rows that are related to the current query + row. See <xref linkend="tutorial-window"/> for an introduction to this + feature, and <xref linkend="syntax-window-functions"/> for syntax + details. + </para> + + <para> + The built-in window functions are listed in + <xref linkend="functions-window-table"/>. Note that these functions + <emphasis>must</emphasis> be invoked using window function syntax, i.e., an + <literal>OVER</literal> clause is required. + </para> + + <para> + In addition to these functions, any built-in or user-defined + ordinary aggregate (i.e., not ordered-set or hypothetical-set aggregates) + can be used as a window function; see + <xref linkend="functions-aggregate"/> for a list of the built-in aggregates. + Aggregate functions act as window functions only when an <literal>OVER</literal> + clause follows the call; otherwise they act as plain aggregates + and return a single row for the entire set. + </para> + + <table id="functions-window-table"> + <title>General-Purpose Window Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>row_number</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>row_number</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the number of the current row within its partition, counting + from 1. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>rank</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>rank</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the rank of the current row, with gaps; that is, + the <function>row_number</function> of the first row in its peer + group. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>dense_rank</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>dense_rank</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the rank of the current row, without gaps; this function + effectively counts peer groups. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>percent_rank</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>percent_rank</function> () + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the relative rank of the current row, that is + (<function>rank</function> - 1) / (total partition rows - 1). + The value thus ranges from 0 to 1 inclusive. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>cume_dist</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>cume_dist</function> () + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the cumulative distribution, that is (number of partition rows + preceding or peers with current row) / (total partition rows). + The value thus ranges from 1/<parameter>N</parameter> to 1. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>ntile</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>ntile</function> ( <parameter>num_buckets</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an integer ranging from 1 to the argument value, dividing the + partition as equally as possible. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lag</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lag</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> <type>anycompatible</type> + <optional>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>integer</type> + <optional>, <parameter>default</parameter> <type>anycompatible</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatible</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>value</parameter> evaluated at + the row that is <parameter>offset</parameter> + rows before the current row within the partition; if there is no such + row, instead returns <parameter>default</parameter> + (which must be of a type compatible with + <parameter>value</parameter>). + Both <parameter>offset</parameter> and + <parameter>default</parameter> are evaluated + with respect to the current row. If omitted, + <parameter>offset</parameter> defaults to 1 and + <parameter>default</parameter> to <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>lead</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>lead</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> <type>anycompatible</type> + <optional>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>integer</type> + <optional>, <parameter>default</parameter> <type>anycompatible</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>anycompatible</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>value</parameter> evaluated at + the row that is <parameter>offset</parameter> + rows after the current row within the partition; if there is no such + row, instead returns <parameter>default</parameter> + (which must be of a type compatible with + <parameter>value</parameter>). + Both <parameter>offset</parameter> and + <parameter>default</parameter> are evaluated + with respect to the current row. If omitted, + <parameter>offset</parameter> defaults to 1 and + <parameter>default</parameter> to <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>first_value</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>first_value</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>value</parameter> evaluated + at the row that is the first row of the window frame. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>last_value</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>last_value</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> <type>anyelement</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>value</parameter> evaluated + at the row that is the last row of the window frame. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>nth_value</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>nth_value</function> ( <parameter>value</parameter> <type>anyelement</type>, <parameter>n</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>anyelement</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns <parameter>value</parameter> evaluated + at the row that is the <parameter>n</parameter>'th + row of the window frame (counting from 1); + returns <literal>NULL</literal> if there is no such row. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + All of the functions listed in + <xref linkend="functions-window-table"/> depend on the sort ordering + specified by the <literal>ORDER BY</literal> clause of the associated window + definition. Rows that are not distinct when considering only the + <literal>ORDER BY</literal> columns are said to be <firstterm>peers</firstterm>. + The four ranking functions (including <function>cume_dist</function>) are + defined so that they give the same answer for all rows of a peer group. + </para> + + <para> + Note that <function>first_value</function>, <function>last_value</function>, and + <function>nth_value</function> consider only the rows within the <quote>window + frame</quote>, which by default contains the rows from the start of the + partition through the last peer of the current row. This is + likely to give unhelpful results for <function>last_value</function> and + sometimes also <function>nth_value</function>. You can redefine the frame by + adding a suitable frame specification (<literal>RANGE</literal>, + <literal>ROWS</literal> or <literal>GROUPS</literal>) to + the <literal>OVER</literal> clause. + See <xref linkend="syntax-window-functions"/> for more information + about frame specifications. + </para> + + <para> + When an aggregate function is used as a window function, it aggregates + over the rows within the current row's window frame. + An aggregate used with <literal>ORDER BY</literal> and the default window frame + definition produces a <quote>running sum</quote> type of behavior, which may or + may not be what's wanted. To obtain + aggregation over the whole partition, omit <literal>ORDER BY</literal> or use + <literal>ROWS BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING</literal>. + Other frame specifications can be used to obtain other effects. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + The SQL standard defines a <literal>RESPECT NULLS</literal> or + <literal>IGNORE NULLS</literal> option for <function>lead</function>, <function>lag</function>, + <function>first_value</function>, <function>last_value</function>, and + <function>nth_value</function>. This is not implemented in + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>: the behavior is always the + same as the standard's default, namely <literal>RESPECT NULLS</literal>. + Likewise, the standard's <literal>FROM FIRST</literal> or <literal>FROM LAST</literal> + option for <function>nth_value</function> is not implemented: only the + default <literal>FROM FIRST</literal> behavior is supported. (You can achieve + the result of <literal>FROM LAST</literal> by reversing the <literal>ORDER BY</literal> + ordering.) + </para> + </note> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-subquery"> + <title>Subquery Expressions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>EXISTS</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IN</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>NOT IN</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ANY</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ALL</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>SOME</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>subquery</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes the <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant subquery + expressions available in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>. + All of the expression forms documented in this section return + Boolean (true/false) results. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-subquery-exists"> + <title><literal>EXISTS</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +EXISTS (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The argument of <token>EXISTS</token> is an arbitrary <command>SELECT</command> statement, + or <firstterm>subquery</firstterm>. The + subquery is evaluated to determine whether it returns any rows. + If it returns at least one row, the result of <token>EXISTS</token> is + <quote>true</quote>; if the subquery returns no rows, the result of <token>EXISTS</token> + is <quote>false</quote>. + </para> + + <para> + The subquery can refer to variables from the surrounding query, + which will act as constants during any one evaluation of the subquery. + </para> + + <para> + The subquery will generally only be executed long enough to determine + whether at least one row is returned, not all the way to completion. + It is unwise to write a subquery that has side effects (such as + calling sequence functions); whether the side effects occur + might be unpredictable. + </para> + + <para> + Since the result depends only on whether any rows are returned, + and not on the contents of those rows, the output list of the + subquery is normally unimportant. A common coding convention is + to write all <literal>EXISTS</literal> tests in the form + <literal>EXISTS(SELECT 1 WHERE ...)</literal>. There are exceptions to + this rule however, such as subqueries that use <token>INTERSECT</token>. + </para> + + <para> + This simple example is like an inner join on <literal>col2</literal>, but + it produces at most one output row for each <literal>tab1</literal> row, + even if there are several matching <literal>tab2</literal> rows: +<screen> +SELECT col1 +FROM tab1 +WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM tab2 WHERE col2 = tab1.col2); +</screen> + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-subquery-in"> + <title><literal>IN</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result. + The result of <token>IN</token> is <quote>true</quote> if any equal subquery row is found. + The result is <quote>false</quote> if no equal row is found (including the + case where the subquery returns no rows). + </para> + + <para> + Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are + no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand row yields + null, the result of the <token>IN</token> construct will be null, not false. + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + + <para> + As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will + be evaluated completely. + </para> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The left-hand side of this form of <token>IN</token> is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are + expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are + evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result. + The result of <token>IN</token> is <quote>true</quote> if any equal subquery row is found. + The result is <quote>false</quote> if no equal row is found (including the + case where the subquery returns no rows). + </para> + + <para> + As usual, null values in the rows are combined per + the normal rules of SQL Boolean expressions. Two rows are considered + equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows + are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal; + otherwise the result of that row comparison is unknown (null). + If all the per-row results are either unequal or null, with at least one + null, then the result of <token>IN</token> is null. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-subquery-notin"> + <title><literal>NOT IN</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result. + The result of <token>NOT IN</token> is <quote>true</quote> if only unequal subquery rows + are found (including the case where the subquery returns no rows). + The result is <quote>false</quote> if any equal row is found. + </para> + + <para> + Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are + no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand row yields + null, the result of the <token>NOT IN</token> construct will be null, not true. + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + + <para> + As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will + be evaluated completely. + </para> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The left-hand side of this form of <token>NOT IN</token> is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are + expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are + evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result. + The result of <token>NOT IN</token> is <quote>true</quote> if only unequal subquery rows + are found (including the case where the subquery returns no rows). + The result is <quote>false</quote> if any equal row is found. + </para> + + <para> + As usual, null values in the rows are combined per + the normal rules of SQL Boolean expressions. Two rows are considered + equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows + are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal; + otherwise the result of that row comparison is unknown (null). + If all the per-row results are either unequal or null, with at least one + null, then the result of <token>NOT IN</token> is null. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-subquery-any-some"> + <title><literal>ANY</literal>/<literal>SOME</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> SOME (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result using the + given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean + result. + The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</quote> if any true result is obtained. + The result is <quote>false</quote> if no true result is found (including the + case where the subquery returns no rows). + </para> + + <para> + <token>SOME</token> is a synonym for <token>ANY</token>. + <token>IN</token> is equivalent to <literal>= ANY</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + Note that if there are no successes and at least one right-hand row yields + null for the operator's result, the result of the <token>ANY</token> construct + will be null, not false. + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + + <para> + As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will + be evaluated completely. + </para> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> SOME (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The left-hand side of this form of <token>ANY</token> is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are + expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are + evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result, + using the given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>. + The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</quote> if the comparison + returns true for any subquery row. + The result is <quote>false</quote> if the comparison returns false for every + subquery row (including the case where the subquery returns no + rows). + The result is NULL if no comparison with a subquery row returns true, + and at least one comparison returns NULL. + </para> + + <para> + See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"/> for details about the meaning + of a row constructor comparison. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-subquery-all"> + <title><literal>ALL</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result using the + given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean + result. + The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</quote> if all rows yield true + (including the case where the subquery returns no rows). + The result is <quote>false</quote> if any false result is found. + The result is NULL if no comparison with a subquery row returns false, + and at least one comparison returns NULL. + </para> + + <para> + <token>NOT IN</token> is equivalent to <literal><> ALL</literal>. + </para> + + <para> + As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will + be evaluated completely. + </para> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The left-hand side of this form of <token>ALL</token> is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The right-hand side is a parenthesized + subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are + expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are + evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result, + using the given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>. + The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</quote> if the comparison + returns true for all subquery rows (including the + case where the subquery returns no rows). + The result is <quote>false</quote> if the comparison returns false for any + subquery row. + The result is NULL if no comparison with a subquery row returns false, + and at least one comparison returns NULL. + </para> + + <para> + See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"/> for details about the meaning + of a row constructor comparison. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2> + <title>Single-Row Comparison</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-subquery"> + <primary>comparison</primary> + <secondary>subquery result row</secondary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The left-hand side is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The right-hand side is a parenthesized subquery, which must return exactly + as many columns as there are expressions in the left-hand row. Furthermore, + the subquery cannot return more than one row. (If it returns zero rows, + the result is taken to be null.) The left-hand side is evaluated and + compared row-wise to the single subquery result row. + </para> + + <para> + See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"/> for details about the meaning + of a row constructor comparison. + </para> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + + <sect1 id="functions-comparisons"> + <title>Row and Array Comparisons</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IN</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>NOT IN</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ANY</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ALL</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>SOME</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>composite type</primary> + <secondary>comparison</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>row-wise comparison</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>comparison</primary> + <secondary>composite type</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>comparison</primary> + <secondary>row constructor</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IS DISTINCT FROM</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes several specialized constructs for making + multiple comparisons between groups of values. These forms are + syntactically related to the subquery forms of the previous section, + but do not involve subqueries. + The forms involving array subexpressions are + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> extensions; the rest are + <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant. + All of the expression forms documented in this section return + Boolean (true/false) results. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-comparisons-in-scalar"> + <title><literal>IN</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized list + of scalar expressions. The result is <quote>true</quote> if the left-hand expression's + result is equal to any of the right-hand expressions. This is a shorthand + notation for + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> = <replaceable>value1</replaceable> +OR +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> = <replaceable>value2</replaceable> +OR +... +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are + no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand expression yields + null, the result of the <token>IN</token> construct will be null, not false. + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2> + <title><literal>NOT IN</literal></title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized list + of scalar expressions. The result is <quote>true</quote> if the left-hand expression's + result is unequal to all of the right-hand expressions. This is a shorthand + notation for + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <> <replaceable>value1</replaceable> +AND +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <> <replaceable>value2</replaceable> +AND +... +</synopsis> + </para> + + <para> + Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are + no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand expression yields + null, the result of the <token>NOT IN</token> construct will be null, not true + as one might naively expect. + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + + <tip> + <para> + <literal>x NOT IN y</literal> is equivalent to <literal>NOT (x IN y)</literal> in all + cases. However, null values are much more likely to trip up the novice when + working with <token>NOT IN</token> than when working with <token>IN</token>. + It is best to express your condition positively if possible. + </para> + </tip> + </sect2> + + <sect2> + <title><literal>ANY</literal>/<literal>SOME</literal> (array)</title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>) +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> SOME (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized expression, which must yield an + array value. + The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each element of the array using the + given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean + result. + The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</quote> if any true result is obtained. + The result is <quote>false</quote> if no true result is found (including the + case where the array has zero elements). + </para> + + <para> + If the array expression yields a null array, the result of + <token>ANY</token> will be null. If the left-hand expression yields null, + the result of <token>ANY</token> is ordinarily null (though a non-strict + comparison operator could possibly yield a different result). + Also, if the right-hand array contains any null elements and no true + comparison result is obtained, the result of <token>ANY</token> + will be null, not false (again, assuming a strict comparison operator). + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + + <para> + <token>SOME</token> is a synonym for <token>ANY</token>. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2> + <title><literal>ALL</literal> (array)</title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>) +</synopsis> + + <para> + The right-hand side is a parenthesized expression, which must yield an + array value. + The left-hand expression + is evaluated and compared to each element of the array using the + given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean + result. + The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</quote> if all comparisons yield true + (including the case where the array has zero elements). + The result is <quote>false</quote> if any false result is found. + </para> + + <para> + If the array expression yields a null array, the result of + <token>ALL</token> will be null. If the left-hand expression yields null, + the result of <token>ALL</token> is ordinarily null (though a non-strict + comparison operator could possibly yield a different result). + Also, if the right-hand array contains any null elements and no false + comparison result is obtained, the result of <token>ALL</token> + will be null, not true (again, assuming a strict comparison operator). + This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations + of null values. + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="row-wise-comparison"> + <title>Row Constructor Comparison</title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> +</synopsis> + + <para> + Each side is a row constructor, + as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors"/>. + The two row values must have the same number of fields. + Each side is evaluated and they are compared row-wise. Row constructor + comparisons are allowed when the <replaceable>operator</replaceable> is + <literal>=</literal>, + <literal><></literal>, + <literal><</literal>, + <literal><=</literal>, + <literal>></literal> or + <literal>>=</literal>. + Every row element must be of a type which has a default B-tree operator + class or the attempted comparison may generate an error. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + Errors related to the number or types of elements might not occur if + the comparison is resolved using earlier columns. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + The <literal>=</literal> and <literal><></literal> cases work slightly differently + from the others. Two rows are considered + equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows + are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal; + otherwise the result of the row comparison is unknown (null). + </para> + + <para> + For the <literal><</literal>, <literal><=</literal>, <literal>></literal> and + <literal>>=</literal> cases, the row elements are compared left-to-right, + stopping as soon as an unequal or null pair of elements is found. + If either of this pair of elements is null, the result of the + row comparison is unknown (null); otherwise comparison of this pair + of elements determines the result. For example, + <literal>ROW(1,2,NULL) < ROW(1,3,0)</literal> + yields true, not null, because the third pair of elements are not + considered. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + Prior to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 8.2, the + <literal><</literal>, <literal><=</literal>, <literal>></literal> and <literal>>=</literal> + cases were not handled per SQL specification. A comparison like + <literal>ROW(a,b) < ROW(c,d)</literal> + was implemented as + <literal>a < c AND b < d</literal> + whereas the correct behavior is equivalent to + <literal>a < c OR (a = c AND b < d)</literal>. + </para> + </note> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> +</synopsis> + + <para> + This construct is similar to a <literal><></literal> row comparison, + but it does not yield null for null inputs. Instead, any null value is + considered unequal to (distinct from) any non-null value, and any two + nulls are considered equal (not distinct). Thus the result will + either be true or false, never null. + </para> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS NOT DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> +</synopsis> + + <para> + This construct is similar to a <literal>=</literal> row comparison, + but it does not yield null for null inputs. Instead, any null value is + considered unequal to (distinct from) any non-null value, and any two + nulls are considered equal (not distinct). Thus the result will always + be either true or false, never null. + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="composite-type-comparison"> + <title>Composite Type Comparison</title> + +<synopsis> +<replaceable>record</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> <replaceable>record</replaceable> +</synopsis> + + <para> + The SQL specification requires row-wise comparison to return NULL if the + result depends on comparing two NULL values or a NULL and a non-NULL. + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> does this only when comparing the + results of two row constructors (as in + <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"/>) or comparing a row constructor + to the output of a subquery (as in <xref linkend="functions-subquery"/>). + In other contexts where two composite-type values are compared, two + NULL field values are considered equal, and a NULL is considered larger + than a non-NULL. This is necessary in order to have consistent sorting + and indexing behavior for composite types. + </para> + + <para> + Each side is evaluated and they are compared row-wise. Composite type + comparisons are allowed when the <replaceable>operator</replaceable> is + <literal>=</literal>, + <literal><></literal>, + <literal><</literal>, + <literal><=</literal>, + <literal>></literal> or + <literal>>=</literal>, + or has semantics similar to one of these. (To be specific, an operator + can be a row comparison operator if it is a member of a B-tree operator + class, or is the negator of the <literal>=</literal> member of a B-tree operator + class.) The default behavior of the above operators is the same as for + <literal>IS [ NOT ] DISTINCT FROM</literal> for row constructors (see + <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"/>). + </para> + + <para> + To support matching of rows which include elements without a default + B-tree operator class, the following operators are defined for composite + type comparison: + <literal>*=</literal>, + <literal>*<></literal>, + <literal>*<</literal>, + <literal>*<=</literal>, + <literal>*></literal>, and + <literal>*>=</literal>. + These operators compare the internal binary representation of the two + rows. Two rows might have a different binary representation even + though comparisons of the two rows with the equality operator is true. + The ordering of rows under these comparison operators is deterministic + but not otherwise meaningful. These operators are used internally + for materialized views and might be useful for other specialized + purposes such as replication and B-Tree deduplication (see <xref + linkend="btree-deduplication"/>). They are not intended to be + generally useful for writing queries, though. + </para> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-srf"> + <title>Set Returning Functions</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-srf"> + <primary>set returning functions</primary> + <secondary>functions</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + This section describes functions that possibly return more than one row. + The most widely used functions in this class are series generating + functions, as detailed in <xref linkend="functions-srf-series"/> and + <xref linkend="functions-srf-subscripts"/>. Other, more specialized + set-returning functions are described elsewhere in this manual. + See <xref linkend="queries-tablefunctions"/> for ways to combine multiple + set-returning functions. + </para> + + <table id="functions-srf-series"> + <title>Series Generating Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>generate_series</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>generate_series</function> ( <parameter>start</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>stop</parameter> <type>integer</type> <optional>, <parameter>step</parameter> <type>integer</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>generate_series</function> ( <parameter>start</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, <parameter>stop</parameter> <type>bigint</type> <optional>, <parameter>step</parameter> <type>bigint</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>generate_series</function> ( <parameter>start</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>stop</parameter> <type>numeric</type> <optional>, <parameter>step</parameter> <type>numeric</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Generates a series of values from <parameter>start</parameter> + to <parameter>stop</parameter>, with a step size + of <parameter>step</parameter>. <parameter>step</parameter> + defaults to 1. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>generate_series</function> ( <parameter>start</parameter> <type>timestamp</type>, <parameter>stop</parameter> <type>timestamp</type>, <parameter>step</parameter> <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof timestamp</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>generate_series</function> ( <parameter>start</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, <parameter>stop</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, <parameter>step</parameter> <type>interval</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Generates a series of values from <parameter>start</parameter> + to <parameter>stop</parameter>, with a step size + of <parameter>step</parameter>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + When <parameter>step</parameter> is positive, zero rows are returned if + <parameter>start</parameter> is greater than <parameter>stop</parameter>. + Conversely, when <parameter>step</parameter> is negative, zero rows are + returned if <parameter>start</parameter> is less than <parameter>stop</parameter>. + Zero rows are also returned if any input is <literal>NULL</literal>. + It is an error + for <parameter>step</parameter> to be zero. Some examples follow: +<programlisting> +SELECT * FROM generate_series(2,4); + generate_series +----------------- + 2 + 3 + 4 +(3 rows) + +SELECT * FROM generate_series(5,1,-2); + generate_series +----------------- + 5 + 3 + 1 +(3 rows) + +SELECT * FROM generate_series(4,3); + generate_series +----------------- +(0 rows) + +SELECT generate_series(1.1, 4, 1.3); + generate_series +----------------- + 1.1 + 2.4 + 3.7 +(3 rows) + +-- this example relies on the date-plus-integer operator: +SELECT current_date + s.a AS dates FROM generate_series(0,14,7) AS s(a); + dates +------------ + 2004-02-05 + 2004-02-12 + 2004-02-19 +(3 rows) + +SELECT * FROM generate_series('2008-03-01 00:00'::timestamp, + '2008-03-04 12:00', '10 hours'); + generate_series +--------------------- + 2008-03-01 00:00:00 + 2008-03-01 10:00:00 + 2008-03-01 20:00:00 + 2008-03-02 06:00:00 + 2008-03-02 16:00:00 + 2008-03-03 02:00:00 + 2008-03-03 12:00:00 + 2008-03-03 22:00:00 + 2008-03-04 08:00:00 +(9 rows) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <table id="functions-srf-subscripts"> + <title>Subscript Generating Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>generate_subscripts</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>generate_subscripts</function> ( <parameter>array</parameter> <type>anyarray</type>, <parameter>dim</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Generates a series comprising the valid subscripts of + the <parameter>dim</parameter>'th dimension of the given array. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>generate_subscripts</function> ( <parameter>array</parameter> <type>anyarray</type>, <parameter>dim</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>reverse</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Generates a series comprising the valid subscripts of + the <parameter>dim</parameter>'th dimension of the given array. + When <parameter>reverse</parameter> is true, returns the series in + reverse order. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <function>generate_subscripts</function> is a convenience function that generates + the set of valid subscripts for the specified dimension of the given + array. + Zero rows are returned for arrays that do not have the requested dimension, + or if any input is <literal>NULL</literal>. + Some examples follow: +<programlisting> +-- basic usage: +SELECT generate_subscripts('{NULL,1,NULL,2}'::int[], 1) AS s; + s +--- + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +(4 rows) + +-- presenting an array, the subscript and the subscripted +-- value requires a subquery: +SELECT * FROM arrays; + a +-------------------- + {-1,-2} + {100,200,300} +(2 rows) + +SELECT a AS array, s AS subscript, a[s] AS value +FROM (SELECT generate_subscripts(a, 1) AS s, a FROM arrays) foo; + array | subscript | value +---------------+-----------+------- + {-1,-2} | 1 | -1 + {-1,-2} | 2 | -2 + {100,200,300} | 1 | 100 + {100,200,300} | 2 | 200 + {100,200,300} | 3 | 300 +(5 rows) + +-- unnest a 2D array: +CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION unnest2(anyarray) +RETURNS SETOF anyelement AS $$ +select $1[i][j] + from generate_subscripts($1,1) g1(i), + generate_subscripts($1,2) g2(j); +$$ LANGUAGE sql IMMUTABLE; +CREATE FUNCTION +SELECT * FROM unnest2(ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]]); + unnest2 +--------- + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +(4 rows) +</programlisting> + </para> + + <indexterm> + <primary>ordinality</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + When a function in the <literal>FROM</literal> clause is suffixed + by <literal>WITH ORDINALITY</literal>, a <type>bigint</type> column is + appended to the function's output column(s), which starts from 1 and + increments by 1 for each row of the function's output. + This is most useful in the case of set returning + functions such as <function>unnest()</function>. + +<programlisting> +-- set returning function WITH ORDINALITY: +SELECT * FROM pg_ls_dir('.') WITH ORDINALITY AS t(ls,n); + ls | n +-----------------+---- + pg_serial | 1 + pg_twophase | 2 + postmaster.opts | 3 + pg_notify | 4 + postgresql.conf | 5 + pg_tblspc | 6 + logfile | 7 + base | 8 + postmaster.pid | 9 + pg_ident.conf | 10 + global | 11 + pg_xact | 12 + pg_snapshots | 13 + pg_multixact | 14 + PG_VERSION | 15 + pg_wal | 16 + pg_hba.conf | 17 + pg_stat_tmp | 18 + pg_subtrans | 19 +(19 rows) +</programlisting> + </para> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-info"> + <title>System Information Functions and Operators</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-session-table"/> shows several + functions that extract session and system information. + </para> + + <para> + In addition to the functions listed in this section, there are a number of + functions related to the statistics system that also provide system + information. See <xref linkend="monitoring-stats-views"/> for more + information. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-session-table"> + <title>Session Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_catalog</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_catalog</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_database</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_database</function> () + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the name of the current database. (Databases are + called <quote>catalogs</quote> in the SQL standard, + so <function>current_catalog</function> is the standard's + spelling.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_query</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_query</function> () + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the text of the currently executing query, as submitted + by the client (which might contain more than one statement). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_role</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_role</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is equivalent to <function>current_user</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_schema</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>schema</primary> + <secondary>current</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_schema</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>current_schema</function> () + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the name of the schema that is first in the search path (or a + null value if the search path is empty). This is the schema that will + be used for any tables or other named objects that are created without + specifying a target schema. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_schemas</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>search path</primary> + <secondary>current</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_schemas</function> ( <parameter>include_implicit</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>name[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array of the names of all schemas presently in the + effective search path, in their priority order. (Items in the current + <xref linkend="guc-search-path"/> setting that do not correspond to + existing, searchable schemas are omitted.) If the Boolean argument + is <literal>true</literal>, then implicitly-searched system schemas + such as <literal>pg_catalog</literal> are included in the result. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_user</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>user</primary> + <secondary>current</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_user</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the user name of the current execution context. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_client_addr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_client_addr</function> () + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the IP address of the current client, + or <literal>NULL</literal> if the current connection is via a + Unix-domain socket. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_client_port</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_client_port</function> () + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the IP port number of the current client, + or <literal>NULL</literal> if the current connection is via a + Unix-domain socket. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_server_addr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_server_addr</function> () + <returnvalue>inet</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the IP address on which the server accepted the current + connection, + or <literal>NULL</literal> if the current connection is via a + Unix-domain socket. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>inet_server_port</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>inet_server_port</function> () + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the IP port number on which the server accepted the current + connection, + or <literal>NULL</literal> if the current connection is via a + Unix-domain socket. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_backend_pid</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_backend_pid</function> () + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the process ID of the server process attached to the current + session. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_blocking_pids</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_blocking_pids</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array of the process ID(s) of the sessions that are + blocking the server process with the specified process ID from + acquiring a lock, or an empty array if there is no such server process + or it is not blocked. + </para> + <para> + One server process blocks another if it either holds a lock that + conflicts with the blocked process's lock request (hard block), or is + waiting for a lock that would conflict with the blocked process's lock + request and is ahead of it in the wait queue (soft block). When using + parallel queries the result always lists client-visible process IDs + (that is, <function>pg_backend_pid</function> results) even if the + actual lock is held or awaited by a child worker process. As a result + of that, there may be duplicated PIDs in the result. Also note that + when a prepared transaction holds a conflicting lock, it will be + represented by a zero process ID. + </para> + <para> + Frequent calls to this function could have some impact on database + performance, because it needs exclusive access to the lock manager's + shared state for a short time. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_conf_load_time</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_conf_load_time</function> () + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the time when the server configuration files were last loaded. + If the current session was alive at the time, this will be the time + when the session itself re-read the configuration files (so the + reading will vary a little in different sessions). Otherwise it is + the time when the postmaster process re-read the configuration files. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_logfile</primary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>Logging</primary> + <secondary>pg_current_logfile function</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_logfiles</primary> + <secondary>and the pg_current_logfile function</secondary> + </indexterm> + <indexterm> + <primary>Logging</primary> + <secondary>current_logfiles file and the pg_current_logfile + function</secondary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_logfile</function> ( <optional> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the path name of the log file currently in use by the logging + collector. The path includes the <xref linkend="guc-log-directory"/> + directory and the individual log file name. The result + is <literal>NULL</literal> if the logging collector is disabled. + When multiple log files exist, each in a different + format, <function>pg_current_logfile</function> without an argument + returns the path of the file having the first format found in the + ordered list: <literal>stderr</literal>, + <literal>csvlog</literal>. <literal>NULL</literal> is returned + if no log file has any of these formats. + To request information about a specific log file format, supply + either <literal>csvlog</literal> or <literal>stderr</literal> as the + value of the optional parameter. The result is <literal>NULL</literal> + if the log format requested is not configured in + <xref linkend="guc-log-destination"/>. + The result reflects the contents of + the <filename>current_logfiles</filename> file. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_my_temp_schema</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_my_temp_schema</function> () + <returnvalue>oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the OID of the current session's temporary schema, or zero if + it has none (because it has not created any temporary tables). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_is_other_temp_schema</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_is_other_temp_schema</function> ( <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if the given OID is the OID of another session's + temporary schema. (This can be useful, for example, to exclude other + sessions' temporary tables from a catalog display.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_jit_available</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_jit_available</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if a <acronym>JIT</acronym> compiler extension is + available (see <xref linkend="jit"/>) and the + <xref linkend="guc-jit"/> configuration parameter is set to + <literal>on</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_listening_channels</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_listening_channels</function> () + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the set of names of asynchronous notification channels that + the current session is listening to. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_notification_queue_usage</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_notification_queue_usage</function> () + <returnvalue>double precision</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the fraction (0–1) of the asynchronous notification + queue's maximum size that is currently occupied by notifications that + are waiting to be processed. + See <xref linkend="sql-listen"/> and <xref linkend="sql-notify"/> + for more information. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_postmaster_start_time</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_postmaster_start_time</function> () + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the time when the server started. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_safe_snapshot_blocking_pids</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_safe_snapshot_blocking_pids</function> ( <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns an array of the process ID(s) of the sessions that are blocking + the server process with the specified process ID from acquiring a safe + snapshot, or an empty array if there is no such server process or it + is not blocked. + </para> + <para> + A session running a <literal>SERIALIZABLE</literal> transaction blocks + a <literal>SERIALIZABLE READ ONLY DEFERRABLE</literal> transaction + from acquiring a snapshot until the latter determines that it is safe + to avoid taking any predicate locks. See + <xref linkend="xact-serializable"/> for more information about + serializable and deferrable transactions. + </para> + <para> + Frequent calls to this function could have some impact on database + performance, because it needs access to the predicate lock manager's + shared state for a short time. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_trigger_depth</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_trigger_depth</function> () + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current nesting level + of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> triggers (0 if not called, + directly or indirectly, from inside a trigger). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>session_user</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>session_user</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the session user's name. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>user</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>user</function> + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is equivalent to <function>current_user</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>version</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>version</function> () + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a string describing the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + server's version. You can also get this information from + <xref linkend="guc-server-version"/>, or for a machine-readable + version use <xref linkend="guc-server-version-num"/>. Software + developers should use <varname>server_version_num</varname> (available + since 8.2) or <xref linkend="libpq-PQserverVersion"/> instead of + parsing the text version. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <note> + <para> + <function>current_catalog</function>, + <function>current_role</function>, + <function>current_schema</function>, + <function>current_user</function>, + <function>session_user</function>, + and <function>user</function> have special syntactic status + in <acronym>SQL</acronym>: they must be called without trailing + parentheses. In PostgreSQL, parentheses can optionally be used with + <function>current_schema</function>, but not with the others. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + The <function>session_user</function> is normally the user who initiated + the current database connection; but superusers can change this setting + with <xref linkend="sql-set-session-authorization"/>. + The <function>current_user</function> is the user identifier + that is applicable for permission checking. Normally it is equal + to the session user, but it can be changed with + <xref linkend="sql-set-role"/>. + It also changes during the execution of + functions with the attribute <literal>SECURITY DEFINER</literal>. + In Unix parlance, the session user is the <quote>real user</quote> and + the current user is the <quote>effective user</quote>. + <function>current_role</function> and <function>user</function> are + synonyms for <function>current_user</function>. (The SQL standard draws + a distinction between <function>current_role</function> + and <function>current_user</function>, but <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + does not, since it unifies users and roles into a single kind of entity.) + </para> + + <indexterm> + <primary>privilege</primary> + <secondary>querying</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-access-table"/> lists functions that + allow querying object access privileges programmatically. + (See <xref linkend="ddl-priv"/> for more information about + privileges.) + In these functions, the user whose privileges are being inquired about + can be specified by name or by OID + (<structname>pg_authid</structname>.<structfield>oid</structfield>), or if + the name is given as <literal>public</literal> then the privileges of the + PUBLIC pseudo-role are checked. Also, the <parameter>user</parameter> + argument can be omitted entirely, in which case + the <function>current_user</function> is assumed. + The object that is being inquired about can be specified either by name or + by OID, too. When specifying by name, a schema name can be included if + relevant. + The access privilege of interest is specified by a text string, which must + evaluate to one of the appropriate privilege keywords for the object's type + (e.g., <literal>SELECT</literal>). Optionally, <literal>WITH GRANT + OPTION</literal> can be added to a privilege type to test whether the + privilege is held with grant option. Also, multiple privilege types can be + listed separated by commas, in which case the result will be true if any of + the listed privileges is held. (Case of the privilege string is not + significant, and extra whitespace is allowed between but not within + privilege names.) + Some examples: +<programlisting> +SELECT has_table_privilege('myschema.mytable', 'select'); +SELECT has_table_privilege('joe', 'mytable', 'INSERT, SELECT WITH GRANT OPTION'); +</programlisting> + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-access-table"> + <title>Access Privilege Inquiry Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_any_column_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_any_column_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>table</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for any column of table? + This succeeds either if the privilege is held for the whole table, or + if there is a column-level grant of the privilege for at least one + column. + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>SELECT</literal>, <literal>INSERT</literal>, + <literal>UPDATE</literal>, and <literal>REFERENCES</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_column_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_column_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>table</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>column</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>smallint</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for the specified table column? + This succeeds either if the privilege is held for the whole table, or + if there is a column-level grant of the privilege for the column. + The column can be specified by name or by attribute number + (<structname>pg_attribute</structname>.<structfield>attnum</structfield>). + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>SELECT</literal>, <literal>INSERT</literal>, + <literal>UPDATE</literal>, and <literal>REFERENCES</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_database_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_database_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>database</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for database? + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>CREATE</literal>, + <literal>CONNECT</literal>, + <literal>TEMPORARY</literal>, and + <literal>TEMP</literal> (which is equivalent to + <literal>TEMPORARY</literal>). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_foreign_data_wrapper_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_foreign_data_wrapper_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>fdw</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for foreign-data wrapper? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>USAGE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_function_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_function_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>function</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for function? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>EXECUTE</literal>. + </para> + <para> + When specifying a function by name rather than by OID, the allowed + input is the same as for the <type>regprocedure</type> data type (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>). + An example is: +<programlisting> +SELECT has_function_privilege('joeuser', 'myfunc(int, text)', 'execute'); +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_language_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_language_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>language</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for language? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>USAGE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_schema_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_schema_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for schema? + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>CREATE</literal> and + <literal>USAGE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_sequence_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_sequence_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>sequence</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for sequence? + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>USAGE</literal>, + <literal>SELECT</literal>, and + <literal>UPDATE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_server_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_server_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>server</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for foreign server? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>USAGE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_table_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_table_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>table</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for table? + Allowable privilege types + are <literal>SELECT</literal>, <literal>INSERT</literal>, + <literal>UPDATE</literal>, <literal>DELETE</literal>, + <literal>TRUNCATE</literal>, <literal>REFERENCES</literal>, + and <literal>TRIGGER</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_tablespace_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_tablespace_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>tablespace</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for tablespace? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>CREATE</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>has_type_privilege</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>has_type_privilege</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for data type? + The only allowable privilege type is <literal>USAGE</literal>. + When specifying a type by name rather than by OID, the allowed input + is the same as for the <type>regtype</type> data type (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_has_role</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_has_role</function> ( + <optional> <parameter>user</parameter> <type>name</type> or <type>oid</type>, </optional> + <parameter>role</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does user have privilege for role? + Allowable privilege types are + <literal>MEMBER</literal> and <literal>USAGE</literal>. + <literal>MEMBER</literal> denotes direct or indirect membership in + the role (that is, the right to do <command>SET ROLE</command>), while + <literal>USAGE</literal> denotes whether the privileges of the role + are immediately available without doing <command>SET ROLE</command>. + This function does not allow the special case of + setting <parameter>user</parameter> to <literal>public</literal>, + because the PUBLIC pseudo-role can never be a member of real roles. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>row_security_active</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>row_security_active</function> ( + <parameter>table</parameter> <type>text</type> or <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is row-level security active for the specified table in the context of + the current user and current environment? + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-aclitem-op-table"/> shows the operators + available for the <type>aclitem</type> type, which is the catalog + representation of access privileges. See <xref linkend="ddl-priv"/> + for information about how to read access privilege values. + </para> + + <table id="functions-aclitem-op-table"> + <title><type>aclitem</type> Operators</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Operator + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>aclitemeq</primary> + </indexterm> + <type>aclitem</type> <literal>=</literal> <type>aclitem</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Are <type>aclitem</type>s equal? (Notice that + type <type>aclitem</type> lacks the usual set of comparison + operators; it has only equality. In turn, <type>aclitem</type> + arrays can only be compared for equality.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'calvin=r*w/hobbes'::aclitem = 'calvin=r*w*/hobbes'::aclitem</literal> + <returnvalue>f</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>aclcontains</primary> + </indexterm> + <type>aclitem[]</type> <literal>@></literal> <type>aclitem</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Does array contain the specified privileges? (This is true if there + is an array entry that matches the <type>aclitem</type>'s grantee and + grantor, and has at least the specified set of privileges.) + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{calvin=r*w/hobbes,hobbes=r*w*/postgres}'::aclitem[] @> 'calvin=r*/hobbes'::aclitem</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <type>aclitem[]</type> <literal>~</literal> <type>aclitem</type> + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + This is a deprecated alias for <literal>@></literal>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>'{calvin=r*w/hobbes,hobbes=r*w*/postgres}'::aclitem[] ~ 'calvin=r*/hobbes'::aclitem</literal> + <returnvalue>t</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-aclitem-fn-table"/> shows some additional + functions to manage the <type>aclitem</type> type. + </para> + + <table id="functions-aclitem-fn-table"> + <title><type>aclitem</type> Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>acldefault</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>acldefault</function> ( + <parameter>type</parameter> <type>"char"</type>, + <parameter>ownerId</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>aclitem[]</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs an <type>aclitem</type> array holding the default access + privileges for an object of type <parameter>type</parameter> belonging + to the role with OID <parameter>ownerId</parameter>. This represents + the access privileges that will be assumed when an object's ACL entry + is null. (The default access privileges are described in + <xref linkend="ddl-priv"/>.) + The <parameter>type</parameter> parameter must be one of + 'c' for <literal>COLUMN</literal>, + 'r' for <literal>TABLE</literal> and table-like objects, + 's' for <literal>SEQUENCE</literal>, + 'd' for <literal>DATABASE</literal>, + 'f' for <literal>FUNCTION</literal> or <literal>PROCEDURE</literal>, + 'l' for <literal>LANGUAGE</literal>, + 'L' for <literal>LARGE OBJECT</literal>, + 'n' for <literal>SCHEMA</literal>, + 't' for <literal>TABLESPACE</literal>, + 'F' for <literal>FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER</literal>, + 'S' for <literal>FOREIGN SERVER</literal>, + or + 'T' for <literal>TYPE</literal> or <literal>DOMAIN</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>aclexplode</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>aclexplode</function> ( <type>aclitem[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>grantor</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>grantee</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privilege_type</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>is_grantable</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the <type>aclitem</type> array as a set of rows. + If the grantee is the pseudo-role PUBLIC, it is represented by zero in + the <parameter>grantee</parameter> column. Each granted privilege is + represented as <literal>SELECT</literal>, <literal>INSERT</literal>, + etc. Note that each privilege is broken out as a separate row, so + only one keyword appears in the <parameter>privilege_type</parameter> + column. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>makeaclitem</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>makeaclitem</function> ( + <parameter>grantee</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>grantor</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>privileges</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>is_grantable</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>aclitem</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Constructs an <type>aclitem</type> with the given properties. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-schema-table"/> shows functions that + determine whether a certain object is <firstterm>visible</firstterm> in the + current schema search path. + For example, a table is said to be visible if its + containing schema is in the search path and no table of the same + name appears earlier in the search path. This is equivalent to the + statement that the table can be referenced by name without explicit + schema qualification. Thus, to list the names of all visible tables: +<programlisting> +SELECT relname FROM pg_class WHERE pg_table_is_visible(oid); +</programlisting> + For functions and operators, an object in the search path is said to be + visible if there is no object of the same name <emphasis>and argument data + type(s)</emphasis> earlier in the path. For operator classes and families, + both the name and the associated index access method are considered. + </para> + + <indexterm> + <primary>search path</primary> + <secondary>object visibility</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <table id="functions-info-schema-table"> + <title>Schema Visibility Inquiry Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_collation_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_collation_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>collation</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is collation visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_conversion_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_conversion_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>conversion</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is conversion visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_function_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_function_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>function</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is function visible in search path? + (This also works for procedures and aggregates.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_opclass_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_opclass_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>opclass</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is operator class visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_operator_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_operator_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>operator</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is operator visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_opfamily_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_opfamily_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>opclass</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is operator family visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_statistics_obj_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_statistics_obj_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>stat</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is statistics object visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_table_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_table_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is table visible in search path? + (This works for all types of relations, including views, materialized + views, indexes, sequences and foreign tables.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ts_config_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ts_config_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>config</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is text search configuration visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ts_dict_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ts_dict_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>dict</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is text search dictionary visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ts_parser_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ts_parser_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>parser</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is text search parser visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ts_template_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ts_template_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>template</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is text search template visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_type_is_visible</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_type_is_visible</function> ( <parameter>type</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is type (or domain) visible in search path? + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + All these functions require object OIDs to identify the object to be + checked. If you want to test an object by name, it is convenient to use + the OID alias types (<type>regclass</type>, <type>regtype</type>, + <type>regprocedure</type>, <type>regoperator</type>, <type>regconfig</type>, + or <type>regdictionary</type>), + for example: +<programlisting> +SELECT pg_type_is_visible('myschema.widget'::regtype); +</programlisting> + Note that it would not make much sense to test a non-schema-qualified + type name in this way — if the name can be recognized at all, it must be visible. + </para> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-catalog-table"/> lists functions that + extract information from the system catalogs. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-catalog-table"> + <title>System Catalog Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>format_type</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>format_type</function> ( <parameter>type</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>typemod</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the SQL name for a data type that is identified by its type + OID and possibly a type modifier. Pass NULL for the type modifier if + no specific modifier is known. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_catalog_foreign_keys</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_catalog_foreign_keys</function> () + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>fktable</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, + <parameter>fkcols</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, + <parameter>pktable</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, + <parameter>pkcols</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, + <parameter>is_array</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>is_opt</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a set of records describing the foreign key relationships + that exist within the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> system + catalogs. + The <parameter>fktable</parameter> column contains the name of the + referencing catalog, and the <parameter>fkcols</parameter> column + contains the name(s) of the referencing column(s). Similarly, + the <parameter>pktable</parameter> column contains the name of the + referenced catalog, and the <parameter>pkcols</parameter> column + contains the name(s) of the referenced column(s). + If <parameter>is_array</parameter> is true, the last referencing + column is an array, each of whose elements should match some entry + in the referenced catalog. + If <parameter>is_opt</parameter> is true, the referencing column(s) + are allowed to contain zeroes instead of a valid reference. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_constraintdef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_constraintdef</function> ( <parameter>constraint</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for a constraint. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_expr</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_expr</function> ( <parameter>expr</parameter> <type>pg_node_tree</type>, <parameter>relation</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Decompiles the internal form of an expression stored in the system + catalogs, such as the default value for a column. If the expression + might contain Vars, specify the OID of the relation they refer to as + the second parameter; if no Vars are expected, passing zero is + sufficient. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_functiondef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_functiondef</function> ( <parameter>func</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for a function or procedure. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) + The result is a complete <command>CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION</command> + or <command>CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE</command> statement. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_function_arguments</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_function_arguments</function> ( <parameter>func</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the argument list of a function or procedure, in the form + it would need to appear in within <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command> + (including default values). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_function_identity_arguments</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_function_identity_arguments</function> ( <parameter>func</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the argument list necessary to identify a function or + procedure, in the form it would need to appear in within commands such + as <command>ALTER FUNCTION</command>. This form omits default values. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_function_result</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_function_result</function> ( <parameter>func</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the <literal>RETURNS</literal> clause of a function, in + the form it would need to appear in within <command>CREATE + FUNCTION</command>. Returns <literal>NULL</literal> for a procedure. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_indexdef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_indexdef</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>column</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for an index. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) If <parameter>column</parameter> is supplied and is + not zero, only the definition of that column is reconstructed. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_keywords</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_keywords</function> () + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>word</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>catcode</parameter> <type>"char"</type>, + <parameter>barelabel</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>catdesc</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>baredesc</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a set of records describing the SQL keywords recognized by the + server. The <parameter>word</parameter> column contains the + keyword. The <parameter>catcode</parameter> column contains a + category code: <literal>U</literal> for an unreserved + keyword, <literal>C</literal> for a keyword that can be a column + name, <literal>T</literal> for a keyword that can be a type or + function name, or <literal>R</literal> for a fully reserved keyword. + The <parameter>barelabel</parameter> column + contains <literal>true</literal> if the keyword can be used as + a <quote>bare</quote> column label in <command>SELECT</command> lists, + or <literal>false</literal> if it can only be used + after <literal>AS</literal>. + The <parameter>catdesc</parameter> column contains a + possibly-localized string describing the keyword's category. + The <parameter>baredesc</parameter> column contains a + possibly-localized string describing the keyword's column label status. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_ruledef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_ruledef</function> ( <parameter>rule</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for a rule. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_serial_sequence</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_serial_sequence</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>column</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the name of the sequence associated with a column, + or NULL if no sequence is associated with the column. + If the column is an identity column, the associated sequence is the + sequence internally created for that column. + For columns created using one of the serial types + (<type>serial</type>, <type>smallserial</type>, <type>bigserial</type>), + it is the sequence created for that serial column definition. + In the latter case, the association can be modified or removed + with <command>ALTER SEQUENCE OWNED BY</command>. + (This function probably should have been + called <function>pg_get_owned_sequence</function>; its current name + reflects the fact that it has historically been used with serial-type + columns.) The first parameter is a table name with optional + schema, and the second parameter is a column name. Because the first + parameter potentially contains both schema and table names, it is + parsed per usual SQL rules, meaning it is lower-cased by default. + The second parameter, being just a column name, is treated literally + and so has its case preserved. The result is suitably formatted + for passing to the sequence functions (see + <xref linkend="functions-sequence"/>). + </para> + <para> + A typical use is in reading the current value of the sequence for an + identity or serial column, for example: +<programlisting> +SELECT currval(pg_get_serial_sequence('sometable', 'id')); +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_statisticsobjdef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_statisticsobjdef</function> ( <parameter>statobj</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for an extended statistics object. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_triggerdef</primary> + </indexterm> +<function>pg_get_triggerdef</function> ( <parameter>trigger</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the creating command for a trigger. + (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not the original text + of the command.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_userbyid</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_userbyid</function> ( <parameter>role</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>name</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a role's name given its OID. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_viewdef</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_viewdef</function> ( <parameter>view</parameter> <type>oid</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the underlying <command>SELECT</command> command for a + view or materialized view. (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not + the original text of the command.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_get_viewdef</function> ( <parameter>view</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>wrap_column</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the underlying <command>SELECT</command> command for a + view or materialized view. (This is a decompiled reconstruction, not + the original text of the command.) In this form of the function, + pretty-printing is always enabled, and long lines are wrapped to try + to keep them shorter than the specified number of columns. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_get_viewdef</function> ( <parameter>view</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>pretty</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reconstructs the underlying <command>SELECT</command> command for a + view or materialized view, working from a textual name for the view + rather than its OID. (This is deprecated; use the OID variant + instead.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_index_column_has_property</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_index_column_has_property</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>column</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>property</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether an index column has the named property. + Common index column properties are listed in + <xref linkend="functions-info-index-column-props"/>. + (Note that extension access methods can define additional property + names for their indexes.) + <literal>NULL</literal> is returned if the property name is not known + or does not apply to the particular object, or if the OID or column + number does not identify a valid object. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_index_has_property</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_index_has_property</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>property</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether an index has the named property. + Common index properties are listed in + <xref linkend="functions-info-index-props"/>. + (Note that extension access methods can define additional property + names for their indexes.) + <literal>NULL</literal> is returned if the property name is not known + or does not apply to the particular object, or if the OID does not + identify a valid object. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_indexam_has_property</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_indexam_has_property</function> ( <parameter>am</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>property</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Tests whether an index access method has the named property. + Access method properties are listed in + <xref linkend="functions-info-indexam-props"/>. + <literal>NULL</literal> is returned if the property name is not known + or does not apply to the particular object, or if the OID does not + identify a valid object. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_options_to_table</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_options_to_table</function> ( <parameter>options_array</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>option_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>option_value</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the set of storage options represented by a value from + <structname>pg_class</structname>.<structfield>reloptions</structfield> or + <structname>pg_attribute</structname>.<structfield>attoptions</structfield>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_tablespace_databases</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_tablespace_databases</function> ( <parameter>tablespace</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the set of OIDs of databases that have objects stored in the + specified tablespace. If this function returns any rows, the + tablespace is not empty and cannot be dropped. To identify the specific + objects populating the tablespace, you will need to connect to the + database(s) identified by <function>pg_tablespace_databases</function> + and query their <structname>pg_class</structname> catalogs. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_tablespace_location</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_tablespace_location</function> ( <parameter>tablespace</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the file system path that this tablespace is located in. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_typeof</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_typeof</function> ( <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>regtype</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the OID of the data type of the value that is passed to it. + This can be helpful for troubleshooting or dynamically constructing + SQL queries. The function is declared as + returning <type>regtype</type>, which is an OID alias type (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); this means that it is the same as an + OID for comparison purposes but displays as a type name. + </para> + <para> + For example: +<programlisting> +SELECT pg_typeof(33); + pg_typeof +----------- + integer + +SELECT typlen FROM pg_type WHERE oid = pg_typeof(33); + typlen +-------- + 4 +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>COLLATION FOR</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>COLLATION FOR</function> ( <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the name of the collation of the value that is passed to it. + The value is quoted and schema-qualified if necessary. If no + collation was derived for the argument expression, + then <literal>NULL</literal> is returned. If the argument is not of a + collatable data type, then an error is raised. + </para> + <para> + For example: +<programlisting> +SELECT collation for (description) FROM pg_description LIMIT 1; + pg_collation_for +------------------ + "default" + +SELECT collation for ('foo' COLLATE "de_DE"); + pg_collation_for +------------------ + "de_DE" +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regclass</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regclass</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regclass</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual relation name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regclass</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regcollation</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regcollation</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regcollation</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual collation name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regcollation</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regnamespace</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regnamespace</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regnamespace</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual schema name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regnamespace</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regoper</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regoper</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regoper</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual operator name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regoper</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found or is ambiguous. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regoperator</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regoperator</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regoperator</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual operator name (with parameter types) to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regoperator</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regproc</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regproc</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regproc</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual function or procedure name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regproc</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found or is ambiguous. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regprocedure</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regprocedure</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regprocedure</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual function or procedure name (with argument types) to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regprocedure</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regrole</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regrole</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regrole</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual role name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regrole</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>to_regtype</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>to_regtype</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>regtype</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Translates a textual type name to its OID. A similar result is + obtained by casting the string to type <type>regtype</type> (see + <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/>); however, this function will return + <literal>NULL</literal> rather than throwing an error if the name is + not found. Also unlike the cast, this does not accept + a numeric OID as input. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + Most of the functions that reconstruct (decompile) database objects + have an optional <parameter>pretty</parameter> flag, which + if <literal>true</literal> causes the result to + be <quote>pretty-printed</quote>. Pretty-printing suppresses unnecessary + parentheses and adds whitespace for legibility. + The pretty-printed format is more readable, but the default format + is more likely to be interpreted the same way by future versions of + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>; so avoid using pretty-printed output + for dump purposes. Passing <literal>false</literal> for + the <parameter>pretty</parameter> parameter yields the same result as + omitting the parameter. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-index-column-props"> + <title>Index Column Properties</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row><entry>Name</entry><entry>Description</entry></row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>asc</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column sort in ascending order on a forward scan? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>desc</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column sort in descending order on a forward scan? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>nulls_first</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column sort with nulls first on a forward scan? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>nulls_last</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column sort with nulls last on a forward scan? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>orderable</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column possess any defined sort ordering? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>distance_orderable</literal></entry> + <entry>Can the column be scanned in order by a <quote>distance</quote> + operator, for example <literal>ORDER BY col <-> constant</literal> ? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>returnable</literal></entry> + <entry>Can the column value be returned by an index-only scan? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>search_array</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column natively support <literal>col = ANY(array)</literal> + searches? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>search_nulls</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the column support <literal>IS NULL</literal> and + <literal>IS NOT NULL</literal> searches? + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-info-index-props"> + <title>Index Properties</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row><entry>Name</entry><entry>Description</entry></row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>clusterable</literal></entry> + <entry>Can the index be used in a <literal>CLUSTER</literal> command? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>index_scan</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the index support plain (non-bitmap) scans? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>bitmap_scan</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the index support bitmap scans? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>backward_scan</literal></entry> + <entry>Can the scan direction be changed in mid-scan (to + support <literal>FETCH BACKWARD</literal> on a cursor without + needing materialization)? + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-info-indexam-props"> + <title>Index Access Method Properties</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row><entry>Name</entry><entry>Description</entry></row> + </thead> + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>can_order</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the access method support <literal>ASC</literal>, + <literal>DESC</literal> and related keywords in + <literal>CREATE INDEX</literal>? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>can_unique</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the access method support unique indexes? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>can_multi_col</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the access method support indexes with multiple columns? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>can_exclude</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the access method support exclusion constraints? + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>can_include</literal></entry> + <entry>Does the access method support the <literal>INCLUDE</literal> + clause of <literal>CREATE INDEX</literal>? + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-object-table"/> lists functions related to + database object identification and addressing. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-object-table"> + <title>Object Information and Addressing Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_describe_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_describe_object</function> ( <parameter>classid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objsubid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a textual description of a database object identified by + catalog OID, object OID, and sub-object ID (such as a column number + within a table; the sub-object ID is zero when referring to a whole + object). This description is intended to be human-readable, and might + be translated, depending on server configuration. This is especially + useful to determine the identity of an object referenced in the + <structname>pg_depend</structname> catalog. This function returns + <literal>NULL</literal> values for undefined objects. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_identify_object</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_identify_object</function> ( <parameter>classid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objsubid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>identity</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a row containing enough information to uniquely identify the + database object specified by catalog OID, object OID and sub-object + ID. + This information is intended to be machine-readable, and is never + translated. + <parameter>type</parameter> identifies the type of database object; + <parameter>schema</parameter> is the schema name that the object + belongs in, or <literal>NULL</literal> for object types that do not + belong to schemas; + <parameter>name</parameter> is the name of the object, quoted if + necessary, if the name (along with schema name, if pertinent) is + sufficient to uniquely identify the object, + otherwise <literal>NULL</literal>; + <parameter>identity</parameter> is the complete object identity, with + the precise format depending on object type, and each name within the + format being schema-qualified and quoted as necessary. Undefined + objects are identified with <literal>NULL</literal> values. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_identify_object_as_address</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_identify_object_as_address</function> ( <parameter>classid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>objsubid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>object_names</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, + <parameter>object_args</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a row containing enough information to uniquely identify the + database object specified by catalog OID, object OID and sub-object + ID. + The returned information is independent of the current server, that + is, it could be used to identify an identically named object in + another server. + <parameter>type</parameter> identifies the type of database object; + <parameter>object_names</parameter> and + <parameter>object_args</parameter> + are text arrays that together form a reference to the object. + These three values can be passed + to <function>pg_get_object_address</function> to obtain the internal + address of the object. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_object_address</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_object_address</function> ( <parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>object_names</parameter> <type>text[]</type>, <parameter>object_args</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>classid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>objid</parameter> <type>oid</type>, + <parameter>objsubid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a row containing enough information to uniquely identify the + database object specified by a type code and object name and argument + arrays. + The returned values are the ones that would be used in system catalogs + such as <structname>pg_depend</structname>; they can be passed to + other system functions such as <function>pg_describe_object</function> + or <function>pg_identify_object</function>. + <parameter>classid</parameter> is the OID of the system catalog + containing the object; + <parameter>objid</parameter> is the OID of the object itself, and + <parameter>objsubid</parameter> is the sub-object ID, or zero if none. + This function is the inverse + of <function>pg_identify_object_as_address</function>. + Undefined objects are identified with <literal>NULL</literal> values. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <indexterm> + <primary>comment</primary> + <secondary sortas="database objects">about database objects</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-info-comment-table"/> + extract comments previously stored with the <xref linkend="sql-comment"/> + command. A null value is returned if no + comment could be found for the specified parameters. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-comment-table"> + <title>Comment Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>col_description</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>col_description</function> ( <parameter>table</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>column</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the comment for a table column, which is specified by the OID + of its table and its column number. + (<function>obj_description</function> cannot be used for table + columns, since columns do not have OIDs of their own.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>obj_description</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>obj_description</function> ( <parameter>object</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>catalog</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the comment for a database object specified by its OID and the + name of the containing system catalog. For + example, <literal>obj_description(123456, 'pg_class')</literal> would + retrieve the comment for the table with OID 123456. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>obj_description</function> ( <parameter>object</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the comment for a database object specified by its OID alone. + This is <emphasis>deprecated</emphasis> since there is no guarantee + that OIDs are unique across different system catalogs; therefore, the + wrong comment might be returned. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>shobj_description</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>shobj_description</function> ( <parameter>object</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>catalog</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the comment for a shared database object specified by its OID + and the name of the containing system catalog. This is just + like <function>obj_description</function> except that it is used for + retrieving comments on shared objects (that is, databases, roles, and + tablespaces). Some system catalogs are global to all databases within + each cluster, and the descriptions for objects in them are stored + globally as well. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-pg-snapshot"/> + provide server transaction information in an exportable form. The main + use of these functions is to determine which transactions were committed + between two snapshots. + </para> + + <table id="functions-pg-snapshot"> + <title>Transaction ID and Snapshot Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_xact_id</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_xact_id</function> () + <returnvalue>xid8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current transaction's ID. It will assign a new one if the + current transaction does not have one already (because it has not + performed any database updates). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_xact_id_if_assigned</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_xact_id_if_assigned</function> () + <returnvalue>xid8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current transaction's ID, or <literal>NULL</literal> if no + ID is assigned yet. (It's best to use this variant if the transaction + might otherwise be read-only, to avoid unnecessary consumption of an + XID.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_xact_status</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_xact_status</function> ( <type>xid8</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Reports the commit status of a recent transaction. + The result is one of <literal>in progress</literal>, + <literal>committed</literal>, or <literal>aborted</literal>, + provided that the transaction is recent enough that the system retains + the commit status of that transaction. + If it is old enough that no references to the transaction survive in + the system and the commit status information has been discarded, the + result is <literal>NULL</literal>. + Applications might use this function, for example, to determine + whether their transaction committed or aborted after the application + and database server become disconnected while + a <literal>COMMIT</literal> is in progress. + Note that prepared transactions are reported as <literal>in + progress</literal>; applications must check <link + linkend="view-pg-prepared-xacts"><structname>pg_prepared_xacts</structname></link> + if they need to determine whether a transaction ID belongs to a + prepared transaction. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_snapshot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_snapshot</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_snapshot</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a current <firstterm>snapshot</firstterm>, a data structure + showing which transaction IDs are now in-progress. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_snapshot_xip</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_snapshot_xip</function> ( <type>pg_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof xid8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the set of in-progress transaction IDs contained in a snapshot. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_snapshot_xmax</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_snapshot_xmax</function> ( <type>pg_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>xid8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the <structfield>xmax</structfield> of a snapshot. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_snapshot_xmin</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_snapshot_xmin</function> ( <type>pg_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>xid8</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the <structfield>xmin</structfield> of a snapshot. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_visible_in_snapshot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_visible_in_snapshot</function> ( <type>xid8</type>, <type>pg_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Is the given transaction ID <firstterm>visible</firstterm> according + to this snapshot (that is, was it completed before the snapshot was + taken)? Note that this function will not give the correct answer for + a subtransaction ID. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The internal transaction ID type <type>xid</type> is 32 bits wide and + wraps around every 4 billion transactions. However, + the functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-pg-snapshot"/> use a + 64-bit type <type>xid8</type> that does not wrap around during the life + of an installation, and can be converted to <type>xid</type> by casting if + required. The data type <type>pg_snapshot</type> stores information about + transaction ID visibility at a particular moment in time. Its components + are described in <xref linkend="functions-pg-snapshot-parts"/>. + <type>pg_snapshot</type>'s textual representation is + <literal><replaceable>xmin</replaceable>:<replaceable>xmax</replaceable>:<replaceable>xip_list</replaceable></literal>. + For example <literal>10:20:10,14,15</literal> means + <literal>xmin=10, xmax=20, xip_list=10, 14, 15</literal>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-pg-snapshot-parts"> + <title>Snapshot Components</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Name</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><structfield>xmin</structfield></entry> + <entry> + Lowest transaction ID that was still active. All transaction IDs + less than <structfield>xmin</structfield> are either committed and visible, + or rolled back and dead. + </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>xmax</structfield></entry> + <entry> + One past the highest completed transaction ID. All transaction IDs + greater than or equal to <structfield>xmax</structfield> had not yet + completed as of the time of the snapshot, and thus are invisible. + </entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>xip_list</structfield></entry> + <entry> + Transactions in progress at the time of the snapshot. A transaction + ID that is <literal>xmin <= <replaceable>X</replaceable> < + xmax</literal> and not in this list was already completed at the time + of the snapshot, and thus is either visible or dead according to its + commit status. This list does not include the transaction IDs of + subtransactions. + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + In releases of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> before 13 there was + no <type>xid8</type> type, so variants of these functions were provided + that used <type>bigint</type> to represent a 64-bit XID, with a + correspondingly distinct snapshot data type <type>txid_snapshot</type>. + These older functions have <literal>txid</literal> in their names. They + are still supported for backward compatibility, but may be removed from a + future release. See <xref linkend="functions-txid-snapshot"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-txid-snapshot"> + <title>Deprecated Transaction ID and Snapshot Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_current</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_current</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_current_xact_id()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_current_if_assigned</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_current_if_assigned</function> () + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_current_xact_id_if_assigned()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_current_snapshot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_current_snapshot</function> () + <returnvalue>txid_snapshot</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_current_snapshot()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_snapshot_xip</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_snapshot_xip</function> ( <type>txid_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_snapshot_xip()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_snapshot_xmax</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_snapshot_xmax</function> ( <type>txid_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_snapshot_xmax()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_snapshot_xmin</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_snapshot_xmin</function> ( <type>txid_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_snapshot_xmin()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_visible_in_snapshot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_visible_in_snapshot</function> ( <type>bigint</type>, <type>txid_snapshot</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_visible_in_snapshot()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>txid_status</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>txid_status</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + See <function>pg_xact_status()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-commit-timestamp"/> + provide information about when past transactions were committed. + They only provide useful data when the + <xref linkend="guc-track-commit-timestamp"/> configuration option is + enabled, and only for transactions that were committed after it was + enabled. + </para> + + <table id="functions-commit-timestamp"> + <title>Committed Transaction Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_xact_commit_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_xact_commit_timestamp</function> ( <type>xid</type> ) + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the commit timestamp of a transaction. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_xact_commit_timestamp_origin</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_xact_commit_timestamp_origin</function> ( <type>xid</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>timestamp</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>roident</parameter> <type>oid</type>) + </para> + <para> + Returns the commit timestamp and replication origin of a transaction. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_last_committed_xact</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_last_committed_xact</function> () + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>xid</parameter> <type>xid</type>, + <parameter>timestamp</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>roident</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the transaction ID, commit timestamp and replication origin + of the latest committed transaction. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-controldata"/> + print information initialized during <command>initdb</command>, such + as the catalog version. They also show information about write-ahead + logging and checkpoint processing. This information is cluster-wide, + not specific to any one database. These functions provide most of the same + information, from the same source, as the + <xref linkend="app-pgcontroldata"/> application. + </para> + + <table id="functions-controldata"> + <title>Control Data Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_control_checkpoint</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_control_checkpoint</function> () + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns information about current checkpoint state, as shown in + <xref linkend="functions-pg-control-checkpoint"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_control_system</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_control_system</function> () + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns information about current control file state, as shown in + <xref linkend="functions-pg-control-system"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_control_init</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_control_init</function> () + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns information about cluster initialization state, as shown in + <xref linkend="functions-pg-control-init"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_control_recovery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_control_recovery</function> () + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns information about recovery state, as shown in + <xref linkend="functions-pg-control-recovery"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-pg-control-checkpoint"> + <title><function>pg_control_checkpoint</function> Output Columns</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Column Name</entry> + <entry>Data Type</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>checkpoint_lsn</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>pg_lsn</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>redo_lsn</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>pg_lsn</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>redo_wal_file</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>timeline_id</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>prev_timeline_id</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>full_page_writes</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>next_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>next_oid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>next_multixact_id</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>next_multi_offset</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_xid_dbid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_active_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_multi_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_multi_dbid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>oldest_commit_ts_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>newest_commit_ts_xid</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>xid</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>checkpoint_time</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-pg-control-system"> + <title><function>pg_control_system</function> Output Columns</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Column Name</entry> + <entry>Data Type</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>pg_control_version</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>catalog_version_no</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>system_identifier</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>bigint</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>pg_control_last_modified</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-pg-control-init"> + <title><function>pg_control_init</function> Output Columns</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Column Name</entry> + <entry>Data Type</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>max_data_alignment</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>database_block_size</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>blocks_per_segment</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>wal_block_size</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>bytes_per_wal_segment</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>max_identifier_length</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>max_index_columns</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>max_toast_chunk_size</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>large_object_chunk_size</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>float8_pass_by_value</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>data_page_checksum_version</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <table id="functions-pg-control-recovery"> + <title><function>pg_control_recovery</function> Output Columns</title> + <tgroup cols="2"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Column Name</entry> + <entry>Data Type</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>min_recovery_end_lsn</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>pg_lsn</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>min_recovery_end_timeline</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>backup_start_lsn</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>pg_lsn</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>backup_end_lsn</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>pg_lsn</type></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry><structfield>end_of_backup_record_required</structfield></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + </row> + + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-admin"> + <title>System Administration Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions described in this section are used to control and + monitor a <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> installation. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-set"> + <title>Configuration Settings Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>SET</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>SHOW</primary> + </indexterm> + + <indexterm> + <primary>configuration</primary> + <secondary sortas="server">of the server</secondary> + <tertiary>functions</tertiary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-admin-set-table"/> shows the functions + available to query and alter run-time configuration parameters. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-set-table"> + <title>Configuration Settings Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example(s) + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>current_setting</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>current_setting</function> ( <parameter>setting_name</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current value of the + setting <parameter>setting_name</parameter>. If there is no such + setting, <function>current_setting</function> throws an error + unless <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> is supplied and + is <literal>true</literal> (in which case NULL is returned). + This function corresponds to + the <acronym>SQL</acronym> command <xref linkend="sql-show"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>current_setting('datestyle')</literal> + <returnvalue>ISO, MDY</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>set_config</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>set_config</function> ( + <parameter>setting_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>new_value</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>is_local</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets the parameter <parameter>setting_name</parameter> + to <parameter>new_value</parameter>, and returns that value. + If <parameter>is_local</parameter> is <literal>true</literal>, the new + value will only apply during the current transaction. If you want the + new value to apply for the rest of the current session, + use <literal>false</literal> instead. This function corresponds to + the SQL command <xref linkend="sql-set"/>. + </para> + <para> + <literal>set_config('log_statement_stats', 'off', false)</literal> + <returnvalue>off</returnvalue> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-signal"> + <title>Server Signaling Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>signal</primary> + <secondary sortas="backend">backend processes</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref + linkend="functions-admin-signal-table"/> send control signals to + other server processes. Use of these functions is restricted to + superusers by default but access may be granted to others using + <command>GRANT</command>, with noted exceptions. + </para> + + <para> + Each of these functions returns <literal>true</literal> if + the signal was successfully sent and <literal>false</literal> + if sending the signal failed. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-signal-table"> + <title>Server Signaling Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_cancel_backend</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_cancel_backend</function> ( <parameter>pid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cancels the current query of the session whose backend process has the + specified process ID. This is also allowed if the + calling role is a member of the role whose backend is being canceled or + the calling role has been granted <literal>pg_signal_backend</literal>, + however only superusers can cancel superuser backends. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_log_backend_memory_contexts</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_log_backend_memory_contexts</function> ( <parameter>pid</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Requests to log the memory contexts of the backend with the + specified process ID. These memory contexts will be logged at + <literal>LOG</literal> message level. They will appear in + the server log based on the log configuration set + (See <xref linkend="runtime-config-logging"/> for more information), + but will not be sent to the client regardless of + <xref linkend="guc-client-min-messages"/>. + Only superusers can request to log the memory contexts. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_reload_conf</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_reload_conf</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Causes all processes of the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> + server to reload their configuration files. (This is initiated by + sending a <systemitem>SIGHUP</systemitem> signal to the postmaster + process, which in turn sends <systemitem>SIGHUP</systemitem> to each + of its children.) You can use the + <link linkend="view-pg-file-settings"><structname>pg_file_settings</structname></link> and + <link linkend="view-pg-hba-file-rules"><structname>pg_hba_file_rules</structname></link> views + to check the configuration files for possible errors, before reloading. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_rotate_logfile</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_rotate_logfile</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Signals the log-file manager to switch to a new output file + immediately. This works only when the built-in log collector is + running, since otherwise there is no log-file manager subprocess. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_terminate_backend</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_terminate_backend</function> ( <parameter>pid</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>timeout</parameter> <type>bigint</type> <literal>DEFAULT</literal> <literal>0</literal> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Terminates the session whose backend process has the + specified process ID. This is also allowed if the calling role + is a member of the role whose backend is being terminated or the + calling role has been granted <literal>pg_signal_backend</literal>, + however only superusers can terminate superuser backends. + </para> + <para> + If <parameter>timeout</parameter> is not specified or zero, this + function returns <literal>true</literal> whether the process actually + terminates or not, indicating only that the sending of the signal was + successful. If the <parameter>timeout</parameter> is specified (in + milliseconds) and greater than zero, the function waits until the + process is actually terminated or until the given time has passed. If + the process is terminated, the function + returns <literal>true</literal>. On timeout, a warning is emitted and + <literal>false</literal> is returned. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <function>pg_cancel_backend</function> and <function>pg_terminate_backend</function> + send signals (<systemitem>SIGINT</systemitem> or <systemitem>SIGTERM</systemitem> + respectively) to backend processes identified by process ID. + The process ID of an active backend can be found from + the <structfield>pid</structfield> column of the + <structname>pg_stat_activity</structname> view, or by listing the + <command>postgres</command> processes on the server (using + <application>ps</application> on Unix or the <application>Task + Manager</application> on <productname>Windows</productname>). + The role of an active backend can be found from the + <structfield>usename</structfield> column of the + <structname>pg_stat_activity</structname> view. + </para> + + <para> + <function>pg_log_backend_memory_contexts</function> can be used + to log the memory contexts of a backend process. For example: +<programlisting> +postgres=# SELECT pg_log_backend_memory_contexts(pg_backend_pid()); + pg_log_backend_memory_contexts +-------------------------------- + t +(1 row) +</programlisting> +One message for each memory context will be logged. For example: +<screen> +LOG: logging memory contexts of PID 10377 +STATEMENT: SELECT pg_log_backend_memory_contexts(pg_backend_pid()); +LOG: level: 0; TopMemoryContext: 80800 total in 6 blocks; 14432 free (5 chunks); 66368 used +LOG: level: 1; pgstat TabStatusArray lookup hash table: 8192 total in 1 blocks; 1408 free (0 chunks); 6784 used +LOG: level: 1; TopTransactionContext: 8192 total in 1 blocks; 7720 free (1 chunks); 472 used +LOG: level: 1; RowDescriptionContext: 8192 total in 1 blocks; 6880 free (0 chunks); 1312 used +LOG: level: 1; MessageContext: 16384 total in 2 blocks; 5152 free (0 chunks); 11232 used +LOG: level: 1; Operator class cache: 8192 total in 1 blocks; 512 free (0 chunks); 7680 used +LOG: level: 1; smgr relation table: 16384 total in 2 blocks; 4544 free (3 chunks); 11840 used +LOG: level: 1; TransactionAbortContext: 32768 total in 1 blocks; 32504 free (0 chunks); 264 used +... +LOG: level: 1; ErrorContext: 8192 total in 1 blocks; 7928 free (3 chunks); 264 used +LOG: Grand total: 1651920 bytes in 201 blocks; 622360 free (88 chunks); 1029560 used +</screen> + If there are more than 100 child contexts under the same parent, the first + 100 child contexts are logged, along with a summary of the remaining contexts. + Note that frequent calls to this function could incur significant overhead, + because it may generate a large number of log messages. + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-backup"> + <title>Backup Control Functions</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>backup</primary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref + linkend="functions-admin-backup-table"/> assist in making on-line backups. + These functions cannot be executed during recovery (except + non-exclusive <function>pg_start_backup</function>, + non-exclusive <function>pg_stop_backup</function>, + <function>pg_is_in_backup</function>, <function>pg_backup_start_time</function> + and <function>pg_wal_lsn_diff</function>). + </para> + + <para> + For details about proper usage of these functions, see + <xref linkend="continuous-archiving"/>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-backup-table"> + <title>Backup Control Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_create_restore_point</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_create_restore_point</function> ( <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Creates a named marker record in the write-ahead log that can later be + used as a recovery target, and returns the corresponding write-ahead + log location. The given name can then be used with + <xref linkend="guc-recovery-target-name"/> to specify the point up to + which recovery will proceed. Avoid creating multiple restore points + with the same name, since recovery will stop at the first one whose + name matches the recovery target. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_wal_flush_lsn</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_wal_flush_lsn</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current write-ahead log flush location (see notes below). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_wal_insert_lsn</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_wal_insert_lsn</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current write-ahead log insert location (see notes below). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_current_wal_lsn</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_current_wal_lsn</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the current write-ahead log write location (see notes below). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_start_backup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_start_backup</function> ( + <parameter>label</parameter> <type>text</type> + <optional>, <parameter>fast</parameter> <type>boolean</type> + <optional>, <parameter>exclusive</parameter> <type>boolean</type> + </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Prepares the server to begin an on-line backup. The only required + parameter is an arbitrary user-defined label for the backup. + (Typically this would be the name under which the backup dump file + will be stored.) + If the optional second parameter is given as <literal>true</literal>, + it specifies executing <function>pg_start_backup</function> as quickly + as possible. This forces an immediate checkpoint which will cause a + spike in I/O operations, slowing any concurrently executing queries. + The optional third parameter specifies whether to perform an exclusive + or non-exclusive backup (default is exclusive). + </para> + <para> + When used in exclusive mode, this function writes a backup label file + (<filename>backup_label</filename>) and, if there are any links in + the <filename>pg_tblspc/</filename> directory, a tablespace map file + (<filename>tablespace_map</filename>) into the database cluster's data + directory, then performs a checkpoint, and then returns the backup's + starting write-ahead log location. (The user can ignore this + result value, but it is provided in case it is useful.) When used in + non-exclusive mode, the contents of these files are instead returned + by the <function>pg_stop_backup</function> function, and should be + copied to the backup area by the user. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_stop_backup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_stop_backup</function> ( + <parameter>exclusive</parameter> <type>boolean</type> + <optional>, <parameter>wait_for_archive</parameter> <type>boolean</type> + </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <parameter>labelfile</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>spcmapfile</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Finishes performing an exclusive or non-exclusive on-line backup. + The <parameter>exclusive</parameter> parameter must match the + previous <function>pg_start_backup</function> call. + In an exclusive backup, <function>pg_stop_backup</function> removes + the backup label file and, if it exists, the tablespace map file + created by <function>pg_start_backup</function>. In a non-exclusive + backup, the desired contents of these files are returned as part of + the result of the function, and should be written to files in the + backup area (not in the data directory). + </para> + <para> + There is an optional second parameter of type <type>boolean</type>. + If false, the function will return immediately after the backup is + completed, without waiting for WAL to be archived. This behavior is + only useful with backup software that independently monitors WAL + archiving. Otherwise, WAL required to make the backup consistent might + be missing and make the backup useless. By default or when this + parameter is true, <function>pg_stop_backup</function> will wait for + WAL to be archived when archiving is enabled. (On a standby, this + means that it will wait only when <varname>archive_mode</varname> = + <literal>always</literal>. If write activity on the primary is low, + it may be useful to run <function>pg_switch_wal</function> on the + primary in order to trigger an immediate segment switch.) + </para> + <para> + When executed on a primary, this function also creates a backup + history file in the write-ahead log archive area. The history file + includes the label given to <function>pg_start_backup</function>, the + starting and ending write-ahead log locations for the backup, and the + starting and ending times of the backup. After recording the ending + location, the current write-ahead log insertion point is automatically + advanced to the next write-ahead log file, so that the ending + write-ahead log file can be archived immediately to complete the + backup. + </para> + <para> + The result of the function is a single record. + The <parameter>lsn</parameter> column holds the backup's ending + write-ahead log location (which again can be ignored). The second and + third columns are <literal>NULL</literal> when ending an exclusive + backup; after a non-exclusive backup they hold the desired contents of + the label and tablespace map files. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_stop_backup</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Finishes performing an exclusive on-line backup. This simplified + version is equivalent to <literal>pg_stop_backup(true, + true)</literal>, except that it only returns the <type>pg_lsn</type> + result. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_is_in_backup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_is_in_backup</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if an on-line exclusive backup is in progress. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_backup_start_time</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_backup_start_time</function> () + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the start time of the current on-line exclusive backup if one + is in progress, otherwise <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_switch_wal</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_switch_wal</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Forces the server to switch to a new write-ahead log file, which + allows the current file to be archived (assuming you are using + continuous archiving). The result is the ending write-ahead log + location plus 1 within the just-completed write-ahead log file. If + there has been no write-ahead log activity since the last write-ahead + log switch, <function>pg_switch_wal</function> does nothing and + returns the start location of the write-ahead log file currently in + use. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_walfile_name</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_walfile_name</function> ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a write-ahead log location to the name of the WAL file + holding that location. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_walfile_name_offset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_walfile_name_offset</function> ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>file_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>file_offset</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Converts a write-ahead log location to a WAL file name and byte offset + within that file. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_wal_lsn_diff</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_wal_lsn_diff</function> ( <parameter>lsn1</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>lsn2</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + <returnvalue>numeric</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Calculates the difference in bytes (<parameter>lsn1</parameter> - <parameter>lsn2</parameter>) between two write-ahead log + locations. This can be used + with <structname>pg_stat_replication</structname> or some of the + functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-admin-backup-table"/> to + get the replication lag. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <function>pg_current_wal_lsn</function> displays the current write-ahead + log write location in the same format used by the above functions. + Similarly, <function>pg_current_wal_insert_lsn</function> displays the + current write-ahead log insertion location + and <function>pg_current_wal_flush_lsn</function> displays the current + write-ahead log flush location. The insertion location is + the <quote>logical</quote> end of the write-ahead log at any instant, + while the write location is the end of what has actually been written out + from the server's internal buffers, and the flush location is the last + location known to be written to durable storage. The write location is the + end of what can be examined from outside the server, and is usually what + you want if you are interested in archiving partially-complete write-ahead + log files. The insertion and flush locations are made available primarily + for server debugging purposes. These are all read-only operations and do + not require superuser permissions. + </para> + + <para> + You can use <function>pg_walfile_name_offset</function> to extract the + corresponding write-ahead log file name and byte offset from + a <type>pg_lsn</type> value. For example: +<programlisting> +postgres=# SELECT * FROM pg_walfile_name_offset(pg_stop_backup()); + file_name | file_offset +--------------------------+------------- + 00000001000000000000000D | 4039624 +(1 row) +</programlisting> + Similarly, <function>pg_walfile_name</function> extracts just the write-ahead log file name. + When the given write-ahead log location is exactly at a write-ahead log file boundary, both + these functions return the name of the preceding write-ahead log file. + This is usually the desired behavior for managing write-ahead log archiving + behavior, since the preceding file is the last one that currently + needs to be archived. + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-recovery-control"> + <title>Recovery Control Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref + linkend="functions-recovery-info-table"/> provide information + about the current status of a standby server. + These functions may be executed both during recovery and in normal running. + </para> + + <table id="functions-recovery-info-table"> + <title>Recovery Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_is_in_recovery</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_is_in_recovery</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if recovery is still in progress. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_last_wal_receive_lsn</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_last_wal_receive_lsn</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the last write-ahead log location that has been received and + synced to disk by streaming replication. While streaming replication + is in progress this will increase monotonically. If recovery has + completed then this will remain static at the location of the last WAL + record received and synced to disk during recovery. If streaming + replication is disabled, or if it has not yet started, the function + returns <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_last_wal_replay_lsn</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_last_wal_replay_lsn</function> () + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the last write-ahead log location that has been replayed + during recovery. If recovery is still in progress this will increase + monotonically. If recovery has completed then this will remain + static at the location of the last WAL record applied during recovery. + When the server has been started normally without recovery, the + function returns <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_last_xact_replay_timestamp</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_last_xact_replay_timestamp</function> () + <returnvalue>timestamp with time zone</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the time stamp of the last transaction replayed during + recovery. This is the time at which the commit or abort WAL record + for that transaction was generated on the primary. If no transactions + have been replayed during recovery, the function + returns <literal>NULL</literal>. Otherwise, if recovery is still in + progress this will increase monotonically. If recovery has completed + then this will remain static at the time of the last transaction + applied during recovery. When the server has been started normally + without recovery, the function returns <literal>NULL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref + linkend="functions-recovery-control-table"/> control the progress of recovery. + These functions may be executed only during recovery. + </para> + + <table id="functions-recovery-control-table"> + <title>Recovery Control Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_is_wal_replay_paused</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_is_wal_replay_paused</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if recovery pause is requested. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_get_wal_replay_pause_state</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_get_wal_replay_pause_state</function> () + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns recovery pause state. The return values are <literal> + not paused</literal> if pause is not requested, <literal> + pause requested</literal> if pause is requested but recovery is + not yet paused, and <literal>paused</literal> if the recovery is + actually paused. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_promote</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_promote</function> ( <parameter>wait</parameter> <type>boolean</type> <literal>DEFAULT</literal> <literal>true</literal>, <parameter>wait_seconds</parameter> <type>integer</type> <literal>DEFAULT</literal> <literal>60</literal> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Promotes a standby server to primary status. + With <parameter>wait</parameter> set to <literal>true</literal> (the + default), the function waits until promotion is completed + or <parameter>wait_seconds</parameter> seconds have passed, and + returns <literal>true</literal> if promotion is successful + and <literal>false</literal> otherwise. + If <parameter>wait</parameter> is set to <literal>false</literal>, the + function returns <literal>true</literal> immediately after sending a + <literal>SIGUSR1</literal> signal to the postmaster to trigger + promotion. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_wal_replay_pause</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_wal_replay_pause</function> () + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Request to pause recovery. A request doesn't mean that recovery stops + right away. If you want a guarantee that recovery is actually paused, + you need to check for the recovery pause state returned by + <function>pg_get_wal_replay_pause_state()</function>. Note that + <function>pg_is_wal_replay_paused()</function> returns whether a request + is made. While recovery is paused, no further database changes are applied. + If hot standby is active, all new queries will see the same consistent + snapshot of the database, and no further query conflicts will be generated + until recovery is resumed. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_wal_replay_resume</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_wal_replay_resume</function> () + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Restarts recovery if it was paused. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <function>pg_wal_replay_pause</function> and + <function>pg_wal_replay_resume</function> cannot be executed while + a promotion is ongoing. If a promotion is triggered while recovery + is paused, the paused state ends and promotion continues. + </para> + + <para> + If streaming replication is disabled, the paused state may continue + indefinitely without a problem. If streaming replication is in + progress then WAL records will continue to be received, which will + eventually fill available disk space, depending upon the duration of + the pause, the rate of WAL generation and available disk space. + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-snapshot-synchronization"> + <title>Snapshot Synchronization Functions</title> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows database sessions to synchronize their + snapshots. A <firstterm>snapshot</firstterm> determines which data is visible to the + transaction that is using the snapshot. Synchronized snapshots are + necessary when two or more sessions need to see identical content in the + database. If two sessions just start their transactions independently, + there is always a possibility that some third transaction commits + between the executions of the two <command>START TRANSACTION</command> commands, + so that one session sees the effects of that transaction and the other + does not. + </para> + + <para> + To solve this problem, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows a transaction to + <firstterm>export</firstterm> the snapshot it is using. As long as the exporting + transaction remains open, other transactions can <firstterm>import</firstterm> its + snapshot, and thereby be guaranteed that they see exactly the same view + of the database that the first transaction sees. But note that any + database changes made by any one of these transactions remain invisible + to the other transactions, as is usual for changes made by uncommitted + transactions. So the transactions are synchronized with respect to + pre-existing data, but act normally for changes they make themselves. + </para> + + <para> + Snapshots are exported with the <function>pg_export_snapshot</function> function, + shown in <xref linkend="functions-snapshot-synchronization-table"/>, and + imported with the <xref linkend="sql-set-transaction"/> command. + </para> + + <table id="functions-snapshot-synchronization-table"> + <title>Snapshot Synchronization Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_export_snapshot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_export_snapshot</function> () + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Saves the transaction's current snapshot and returns + a <type>text</type> string identifying the snapshot. This string must + be passed (outside the database) to clients that want to import the + snapshot. The snapshot is available for import only until the end of + the transaction that exported it. + </para> + <para> + A transaction can export more than one snapshot, if needed. Note that + doing so is only useful in <literal>READ COMMITTED</literal> + transactions, since in <literal>REPEATABLE READ</literal> and higher + isolation levels, transactions use the same snapshot throughout their + lifetime. Once a transaction has exported any snapshots, it cannot be + prepared with <xref linkend="sql-prepare-transaction"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-replication"> + <title>Replication Management Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions shown + in <xref linkend="functions-replication-table"/> are for + controlling and interacting with replication features. + See <xref linkend="streaming-replication"/>, + <xref linkend="streaming-replication-slots"/>, and + <xref linkend="replication-origins"/> + for information about the underlying features. + Use of functions for replication origin is only allowed to the + superuser by default, but may be allowed to other users by using the + <literal>GRANT</literal> command. + Use of functions for replication slots is restricted to superusers + and users having <literal>REPLICATION</literal> privilege. + </para> + + <para> + Many of these functions have equivalent commands in the replication + protocol; see <xref linkend="protocol-replication"/>. + </para> + + <para> + The functions described in + <xref linkend="functions-admin-backup"/>, + <xref linkend="functions-recovery-control"/>, and + <xref linkend="functions-snapshot-synchronization"/> + are also relevant for replication. + </para> + + <table id="functions-replication-table"> + <title>Replication Management Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_create_physical_replication_slot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_create_physical_replication_slot</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type> <optional>, <parameter>immediately_reserve</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>temporary</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Creates a new physical replication slot named + <parameter>slot_name</parameter>. The optional second parameter, + when <literal>true</literal>, specifies that the <acronym>LSN</acronym> for this + replication slot be reserved immediately; otherwise + the <acronym>LSN</acronym> is reserved on first connection from a streaming + replication client. Streaming changes from a physical slot is only + possible with the streaming-replication protocol — + see <xref linkend="protocol-replication"/>. The optional third + parameter, <parameter>temporary</parameter>, when set to true, specifies that + the slot should not be permanently stored to disk and is only meant + for use by the current session. Temporary slots are also + released upon any error. This function corresponds + to the replication protocol command <literal>CREATE_REPLICATION_SLOT + ... PHYSICAL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_drop_replication_slot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_drop_replication_slot</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Drops the physical or logical replication slot + named <parameter>slot_name</parameter>. Same as replication protocol + command <literal>DROP_REPLICATION_SLOT</literal>. For logical slots, this must + be called while connected to the same database the slot was created on. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_create_logical_replication_slot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_create_logical_replication_slot</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>plugin</parameter> <type>name</type> <optional>, <parameter>temporary</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>two_phase</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Creates a new logical (decoding) replication slot named + <parameter>slot_name</parameter> using the output plugin + <parameter>plugin</parameter>. The optional third + parameter, <parameter>temporary</parameter>, when set to true, specifies that + the slot should not be permanently stored to disk and is only meant + for use by the current session. Temporary slots are also + released upon any error. The optional fourth parameter, + <parameter>two_phase</parameter>, when set to true, specifies + that the decoding of prepared transactions is enabled for this + slot. A call to this function has the same effect as the replication + protocol command <literal>CREATE_REPLICATION_SLOT ... LOGICAL</literal>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_copy_physical_replication_slot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_copy_physical_replication_slot</function> ( <parameter>src_slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>dst_slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type> <optional>, <parameter>temporary</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Copies an existing physical replication slot named <parameter>src_slot_name</parameter> + to a physical replication slot named <parameter>dst_slot_name</parameter>. + The copied physical slot starts to reserve WAL from the same <acronym>LSN</acronym> as the + source slot. + <parameter>temporary</parameter> is optional. If <parameter>temporary</parameter> + is omitted, the same value as the source slot is used. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_copy_logical_replication_slot</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_copy_logical_replication_slot</function> ( <parameter>src_slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>dst_slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type> <optional>, <parameter>temporary</parameter> <type>boolean</type> <optional>, <parameter>plugin</parameter> <type>name</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Copies an existing logical replication slot + named <parameter>src_slot_name</parameter> to a logical replication + slot named <parameter>dst_slot_name</parameter>, optionally changing + the output plugin and persistence. The copied logical slot starts + from the same <acronym>LSN</acronym> as the source logical slot. Both + <parameter>temporary</parameter> and <parameter>plugin</parameter> are + optional; if they are omitted, the values of the source slot are used. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_logical_slot_get_changes</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_logical_slot_get_changes</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <parameter>xid</parameter> <type>xid</type>, + <parameter>data</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns changes in the slot <parameter>slot_name</parameter>, starting + from the point from which changes have been consumed last. If + <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> + and <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> are NULL, + logical decoding will continue until end of WAL. If + <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> is non-NULL, decoding will include only + those transactions which commit prior to the specified LSN. If + <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> is non-NULL, decoding will + stop when the number of rows produced by decoding exceeds + the specified value. Note, however, that the actual number of + rows returned may be larger, since this limit is only checked after + adding the rows produced when decoding each new transaction commit. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_logical_slot_peek_changes</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_logical_slot_peek_changes</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <parameter>xid</parameter> <type>xid</type>, + <parameter>data</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Behaves just like + the <function>pg_logical_slot_get_changes()</function> function, + except that changes are not consumed; that is, they will be returned + again on future calls. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_logical_slot_get_binary_changes</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_logical_slot_get_binary_changes</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <parameter>xid</parameter> <type>xid</type>, + <parameter>data</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Behaves just like + the <function>pg_logical_slot_get_changes()</function> function, + except that changes are returned as <type>bytea</type>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_logical_slot_peek_binary_changes</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_logical_slot_peek_binary_changes</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>upto_nchanges</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <literal>VARIADIC</literal> <parameter>options</parameter> <type>text[]</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, + <parameter>xid</parameter> <type>xid</type>, + <parameter>data</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Behaves just like + the <function>pg_logical_slot_peek_changes()</function> function, + except that changes are returned as <type>bytea</type>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_slot_advance</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_slot_advance</function> ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, <parameter>upto_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>slot_name</parameter> <type>name</type>, + <parameter>end_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Advances the current confirmed position of a replication slot named + <parameter>slot_name</parameter>. The slot will not be moved backwards, + and it will not be moved beyond the current insert location. Returns + the name of the slot and the actual position that it was advanced to. + The updated slot position information is written out at the next + checkpoint if any advancing is done. So in the event of a crash, the + slot may return to an earlier position. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-create" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_create</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_create</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Creates a replication origin with the given external + name, and returns the internal ID assigned to it. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-drop" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_drop</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_drop</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Deletes a previously-created replication origin, including any + associated replay progress. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_oid</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_oid</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Looks up a replication origin by name and returns the internal ID. If + no such replication origin is found, <literal>NULL</literal> is + returned. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-session-setup" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_session_setup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_session_setup</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Marks the current session as replaying from the given + origin, allowing replay progress to be tracked. + Can only be used if no origin is currently selected. + Use <function>pg_replication_origin_session_reset</function> to undo. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_session_reset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_session_reset</function> () + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cancels the effects + of <function>pg_replication_origin_session_setup()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_session_is_setup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_session_is_setup</function> () + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns true if a replication origin has been selected in the + current session. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-session-progress" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_session_progress</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_session_progress</function> ( <parameter>flush</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the replay location for the replication origin selected in + the current session. The parameter <parameter>flush</parameter> + determines whether the corresponding local transaction will be + guaranteed to have been flushed to disk or not. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-xact-setup" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_xact_setup</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_xact_setup</function> ( <parameter>origin_lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type>, <parameter>origin_timestamp</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Marks the current transaction as replaying a transaction that has + committed at the given <acronym>LSN</acronym> and timestamp. Can + only be called when a replication origin has been selected + using <function>pg_replication_origin_session_setup</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-xact-reset" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_xact_reset</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_xact_reset</function> () + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cancels the effects of + <function>pg_replication_origin_xact_setup()</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-advance" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_advance</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_advance</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>lsn</parameter> <type>pg_lsn</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Sets replication progress for the given node to the given + location. This is primarily useful for setting up the initial + location, or setting a new location after configuration changes and + similar. Be aware that careless use of this function can lead to + inconsistently replicated data. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry id="pg-replication-origin-progress" role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_replication_origin_progress</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_replication_origin_progress</function> ( <parameter>node_name</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>flush</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the replay location for the given replication origin. The + parameter <parameter>flush</parameter> determines whether the + corresponding local transaction will be guaranteed to have been + flushed to disk or not. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_logical_emit_message</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_logical_emit_message</function> ( <parameter>transactional</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>prefix</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>content</parameter> <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_logical_emit_message</function> ( <parameter>transactional</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>prefix</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>content</parameter> <type>bytea</type> ) + <returnvalue>pg_lsn</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Emits a logical decoding message. This can be used to pass generic + messages to logical decoding plugins through + WAL. The <parameter>transactional</parameter> parameter specifies if + the message should be part of the current transaction, or if it should + be written immediately and decoded as soon as the logical decoder + reads the record. The <parameter>prefix</parameter> parameter is a + textual prefix that can be used by logical decoding plugins to easily + recognize messages that are interesting for them. + The <parameter>content</parameter> parameter is the content of the + message, given either in text or binary form. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-dbobject"> + <title>Database Object Management Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-admin-dbsize"/> calculate + the disk space usage of database objects, or assist in presentation + or understanding of usage results. <literal>bigint</literal> results + are measured in bytes. If an OID that does + not represent an existing object is passed to one of these + functions, <literal>NULL</literal> is returned. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-dbsize"> + <title>Database Object Size Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_column_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_column_size</function> ( <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Shows the number of bytes used to store any individual data value. If + applied directly to a table column value, this reflects any + compression that was done. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_column_compression</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_column_compression</function> ( <type>"any"</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Shows the compression algorithm that was used to compress + an individual variable-length value. Returns <literal>NULL</literal> + if the value is not compressed. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_database_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_database_size</function> ( <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_database_size</function> ( <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total disk space used by the database with the specified + name or OID. To use this function, you must + have <literal>CONNECT</literal> privilege on the specified database + (which is granted by default) or be a member of + the <literal>pg_read_all_stats</literal> role. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_indexes_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_indexes_size</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total disk space used by indexes attached to the + specified table. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_relation_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_relation_size</function> ( <parameter>relation</parameter> <type>regclass</type> <optional>, <parameter>fork</parameter> <type>text</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the disk space used by one <quote>fork</quote> of the + specified relation. (Note that for most purposes it is more + convenient to use the higher-level + functions <function>pg_total_relation_size</function> + or <function>pg_table_size</function>, which sum the sizes of all + forks.) With one argument, this returns the size of the main data + fork of the relation. The second argument can be provided to specify + which fork to examine: + <itemizedlist spacing="compact"> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>main</literal> returns the size of the main + data fork of the relation. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>fsm</literal> returns the size of the Free Space Map + (see <xref linkend="storage-fsm"/>) associated with the relation. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>vm</literal> returns the size of the Visibility Map + (see <xref linkend="storage-vm"/>) associated with the relation. + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + <literal>init</literal> returns the size of the initialization + fork, if any, associated with the relation. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_size_bytes</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_size_bytes</function> ( <type>text</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a size in human-readable format (as returned + by <function>pg_size_pretty</function>) into bytes. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_size_pretty</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_size_pretty</function> ( <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_size_pretty</function> ( <type>numeric</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Converts a size in bytes into a more easily human-readable format with + size units (bytes, kB, MB, GB or TB as appropriate). Note that the + units are powers of 2 rather than powers of 10, so 1kB is 1024 bytes, + 1MB is 1024<superscript>2</superscript> = 1048576 bytes, and so on. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_table_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_table_size</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the disk space used by the specified table, excluding indexes + (but including its TOAST table if any, free space map, and visibility + map). + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_tablespace_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_tablespace_size</function> ( <type>name</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_tablespace_size</function> ( <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total disk space used in the tablespace with the + specified name or OID. To use this function, you must + have <literal>CREATE</literal> privilege on the specified tablespace + or be a member of the <literal>pg_read_all_stats</literal> role, + unless it is the default tablespace for the current database. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_total_relation_size</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_total_relation_size</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Computes the total disk space used by the specified table, including + all indexes and <acronym>TOAST</acronym> data. The result is + equivalent to <function>pg_table_size</function> + <literal>+</literal> <function>pg_indexes_size</function>. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The functions above that operate on tables or indexes accept a + <type>regclass</type> argument, which is simply the OID of the table or index + in the <structname>pg_class</structname> system catalog. You do not have to look up + the OID by hand, however, since the <type>regclass</type> data type's input + converter will do the work for you. See <xref linkend="datatype-oid"/> + for details. + </para> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-admin-dblocation"/> assist + in identifying the specific disk files associated with database objects. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-dblocation"> + <title>Database Object Location Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_relation_filenode</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_relation_filenode</function> ( <parameter>relation</parameter> <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the <quote>filenode</quote> number currently assigned to the + specified relation. The filenode is the base component of the file + name(s) used for the relation (see + <xref linkend="storage-file-layout"/> for more information). + For most relations the result is the same as + <structname>pg_class</structname>.<structfield>relfilenode</structfield>, + but for certain system catalogs <structfield>relfilenode</structfield> + is zero and this function must be used to get the correct value. The + function returns NULL if passed a relation that does not have storage, + such as a view. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_relation_filepath</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_relation_filepath</function> ( <parameter>relation</parameter> <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the entire file path name (relative to the database cluster's + data directory, <varname>PGDATA</varname>) of the relation. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_filenode_relation</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_filenode_relation</function> ( <parameter>tablespace</parameter> <type>oid</type>, <parameter>filenode</parameter> <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>regclass</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a relation's OID given the tablespace OID and filenode it is + stored under. This is essentially the inverse mapping of + <function>pg_relation_filepath</function>. For a relation in the + database's default tablespace, the tablespace can be specified as zero. + Returns <literal>NULL</literal> if no relation in the current database + is associated with the given values. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-admin-collation"/> lists functions used to manage + collations. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-collation"> + <title>Collation Management Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_collation_actual_version</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_collation_actual_version</function> ( <type>oid</type> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the actual version of the collation object as it is currently + installed in the operating system. If this is different from the + value in + <structname>pg_collation</structname>.<structfield>collversion</structfield>, + then objects depending on the collation might need to be rebuilt. See + also <xref linkend="sql-altercollation"/>. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_import_system_collations</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_import_system_collations</function> ( <parameter>schema</parameter> <type>regnamespace</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Adds collations to the system + catalog <structname>pg_collation</structname> based on all the locales + it finds in the operating system. This is + what <command>initdb</command> uses; see + <xref linkend="collation-managing"/> for more details. If additional + locales are installed into the operating system later on, this + function can be run again to add collations for the new locales. + Locales that match existing entries + in <structname>pg_collation</structname> will be skipped. (But + collation objects based on locales that are no longer present in the + operating system are not removed by this function.) + The <parameter>schema</parameter> parameter would typically + be <literal>pg_catalog</literal>, but that is not a requirement; the + collations could be installed into some other schema as well. The + function returns the number of new collation objects it created. + Use of this function is restricted to superusers. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-info-partition"/> lists functions that provide + information about the structure of partitioned tables. + </para> + + <table id="functions-info-partition"> + <title>Partitioning Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_partition_tree</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_partition_tree</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>relid</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, + <parameter>parentrelid</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, + <parameter>isleaf</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, + <parameter>level</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Lists the tables or indexes in the partition tree of the + given partitioned table or partitioned index, with one row for each + partition. Information provided includes the OID of the partition, + the OID of its immediate parent, a boolean value telling if the + partition is a leaf, and an integer telling its level in the hierarchy. + The level value is 0 for the input table or index, 1 for its + immediate child partitions, 2 for their partitions, and so on. + Returns no rows if the relation does not exist or is not a partition + or partitioned table. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_partition_ancestors</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_partition_ancestors</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>setof regclass</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Lists the ancestor relations of the given partition, + including the relation itself. Returns no rows if the relation + does not exist or is not a partition or partitioned table. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_partition_root</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_partition_root</function> ( <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>regclass</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the top-most parent of the partition tree to which the given + relation belongs. Returns <literal>NULL</literal> if the relation + does not exist or is not a partition or partitioned table. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + For example, to check the total size of the data contained in a + partitioned table <structname>measurement</structname>, one could use the + following query: +<programlisting> +SELECT pg_size_pretty(sum(pg_relation_size(relid))) AS total_size + FROM pg_partition_tree('measurement'); +</programlisting> + </para> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-index"> + <title>Index Maintenance Functions</title> + + <para> + <xref linkend="functions-admin-index-table"/> shows the functions + available for index maintenance tasks. (Note that these maintenance + tasks are normally done automatically by autovacuum; use of these + functions is only required in special cases.) + These functions cannot be executed during recovery. + Use of these functions is restricted to superusers and the owner + of the given index. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-index-table"> + <title>Index Maintenance Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>brin_summarize_new_values</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>brin_summarize_new_values</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Scans the specified BRIN index to find page ranges in the base table + that are not currently summarized by the index; for any such range it + creates a new summary index tuple by scanning those table pages. + Returns the number of new page range summaries that were inserted + into the index. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>brin_summarize_range</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>brin_summarize_range</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>blockNumber</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Summarizes the page range covering the given block, if not already + summarized. This is + like <function>brin_summarize_new_values</function> except that it + only processes the page range that covers the given table block number. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>brin_desummarize_range</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>brin_desummarize_range</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type>, <parameter>blockNumber</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Removes the BRIN index tuple that summarizes the page range covering + the given table block, if there is one. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>gin_clean_pending_list</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>gin_clean_pending_list</function> ( <parameter>index</parameter> <type>regclass</type> ) + <returnvalue>bigint</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Cleans up the <quote>pending</quote> list of the specified GIN index + by moving entries in it, in bulk, to the main GIN data structure. + Returns the number of pages removed from the pending list. + If the argument is a GIN index built with + the <literal>fastupdate</literal> option disabled, no cleanup happens + and the result is zero, because the index doesn't have a pending list. + See <xref linkend="gin-fast-update"/> and <xref linkend="gin-tips"/> + for details about the pending list and <literal>fastupdate</literal> + option. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-admin-genfile"> + <title>Generic File Access Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref + linkend="functions-admin-genfile-table"/> provide native access to + files on the machine hosting the server. Only files within the + database cluster directory and the <varname>log_directory</varname> can be + accessed, unless the user is a superuser or is granted the role + <literal>pg_read_server_files</literal>. Use a relative path for files in + the cluster directory, and a path matching the <varname>log_directory</varname> + configuration setting for log files. + </para> + + <para> + Note that granting users the EXECUTE privilege on + <function>pg_read_file()</function>, or related functions, allows them the + ability to read any file on the server that the database server process can + read; these functions bypass all in-database privilege checks. This means + that, for example, a user with such access is able to read the contents of + the <structname>pg_authid</structname> table where authentication + information is stored, as well as read any table data in the database. + Therefore, granting access to these functions should be carefully + considered. + </para> + + <para> + Some of these functions take an optional <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> + parameter, which specifies the behavior when the file or directory does + not exist. If <literal>true</literal>, the function + returns <literal>NULL</literal> or an empty result set, as appropriate. + If <literal>false</literal>, an error is raised. The default + is <literal>false</literal>. + </para> + + <table id="functions-admin-genfile-table"> + <title>Generic File Access Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ls_dir</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ls_dir</function> ( <parameter>dirname</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> <type>boolean</type>, <parameter>include_dot_dirs</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the names of all files (and directories and other special + files) in the specified + directory. The <parameter>include_dot_dirs</parameter> parameter + indicates whether <quote>.</quote> and <quote>..</quote> are to be + included in the result set; the default is to exclude them. Including + them can be useful when <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> + is <literal>true</literal>, to distinguish an empty directory from a + non-existent directory. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ls_logdir</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ls_logdir</function> () + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>size</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>modification</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the name, size, and last modification time (mtime) of each + ordinary file in the server's log directory. Filenames beginning with + a dot, directories, and other special files are excluded. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers and members of + the <literal>pg_monitor</literal> role by default, but other users can + be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ls_waldir</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ls_waldir</function> () + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>size</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>modification</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the name, size, and last modification time (mtime) of each + ordinary file in the server's write-ahead log (WAL) directory. + Filenames beginning with a dot, directories, and other special files + are excluded. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers and members of + the <literal>pg_monitor</literal> role by default, but other users can + be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ls_archive_statusdir</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ls_archive_statusdir</function> () + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>size</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>modification</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the name, size, and last modification time (mtime) of each + ordinary file in the server's WAL archive status directory + (<filename>pg_wal/archive_status</filename>). Filenames beginning + with a dot, directories, and other special files are excluded. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers and members of + the <literal>pg_monitor</literal> role by default, but other users can + be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_ls_tmpdir</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_ls_tmpdir</function> ( <optional> <parameter>tablespace</parameter> <type>oid</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>name</parameter> <type>text</type>, + <parameter>size</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>modification</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns the name, size, and last modification time (mtime) of each + ordinary file in the temporary file directory for the + specified <parameter>tablespace</parameter>. + If <parameter>tablespace</parameter> is not provided, + the <literal>pg_default</literal> tablespace is examined. Filenames + beginning with a dot, directories, and other special files are + excluded. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers and members of + the <literal>pg_monitor</literal> role by default, but other users can + be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_read_file</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_read_file</function> ( <parameter>filename</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, <parameter>length</parameter> <type>bigint</type> <optional>, <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>text</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns all or part of a text file, starting at the + given byte <parameter>offset</parameter>, returning at + most <parameter>length</parameter> bytes (less if the end of file is + reached first). If <parameter>offset</parameter> is negative, it is + relative to the end of the file. If <parameter>offset</parameter> + and <parameter>length</parameter> are omitted, the entire file is + returned. The bytes read from the file are interpreted as a string in + the database's encoding; an error is thrown if they are not valid in + that encoding. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_read_binary_file</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_read_binary_file</function> ( <parameter>filename</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>offset</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, <parameter>length</parameter> <type>bigint</type> <optional>, <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional></optional> ) + <returnvalue>bytea</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns all or part of a file. This function is identical to + <function>pg_read_file</function> except that it can read arbitrary + binary data, returning the result as <type>bytea</type> + not <type>text</type>; accordingly, no encoding checks are performed. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para> + <para> + In combination with the <function>convert_from</function> function, + this function can be used to read a text file in a specified encoding + and convert to the database's encoding: +<programlisting> +SELECT convert_from(pg_read_binary_file('file_in_utf8.txt'), 'UTF8'); +</programlisting> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_stat_file</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_stat_file</function> ( <parameter>filename</parameter> <type>text</type> <optional>, <parameter>missing_ok</parameter> <type>boolean</type> </optional> ) + <returnvalue>record</returnvalue> + ( <parameter>size</parameter> <type>bigint</type>, + <parameter>access</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>modification</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>change</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>creation</parameter> <type>timestamp with time zone</type>, + <parameter>isdir</parameter> <type>boolean</type> ) + </para> + <para> + Returns a record containing the file's size, last access time stamp, + last modification time stamp, last file status change time stamp (Unix + platforms only), file creation time stamp (Windows only), and a flag + indicating if it is a directory. + </para> + <para> + This function is restricted to superusers by default, but other users + can be granted EXECUTE to run the function. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="functions-advisory-locks"> + <title>Advisory Lock Functions</title> + + <para> + The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-advisory-locks-table"/> + manage advisory locks. For details about proper use of these functions, + see <xref linkend="advisory-locks"/>. + </para> + + <para> + All these functions are intended to be used to lock application-defined + resources, which can be identified either by a single 64-bit key value or + two 32-bit key values (note that these two key spaces do not overlap). + If another session already holds a conflicting lock on the same resource + identifier, the functions will either wait until the resource becomes + available, or return a <literal>false</literal> result, as appropriate for + the function. + Locks can be either shared or exclusive: a shared lock does not conflict + with other shared locks on the same resource, only with exclusive locks. + Locks can be taken at session level (so that they are held until released + or the session ends) or at transaction level (so that they are held until + the current transaction ends; there is no provision for manual release). + Multiple session-level lock requests stack, so that if the same resource + identifier is locked three times there must then be three unlock requests + to release the resource in advance of session end. + </para> + + <table id="functions-advisory-locks-table"> + <title>Advisory Lock Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_lock</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_lock</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_lock</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains an exclusive session-level advisory lock, waiting if necessary. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_lock_shared</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains a shared session-level advisory lock, waiting if necessary. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_unlock</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_unlock</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_unlock</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Releases a previously-acquired exclusive session-level advisory lock. + Returns <literal>true</literal> if the lock is successfully released. + If the lock was not held, <literal>false</literal> is returned, and in + addition, an SQL warning will be reported by the server. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_unlock_all</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_unlock_all</function> () + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Releases all session-level advisory locks held by the current session. + (This function is implicitly invoked at session end, even if the + client disconnects ungracefully.) + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_unlock_shared</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_unlock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_unlock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Releases a previously-acquired shared session-level advisory lock. + Returns <literal>true</literal> if the lock is successfully released. + If the lock was not held, <literal>false</literal> is returned, and in + addition, an SQL warning will be reported by the server. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_xact_lock</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_xact_lock</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_xact_lock</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains an exclusive transaction-level advisory lock, waiting if + necessary. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_advisory_xact_lock_shared</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_advisory_xact_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_advisory_xact_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>void</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains a shared transaction-level advisory lock, waiting if + necessary. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_try_advisory_lock</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_try_advisory_lock</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_try_advisory_lock</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains an exclusive session-level advisory lock if available. + This will either obtain the lock immediately and + return <literal>true</literal>, or return <literal>false</literal> + without waiting if the lock cannot be acquired immediately. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_try_advisory_lock_shared</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_try_advisory_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_try_advisory_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains a shared session-level advisory lock if available. + This will either obtain the lock immediately and + return <literal>true</literal>, or return <literal>false</literal> + without waiting if the lock cannot be acquired immediately. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains an exclusive transaction-level advisory lock if available. + This will either obtain the lock immediately and + return <literal>true</literal>, or return <literal>false</literal> + without waiting if the lock cannot be acquired immediately. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock_shared</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key</parameter> <type>bigint</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para role="func_signature"> + <function>pg_try_advisory_xact_lock_shared</function> ( <parameter>key1</parameter> <type>integer</type>, <parameter>key2</parameter> <type>integer</type> ) + <returnvalue>boolean</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Obtains a shared transaction-level advisory lock if available. + This will either obtain the lock immediately and + return <literal>true</literal>, or return <literal>false</literal> + without waiting if the lock cannot be acquired immediately. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + </sect2> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-trigger"> + <title>Trigger Functions</title> + + <para> + While many uses of triggers involve user-written trigger functions, + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a few built-in trigger + functions that can be used directly in user-defined triggers. These + are summarized in <xref linkend="builtin-triggers-table"/>. + (Additional built-in trigger functions exist, which implement foreign + key constraints and deferred index constraints. Those are not documented + here since users need not use them directly.) + </para> + + <para> + For more information about creating triggers, see + <xref linkend="sql-createtrigger"/>. + </para> + + <table id="builtin-triggers-table"> + <title>Built-In Trigger Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para> + <para> + Example Usage + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>suppress_redundant_updates_trigger</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>suppress_redundant_updates_trigger</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>trigger</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Suppresses do-nothing update operations. See below for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>CREATE TRIGGER ... suppress_redundant_updates_trigger()</literal> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tsvector_update_trigger</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tsvector_update_trigger</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>trigger</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Automatically updates a <type>tsvector</type> column from associated + plain-text document column(s). The text search configuration to use + is specified by name as a trigger argument. See + <xref linkend="textsearch-update-triggers"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>CREATE TRIGGER ... tsvector_update_trigger(tsvcol, 'pg_catalog.swedish', title, body)</literal> + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>tsvector_update_trigger_column</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>tsvector_update_trigger_column</function> ( ) + <returnvalue>trigger</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Automatically updates a <type>tsvector</type> column from associated + plain-text document column(s). The text search configuration to use + is taken from a <type>regconfig</type> column of the table. See + <xref linkend="textsearch-update-triggers"/> for details. + </para> + <para> + <literal>CREATE TRIGGER ... tsvector_update_trigger_column(tsvcol, tsconfigcol, title, body)</literal> + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + The <function>suppress_redundant_updates_trigger</function> function, + when applied as a row-level <literal>BEFORE UPDATE</literal> trigger, + will prevent any update that does not actually change the data in the + row from taking place. This overrides the normal behavior which always + performs a physical row update + regardless of whether or not the data has changed. (This normal behavior + makes updates run faster, since no checking is required, and is also + useful in certain cases.) + </para> + + <para> + Ideally, you should avoid running updates that don't actually + change the data in the record. Redundant updates can cost considerable + unnecessary time, especially if there are lots of indexes to alter, + and space in dead rows that will eventually have to be vacuumed. + However, detecting such situations in client code is not + always easy, or even possible, and writing expressions to detect + them can be error-prone. An alternative is to use + <function>suppress_redundant_updates_trigger</function>, which will skip + updates that don't change the data. You should use this with care, + however. The trigger takes a small but non-trivial time for each record, + so if most of the records affected by updates do actually change, + use of this trigger will make updates run slower on average. + </para> + + <para> + The <function>suppress_redundant_updates_trigger</function> function can be + added to a table like this: +<programlisting> +CREATE TRIGGER z_min_update +BEFORE UPDATE ON tablename +FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE FUNCTION suppress_redundant_updates_trigger(); +</programlisting> + In most cases, you need to fire this trigger last for each row, so that + it does not override other triggers that might wish to alter the row. + Bearing in mind that triggers fire in name order, you would therefore + choose a trigger name that comes after the name of any other trigger + you might have on the table. (Hence the <quote>z</quote> prefix in the + example.) + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-event-triggers"> + <title>Event Trigger Functions</title> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides these helper functions + to retrieve information from event triggers. + </para> + + <para> + For more information about event triggers, + see <xref linkend="event-triggers"/>. + </para> + + <sect2 id="pg-event-trigger-ddl-command-end-functions"> + <title>Capturing Changes at Command End</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_event_trigger_ddl_commands</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>pg_event_trigger_ddl_commands</function> () <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + <function>pg_event_trigger_ddl_commands</function> returns a list of + <acronym>DDL</acronym> commands executed by each user action, + when invoked in a function attached to a + <literal>ddl_command_end</literal> event trigger. If called in any other + context, an error is raised. + <function>pg_event_trigger_ddl_commands</function> returns one row for each + base command executed; some commands that are a single SQL sentence + may return more than one row. This function returns the following + columns: + + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols="3"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Name</entry> + <entry>Type</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>classid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + <entry>OID of catalog the object belongs in</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>objid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + <entry>OID of the object itself</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>objsubid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + <entry>Sub-object ID (e.g., attribute number for a column)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>command_tag</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry>Command tag</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>object_type</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry>Type of the object</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>schema_name</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry> + Name of the schema the object belongs in, if any; otherwise <literal>NULL</literal>. + No quoting is applied. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>object_identity</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry> + Text rendering of the object identity, schema-qualified. Each + identifier included in the identity is quoted if necessary. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>in_extension</literal></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + <entry>True if the command is part of an extension script</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>command</literal></entry> + <entry><type>pg_ddl_command</type></entry> + <entry> + A complete representation of the command, in internal format. + This cannot be output directly, but it can be passed to other + functions to obtain different pieces of information about the + command. + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="pg-event-trigger-sql-drop-functions"> + <title>Processing Objects Dropped by a DDL Command</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_event_trigger_dropped_objects</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>pg_event_trigger_dropped_objects</function> () <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + <function>pg_event_trigger_dropped_objects</function> returns a list of all objects + dropped by the command in whose <literal>sql_drop</literal> event it is called. + If called in any other context, an error is raised. + This function returns the following columns: + + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols="3"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Name</entry> + <entry>Type</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>classid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + <entry>OID of catalog the object belonged in</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>objid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>oid</type></entry> + <entry>OID of the object itself</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>objsubid</literal></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + <entry>Sub-object ID (e.g., attribute number for a column)</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>original</literal></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + <entry>True if this was one of the root object(s) of the deletion</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>normal</literal></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + <entry> + True if there was a normal dependency relationship + in the dependency graph leading to this object + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>is_temporary</literal></entry> + <entry><type>boolean</type></entry> + <entry> + True if this was a temporary object + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>object_type</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry>Type of the object</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>schema_name</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry> + Name of the schema the object belonged in, if any; otherwise <literal>NULL</literal>. + No quoting is applied. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>object_name</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry> + Name of the object, if the combination of schema and name can be + used as a unique identifier for the object; otherwise <literal>NULL</literal>. + No quoting is applied, and name is never schema-qualified. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>object_identity</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text</type></entry> + <entry> + Text rendering of the object identity, schema-qualified. Each + identifier included in the identity is quoted if necessary. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>address_names</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text[]</type></entry> + <entry> + An array that, together with <literal>object_type</literal> and + <literal>address_args</literal>, can be used by + the <function>pg_get_object_address</function> function to + recreate the object address in a remote server containing an + identically named object of the same kind. + </entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>address_args</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text[]</type></entry> + <entry> + Complement for <literal>address_names</literal> + </entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>pg_event_trigger_dropped_objects</function> function can be used + in an event trigger like this: +<programlisting> +CREATE FUNCTION test_event_trigger_for_drops() + RETURNS event_trigger LANGUAGE plpgsql AS $$ +DECLARE + obj record; +BEGIN + FOR obj IN SELECT * FROM pg_event_trigger_dropped_objects() + LOOP + RAISE NOTICE '% dropped object: % %.% %', + tg_tag, + obj.object_type, + obj.schema_name, + obj.object_name, + obj.object_identity; + END LOOP; +END; +$$; +CREATE EVENT TRIGGER test_event_trigger_for_drops + ON sql_drop + EXECUTE FUNCTION test_event_trigger_for_drops(); +</programlisting> + </para> + </sect2> + + <sect2 id="pg-event-trigger-table-rewrite-functions"> + <title>Handling a Table Rewrite Event</title> + + <para> + The functions shown in + <xref linkend="functions-event-trigger-table-rewrite"/> + provide information about a table for which a + <literal>table_rewrite</literal> event has just been called. + If called in any other context, an error is raised. + </para> + + <table id="functions-event-trigger-table-rewrite"> + <title>Table Rewrite Information Functions</title> + <tgroup cols="1"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + Function + </para> + <para> + Description + </para></entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_oid</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_oid</function> () + <returnvalue>oid</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns the OID of the table about to be rewritten. + </para></entry> + </row> + + <row> + <entry role="func_table_entry"><para role="func_signature"> + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_reason</primary> + </indexterm> + <function>pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_reason</function> () + <returnvalue>integer</returnvalue> + </para> + <para> + Returns a code explaining the reason(s) for rewriting. The exact + meaning of the codes is release dependent. + </para></entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </table> + + <para> + These functions can be used in an event trigger like this: +<programlisting> +CREATE FUNCTION test_event_trigger_table_rewrite_oid() + RETURNS event_trigger + LANGUAGE plpgsql AS +$$ +BEGIN + RAISE NOTICE 'rewriting table % for reason %', + pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_oid()::regclass, + pg_event_trigger_table_rewrite_reason(); +END; +$$; + +CREATE EVENT TRIGGER test_table_rewrite_oid + ON table_rewrite + EXECUTE FUNCTION test_event_trigger_table_rewrite_oid(); +</programlisting> + </para> + </sect2> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="functions-statistics"> + <title>Statistics Information Functions</title> + + <indexterm zone="functions-statistics"> + <primary>function</primary> + <secondary>statistics</secondary> + </indexterm> + + <para> + <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a function to inspect complex + statistics defined using the <command>CREATE STATISTICS</command> command. + </para> + + <sect2 id="functions-statistics-mcv"> + <title>Inspecting MCV Lists</title> + + <indexterm> + <primary>pg_mcv_list_items</primary> + </indexterm> + +<synopsis> +<function>pg_mcv_list_items</function> ( <type>pg_mcv_list</type> ) <returnvalue>setof record</returnvalue> +</synopsis> + + <para> + <function>pg_mcv_list_items</function> returns a set of records describing + all items stored in a multi-column <acronym>MCV</acronym> list. It + returns the following columns: + + <informaltable> + <tgroup cols="3"> + <thead> + <row> + <entry>Name</entry> + <entry>Type</entry> + <entry>Description</entry> + </row> + </thead> + + <tbody> + <row> + <entry><literal>index</literal></entry> + <entry><type>integer</type></entry> + <entry>index of the item in the <acronym>MCV</acronym> list</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>values</literal></entry> + <entry><type>text[]</type></entry> + <entry>values stored in the MCV item</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>nulls</literal></entry> + <entry><type>boolean[]</type></entry> + <entry>flags identifying <literal>NULL</literal> values</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>frequency</literal></entry> + <entry><type>double precision</type></entry> + <entry>frequency of this <acronym>MCV</acronym> item</entry> + </row> + <row> + <entry><literal>base_frequency</literal></entry> + <entry><type>double precision</type></entry> + <entry>base frequency of this <acronym>MCV</acronym> item</entry> + </row> + </tbody> + </tgroup> + </informaltable> + </para> + + <para> + The <function>pg_mcv_list_items</function> function can be used like this: + +<programlisting> +SELECT m.* FROM pg_statistic_ext join pg_statistic_ext_data on (oid = stxoid), + pg_mcv_list_items(stxdmcv) m WHERE stxname = 'stts'; +</programlisting> + + Values of the <type>pg_mcv_list</type> type can be obtained only from the + <structname>pg_statistic_ext_data</structname>.<structfield>stxdmcv</structfield> + column. + </para> + </sect2> + + </sect1> + +</chapter> |