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diff --git a/doc/src/sgml/html/ddl-constraints.html b/doc/src/sgml/html/ddl-constraints.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b567f7c --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/src/sgml/html/ddl-constraints.html @@ -0,0 +1,607 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"><html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>5.4. Constraints</title><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="stylesheet.css" /><link rev="made" href="pgsql-docs@lists.postgresql.org" /><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets Vsnapshot" /><link rel="prev" href="ddl-generated-columns.html" title="5.3. Generated Columns" /><link rel="next" href="ddl-system-columns.html" title="5.5. System Columns" /></head><body id="docContent" class="container-fluid col-10"><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="5" align="center">5.4. Constraints</th></tr><tr><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="ddl-generated-columns.html" title="5.3. Generated Columns">Prev</a> </td><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="u" href="ddl.html" title="Chapter 5. Data Definition">Up</a></td><th width="60%" align="center">Chapter 5. Data Definition</th><td width="10%" align="right"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html" title="PostgreSQL 15.5 Documentation">Home</a></td><td width="10%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="ddl-system-columns.html" title="5.5. System Columns">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="sect1" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">5.4. Constraints</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#DDL-CONSTRAINTS-CHECK-CONSTRAINTS">5.4.1. Check Constraints</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#id-1.5.4.6.6">5.4.2. Not-Null Constraints</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#DDL-CONSTRAINTS-UNIQUE-CONSTRAINTS">5.4.3. Unique Constraints</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#DDL-CONSTRAINTS-PRIMARY-KEYS">5.4.4. Primary Keys</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#DDL-CONSTRAINTS-FK">5.4.5. Foreign Keys</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="ddl-constraints.html#DDL-CONSTRAINTS-EXCLUSION">5.4.6. Exclusion Constraints</a></span></dt></dl></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.2" class="indexterm"></a><p> + Data types are a way to limit the kind of data that can be stored + in a table. For many applications, however, the constraint they + provide is too coarse. For example, a column containing a product + price should probably only accept positive values. But there is no + standard data type that accepts only positive numbers. Another issue is + that you might want to constrain column data with respect to other + columns or rows. For example, in a table containing product + information, there should be only one row for each product number. + </p><p> + To that end, SQL allows you to define constraints on columns and + tables. Constraints give you as much control over the data in your + tables as you wish. If a user attempts to store data in a column + that would violate a constraint, an error is raised. This applies + even if the value came from the default value definition. + </p><div class="sect2" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS-CHECK-CONSTRAINTS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.1. Check Constraints</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.5.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.5.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A check constraint is the most generic constraint type. It allows + you to specify that the value in a certain column must satisfy a + Boolean (truth-value) expression. For instance, to require positive + product prices, you could use: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric <span class="emphasis"><strong>CHECK (price > 0)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + As you see, the constraint definition comes after the data type, + just like default value definitions. Default values and + constraints can be listed in any order. A check constraint + consists of the key word <code class="literal">CHECK</code> followed by an + expression in parentheses. The check constraint expression should + involve the column thus constrained, otherwise the constraint + would not make too much sense. + </p><a id="id-1.5.4.6.5.6" class="indexterm"></a><p> + You can also give the constraint a separate name. This clarifies + error messages and allows you to refer to the constraint when you + need to change it. The syntax is: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric <span class="emphasis"><strong>CONSTRAINT positive_price</strong></span> CHECK (price > 0) +); +</pre><p> + So, to specify a named constraint, use the key word + <code class="literal">CONSTRAINT</code> followed by an identifier followed + by the constraint definition. (If you don't specify a constraint + name in this way, the system chooses a name for you.) + </p><p> + A check constraint can also refer to several columns. Say you + store a regular price and a discounted price, and you want to + ensure that the discounted price is lower than the regular price: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric CHECK (price > 0), + discounted_price numeric CHECK (discounted_price > 0), + <span class="emphasis"><strong>CHECK (price > discounted_price)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + The first two constraints should look familiar. The third one + uses a new syntax. It is not attached to a particular column, + instead it appears as a separate item in the comma-separated + column list. Column definitions and these constraint + definitions can be listed in mixed order. + </p><p> + We say that the first two constraints are column constraints, whereas the + third one is a table constraint because it is written separately + from any one column definition. Column constraints can also be + written as table constraints, while the reverse is not necessarily + possible, since a column constraint is supposed to refer to only the + column it is attached to. (<span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> doesn't + enforce that rule, but you should follow it if you want your table + definitions to work with other database systems.) The above example could + also be written as: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric, + CHECK (price > 0), + discounted_price numeric, + CHECK (discounted_price > 0), + CHECK (price > discounted_price) +); +</pre><p> + or even: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric CHECK (price > 0), + discounted_price numeric, + CHECK (discounted_price > 0 AND price > discounted_price) +); +</pre><p> + It's a matter of taste. + </p><p> + Names can be assigned to table constraints in the same way as + column constraints: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric, + CHECK (price > 0), + discounted_price numeric, + CHECK (discounted_price > 0), + <span class="emphasis"><strong>CONSTRAINT valid_discount</strong></span> CHECK (price > discounted_price) +); +</pre><p> + </p><a id="id-1.5.4.6.5.12" class="indexterm"></a><p> + It should be noted that a check constraint is satisfied if the + check expression evaluates to true or the null value. Since most + expressions will evaluate to the null value if any operand is null, + they will not prevent null values in the constrained columns. To + ensure that a column does not contain null values, the not-null + constraint described in the next section can be used. + </p><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> does not support + <code class="literal">CHECK</code> constraints that reference table data other than + the new or updated row being checked. While a <code class="literal">CHECK</code> + constraint that violates this rule may appear to work in simple + tests, it cannot guarantee that the database will not reach a state + in which the constraint condition is false (due to subsequent changes + of the other row(s) involved). This would cause a database dump and + restore to fail. The restore could fail even when the complete + database state is consistent with the constraint, due to rows not + being loaded in an order that will satisfy the constraint. If + possible, use <code class="literal">UNIQUE</code>, <code class="literal">EXCLUDE</code>, + or <code class="literal">FOREIGN KEY</code> constraints to express + cross-row and cross-table restrictions. + </p><p> + If what you desire is a one-time check against other rows at row + insertion, rather than a continuously-maintained consistency + guarantee, a custom <a class="link" href="triggers.html" title="Chapter 39. Triggers">trigger</a> can be used + to implement that. (This approach avoids the dump/restore problem because + <span class="application">pg_dump</span> does not reinstall triggers until after + restoring data, so that the check will not be enforced during a + dump/restore.) + </p></div><div class="note"><h3 class="title">Note</h3><p> + <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> assumes that + <code class="literal">CHECK</code> constraints' conditions are immutable, that + is, they will always give the same result for the same input row. + This assumption is what justifies examining <code class="literal">CHECK</code> + constraints only when rows are inserted or updated, and not at other + times. (The warning above about not referencing other table data is + really a special case of this restriction.) + </p><p> + An example of a common way to break this assumption is to reference a + user-defined function in a <code class="literal">CHECK</code> expression, and + then change the behavior of that + function. <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> does not disallow + that, but it will not notice if there are rows in the table that now + violate the <code class="literal">CHECK</code> constraint. That would cause a + subsequent database dump and restore to fail. + The recommended way to handle such a change is to drop the constraint + (using <code class="command">ALTER TABLE</code>), adjust the function definition, + and re-add the constraint, thereby rechecking it against all table rows. + </p></div></div><div class="sect2" id="id-1.5.4.6.6"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.2. Not-Null Constraints</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.6.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.6.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A not-null constraint simply specifies that a column must not + assume the null value. A syntax example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>NOT NULL</strong></span>, + name text <span class="emphasis"><strong>NOT NULL</strong></span>, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + A not-null constraint is always written as a column constraint. A + not-null constraint is functionally equivalent to creating a check + constraint <code class="literal">CHECK (<em class="replaceable"><code>column_name</code></em> + IS NOT NULL)</code>, but in + <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> creating an explicit + not-null constraint is more efficient. The drawback is that you + cannot give explicit names to not-null constraints created this + way. + </p><p> + Of course, a column can have more than one constraint. Just write + the constraints one after another: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer NOT NULL, + name text NOT NULL, + price numeric NOT NULL CHECK (price > 0) +); +</pre><p> + The order doesn't matter. It does not necessarily determine in which + order the constraints are checked. + </p><p> + The <code class="literal">NOT NULL</code> constraint has an inverse: the + <code class="literal">NULL</code> constraint. This does not mean that the + column must be null, which would surely be useless. Instead, this + simply selects the default behavior that the column might be null. + The <code class="literal">NULL</code> constraint is not present in the SQL + standard and should not be used in portable applications. (It was + only added to <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span> to be + compatible with some other database systems.) Some users, however, + like it because it makes it easy to toggle the constraint in a + script file. For example, you could start with: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer NULL, + name text NULL, + price numeric NULL +); +</pre><p> + and then insert the <code class="literal">NOT</code> key word where desired. + </p><div class="tip"><h3 class="title">Tip</h3><p> + In most database designs the majority of columns should be marked + not null. + </p></div></div><div class="sect2" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS-UNIQUE-CONSTRAINTS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.3. Unique Constraints</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.7.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.7.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + Unique constraints ensure that the data contained in a column, or a + group of columns, is unique among all the rows in the + table. The syntax is: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>UNIQUE</strong></span>, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + when written as a column constraint, and: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric, + <span class="emphasis"><strong>UNIQUE (product_no)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + when written as a table constraint. + </p><p> + To define a unique constraint for a group of columns, write it as a + table constraint with the column names separated by commas: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE example ( + a integer, + b integer, + c integer, + <span class="emphasis"><strong>UNIQUE (a, c)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + This specifies that the combination of values in the indicated columns + is unique across the whole table, though any one of the columns + need not be (and ordinarily isn't) unique. + </p><p> + You can assign your own name for a unique constraint, in the usual way: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>CONSTRAINT must_be_different</strong></span> UNIQUE, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Adding a unique constraint will automatically create a unique B-tree + index on the column or group of columns listed in the constraint. + A uniqueness restriction covering only some rows cannot be written as + a unique constraint, but it is possible to enforce such a restriction by + creating a unique <a class="link" href="indexes-partial.html" title="11.8. Partial Indexes">partial index</a>. + </p><a id="id-1.5.4.6.7.8" class="indexterm"></a><p> + In general, a unique constraint is violated if there is more than + one row in the table where the values of all of the + columns included in the constraint are equal. + By default, two null values are not considered equal in this + comparison. That means even in the presence of a + unique constraint it is possible to store duplicate + rows that contain a null value in at least one of the constrained + columns. This behavior can be changed by adding the clause <code class="literal">NULLS + NOT DISTINCT</code>, like +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer UNIQUE <span class="emphasis"><strong>NULLS NOT DISTINCT</strong></span>, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + or +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer, + name text, + price numeric, + UNIQUE <span class="emphasis"><strong>NULLS NOT DISTINCT</strong></span> (product_no) +); +</pre><p> + The default behavior can be specified explicitly using <code class="literal">NULLS + DISTINCT</code>. The default null treatment in unique constraints is + implementation-defined according to the SQL standard, and other + implementations have a different behavior. So be careful when developing + applications that are intended to be portable. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS-PRIMARY-KEYS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.4. Primary Keys</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.8.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.8.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A primary key constraint indicates that a column, or group of columns, + can be used as a unique identifier for rows in the table. This + requires that the values be both unique and not null. So, the following + two table definitions accept the same data: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer UNIQUE NOT NULL, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>PRIMARY KEY</strong></span>, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Primary keys can span more than one column; the syntax + is similar to unique constraints: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE example ( + a integer, + b integer, + c integer, + <span class="emphasis"><strong>PRIMARY KEY (a, c)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Adding a primary key will automatically create a unique B-tree index + on the column or group of columns listed in the primary key, and will + force the column(s) to be marked <code class="literal">NOT NULL</code>. + </p><p> + A table can have at most one primary key. (There can be any number + of unique and not-null constraints, which are functionally almost the + same thing, but only one can be identified as the primary key.) + Relational database theory + dictates that every table must have a primary key. This rule is + not enforced by <span class="productname">PostgreSQL</span>, but it is + usually best to follow it. + </p><p> + Primary keys are useful both for + documentation purposes and for client applications. For example, + a GUI application that allows modifying row values probably needs + to know the primary key of a table to be able to identify rows + uniquely. There are also various ways in which the database system + makes use of a primary key if one has been declared; for example, + the primary key defines the default target column(s) for foreign keys + referencing its table. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS-FK"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.5. Foreign Keys</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.3" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.4" class="indexterm"></a><p> + A foreign key constraint specifies that the values in a column (or + a group of columns) must match the values appearing in some row + of another table. + We say this maintains the <em class="firstterm">referential + integrity</em> between two related tables. + </p><p> + Say you have the product table that we have used several times already: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer PRIMARY KEY, + name text, + price numeric +); +</pre><p> + Let's also assume you have a table storing orders of those + products. We want to ensure that the orders table only contains + orders of products that actually exist. So we define a foreign + key constraint in the orders table that references the products + table: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE orders ( + order_id integer PRIMARY KEY, + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>REFERENCES products (product_no)</strong></span>, + quantity integer +); +</pre><p> + Now it is impossible to create orders with non-NULL + <code class="structfield">product_no</code> entries that do not appear in the + products table. + </p><p> + We say that in this situation the orders table is the + <em class="firstterm">referencing</em> table and the products table is + the <em class="firstterm">referenced</em> table. Similarly, there are + referencing and referenced columns. + </p><p> + You can also shorten the above command to: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE orders ( + order_id integer PRIMARY KEY, + product_no integer <span class="emphasis"><strong>REFERENCES products</strong></span>, + quantity integer +); +</pre><p> + because in absence of a column list the primary key of the + referenced table is used as the referenced column(s). + </p><p> + You can assign your own name for a foreign key constraint, + in the usual way. + </p><p> + A foreign key can also constrain and reference a group of columns. + As usual, it then needs to be written in table constraint form. + Here is a contrived syntax example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE t1 ( + a integer PRIMARY KEY, + b integer, + c integer, + <span class="emphasis"><strong>FOREIGN KEY (b, c) REFERENCES other_table (c1, c2)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + Of course, the number and type of the constrained columns need to + match the number and type of the referenced columns. + </p><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.11" class="indexterm"></a><p> + Sometimes it is useful for the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">other table</span>”</span> of a + foreign key constraint to be the same table; this is called + a <em class="firstterm">self-referential</em> foreign key. For + example, if you want rows of a table to represent nodes of a tree + structure, you could write +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE tree ( + node_id integer PRIMARY KEY, + parent_id integer REFERENCES tree, + name text, + ... +); +</pre><p> + A top-level node would have NULL <code class="structfield">parent_id</code>, + while non-NULL <code class="structfield">parent_id</code> entries would be + constrained to reference valid rows of the table. + </p><p> + A table can have more than one foreign key constraint. This is + used to implement many-to-many relationships between tables. Say + you have tables about products and orders, but now you want to + allow one order to contain possibly many products (which the + structure above did not allow). You could use this table structure: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer PRIMARY KEY, + name text, + price numeric +); + +CREATE TABLE orders ( + order_id integer PRIMARY KEY, + shipping_address text, + ... +); + +CREATE TABLE order_items ( + product_no integer REFERENCES products, + order_id integer REFERENCES orders, + quantity integer, + PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id) +); +</pre><p> + Notice that the primary key overlaps with the foreign keys in + the last table. + </p><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.14" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.9.15" class="indexterm"></a><p> + We know that the foreign keys disallow creation of orders that + do not relate to any products. But what if a product is removed + after an order is created that references it? SQL allows you to + handle that as well. Intuitively, we have a few options: + </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>Disallow deleting a referenced product</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>Delete the orders as well</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>Something else?</p></li></ul></div><p> + </p><p> + To illustrate this, let's implement the following policy on the + many-to-many relationship example above: when someone wants to + remove a product that is still referenced by an order (via + <code class="literal">order_items</code>), we disallow it. If someone + removes an order, the order items are removed as well: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE products ( + product_no integer PRIMARY KEY, + name text, + price numeric +); + +CREATE TABLE orders ( + order_id integer PRIMARY KEY, + shipping_address text, + ... +); + +CREATE TABLE order_items ( + product_no integer REFERENCES products <span class="emphasis"><strong>ON DELETE RESTRICT</strong></span>, + order_id integer REFERENCES orders <span class="emphasis"><strong>ON DELETE CASCADE</strong></span>, + quantity integer, + PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id) +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + Restricting and cascading deletes are the two most common options. + <code class="literal">RESTRICT</code> prevents deletion of a + referenced row. <code class="literal">NO ACTION</code> means that if any + referencing rows still exist when the constraint is checked, an error + is raised; this is the default behavior if you do not specify anything. + (The essential difference between these two choices is that + <code class="literal">NO ACTION</code> allows the check to be deferred until + later in the transaction, whereas <code class="literal">RESTRICT</code> does not.) + <code class="literal">CASCADE</code> specifies that when a referenced row is deleted, + row(s) referencing it should be automatically deleted as well. + There are two other options: + <code class="literal">SET NULL</code> and <code class="literal">SET DEFAULT</code>. + These cause the referencing column(s) in the referencing row(s) + to be set to nulls or their default + values, respectively, when the referenced row is deleted. + Note that these do not excuse you from observing any constraints. + For example, if an action specifies <code class="literal">SET DEFAULT</code> + but the default value would not satisfy the foreign key constraint, the + operation will fail. + </p><p> + The appropriate choice of <code class="literal">ON DELETE</code> action depends on + what kinds of objects the related tables represent. When the referencing + table represents something that is a component of what is represented by + the referenced table and cannot exist independently, then + <code class="literal">CASCADE</code> could be appropriate. If the two tables + represent independent objects, then <code class="literal">RESTRICT</code> or + <code class="literal">NO ACTION</code> is more appropriate; an application that + actually wants to delete both objects would then have to be explicit about + this and run two delete commands. In the above example, order items are + part of an order, and it is convenient if they are deleted automatically + if an order is deleted. But products and orders are different things, and + so making a deletion of a product automatically cause the deletion of some + order items could be considered problematic. The actions <code class="literal">SET + NULL</code> or <code class="literal">SET DEFAULT</code> can be appropriate if a + foreign-key relationship represents optional information. For example, if + the products table contained a reference to a product manager, and the + product manager entry gets deleted, then setting the product's product + manager to null or a default might be useful. + </p><p> + The actions <code class="literal">SET NULL</code> and <code class="literal">SET DEFAULT</code> + can take a column list to specify which columns to set. Normally, all + columns of the foreign-key constraint are set; setting only a subset is + useful in some special cases. Consider the following example: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE tenants ( + tenant_id integer PRIMARY KEY +); + +CREATE TABLE users ( + tenant_id integer REFERENCES tenants ON DELETE CASCADE, + user_id integer NOT NULL, + PRIMARY KEY (tenant_id, user_id) +); + +CREATE TABLE posts ( + tenant_id integer REFERENCES tenants ON DELETE CASCADE, + post_id integer NOT NULL, + author_id integer, + PRIMARY KEY (tenant_id, post_id), + FOREIGN KEY (tenant_id, author_id) REFERENCES users ON DELETE SET NULL <span class="emphasis"><strong>(author_id)</strong></span> +); +</pre><p> + Without the specification of the column, the foreign key would also set + the column <code class="literal">tenant_id</code> to null, but that column is still + required as part of the primary key. + </p><p> + Analogous to <code class="literal">ON DELETE</code> there is also + <code class="literal">ON UPDATE</code> which is invoked when a referenced + column is changed (updated). The possible actions are the same, + except that column lists cannot be specified for <code class="literal">SET + NULL</code> and <code class="literal">SET DEFAULT</code>. + In this case, <code class="literal">CASCADE</code> means that the updated values of the + referenced column(s) should be copied into the referencing row(s). + </p><p> + Normally, a referencing row need not satisfy the foreign key constraint + if any of its referencing columns are null. If <code class="literal">MATCH FULL</code> + is added to the foreign key declaration, a referencing row escapes + satisfying the constraint only if all its referencing columns are null + (so a mix of null and non-null values is guaranteed to fail a + <code class="literal">MATCH FULL</code> constraint). If you don't want referencing rows + to be able to avoid satisfying the foreign key constraint, declare the + referencing column(s) as <code class="literal">NOT NULL</code>. + </p><p> + A foreign key must reference columns that either are a primary key or + form a unique constraint. This means that the referenced columns always + have an index (the one underlying the primary key or unique constraint); + so checks on whether a referencing row has a match will be efficient. + Since a <code class="command">DELETE</code> of a row from the referenced table + or an <code class="command">UPDATE</code> of a referenced column will require + a scan of the referencing table for rows matching the old value, it + is often a good idea to index the referencing columns too. Because this + is not always needed, and there are many choices available on how + to index, declaration of a foreign key constraint does not + automatically create an index on the referencing columns. + </p><p> + More information about updating and deleting data is in <a class="xref" href="dml.html" title="Chapter 6. Data Manipulation">Chapter 6</a>. Also see the description of foreign key constraint + syntax in the reference documentation for + <a class="xref" href="sql-createtable.html" title="CREATE TABLE"><span class="refentrytitle">CREATE TABLE</span></a>. + </p></div><div class="sect2" id="DDL-CONSTRAINTS-EXCLUSION"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">5.4.6. Exclusion Constraints</h3></div></div></div><a id="id-1.5.4.6.10.2" class="indexterm"></a><a id="id-1.5.4.6.10.3" class="indexterm"></a><p> + Exclusion constraints ensure that if any two rows are compared on + the specified columns or expressions using the specified operators, + at least one of these operator comparisons will return false or null. + The syntax is: +</p><pre class="programlisting"> +CREATE TABLE circles ( + c circle, + EXCLUDE USING gist (c WITH &&) +); +</pre><p> + </p><p> + See also <a class="link" href="sql-createtable.html#SQL-CREATETABLE-EXCLUDE"><code class="command">CREATE + TABLE ... CONSTRAINT ... EXCLUDE</code></a> for details. + </p><p> + Adding an exclusion constraint will automatically create an index + of the type specified in the constraint declaration. + </p></div></div><div class="navfooter"><hr /><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="ddl-generated-columns.html" title="5.3. 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