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diff --git a/debian/doc/pandoc/encrypted-boot.md b/debian/doc/pandoc/encrypted-boot.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..27d331b --- /dev/null +++ b/debian/doc/pandoc/encrypted-boot.md @@ -0,0 +1,536 @@ +% Full disk encryption, including `/boot`: Unlocking LUKS devices from GRUB + +Introduction +============ + +So called “full disk encryption” is often a misnomer, because there is +typically a separate plaintext partition holding `/boot`. For instance +the Debian Installer does this in its “encrypted LVM” partitioning method. +Since not all bootloaders are able to unlock LUKS devices, a plaintext +`/boot` is the only solution that works for all of them. + +However, GRUB2 is (since Jessie) able to unlock LUKS devices with its +[`cryptomount`](https://www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/grub/html_node/cryptomount.html) +command, which therefore enables encryption of the `/boot` partition as +well: using that feature reduces the amount of plaintext data written to +disk. It is especially interesting when GRUB is installed to a read-only +media, for instance as [coreboot payload](https://doc.coreboot.org/payloads.html#grub2) +flashed to a write-protected chip. On the other hand, it is *incompatible* +with some other features that only enabled later at initramfs stage, such +as splash screens or remote unlocking. + +Since enabling unlocking LUKS devices from GRUB [isn't exposed to the d-i +interface](https://bugs.debian.org/814798) (as of Buster), people have +come up with various custom workarounds. But as of Buster [`cryptsetup`(8)] +defaults to a new [LUKS header format version](https://gitlab.com/cryptsetup/LUKS2-docs), +which isn't supported by GRUB as of 2.04. **Hence the pre-Buster +workarounds won't work anymore**. Until LUKS *version 2* support is +[added to GRUB2](https://savannah.gnu.org/bugs/?55093), the device(s) +holding `/boot` needs to be in *LUKS format version 1* to be unlocked from +the boot loader. + +This document describes a generic way to unlock LUKS devices from GRUB +for Debian Buster. + + +Encrypting the device holding `/boot` +===================================== + +There are two alternatives here: + + * Either format an existing `/boot` partition to LUKS1; or + * Move `/boot` to the root file system. The root device(s) needs to + use LUKS version 1, but existing LUKS2 devices can be *converted* + (in-place) to LUKS1. + +These two alternatives are described in the two following sub-sections. + +We assume the system resides on a single drive `/dev/sda`, partitioned +with d-i's “encrypted LVM” scheme: + + root@debian:~# lsblk -o NAME,FSTYPE,MOUNTPOINT /dev/sda + NAME FSTYPE MOUNTPOINT + sda + ├─sda1 ext2 /boot + ├─sda2 + └─sda5 crypto_LUKS + └─sda5_crypt LVM2_member + ├─debian--vg-root ext4 / + └─debian--vg-swap_1 swap [SWAP] + +*Note*: The partition layout of your system may differ. + + +Formatting the existing `/boot` partition to LUKS1 +-------------------------------------------------- + +Since the installer creates a separate (plaintext) `/boot` partition by +default in its “encrypted LVM” partitioning method, the simplest +solution is arguably to re-format it as LUKS1, especially if the root +device is in LUKS2 format. + +That way other partitions, including the one holding the root file +system, can remain in LUKS2 format and benefit from the *stronger +security guaranties* and *convenience features* of the newer version: +more secure (memory-hard) Key Derivation Function, backup header, +ability to offload the volume key to the kernel keyring (thus preventing +access from userspace), custom sector size, persistent flags, unattended +unlocking via kernel keyring tokens, etc. + +Furthermore every command in this sub-section can be run from the main +system: no need to reboot into a live CD or an initramfs shell. + + 1. Before copying content of the `/boot` directory, remount it read-only + to make sure data is not modified while it's being copied. + + root@debian:~# mount -oremount,ro /boot + + 2. Archive the directory elsewhere (on another device), and unmount it + afterwards. + + root@debian:~# install -m0600 /dev/null /tmp/boot.tar + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# tar -C /boot --acls --xattrs --one-file-system -cf /tmp/boot.tar . + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# umount /boot + + (If `/boot` has sub-mountpoints, like `/boot/efi`, you'll need to + unmount them as well.) + + 3. Optionally, wipe out the underlying block device (assumed to be + `/dev/sda1` in the rest of this sub-section). + + root@debian:~# dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/sda1 bs=1M status=none + dd: error writing '/dev/sda1': No space left on device + + 4. Format the underlying block device to LUKS1. (Note the `--type luks1` + in the command below, as Buster's [`cryptsetup`(8)] defaults to LUKS + version 2 for `luksFormat`.) + + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksFormat --type luks1 /dev/sda1 + + WARNING! + ======== + This will overwrite data on /dev/sda1 irrevocably. + + Are you sure? (Type uppercase yes): YES + Enter passphrase for /dev/sda1: + Verify passphrase: + + 5. Add a corresponding entry to [`crypttab`(5)] with mapped device name + `boot_crypt`, and open it afterwards. + + root@debian:~# uuid="$(blkid -o value -s UUID /dev/sda1)" + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# echo "boot_crypt UUID=$uuid none luks" | tee -a /etc/crypttab + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# cryptdisks_start boot_crypt + Starting crypto disk...boot_crypt (starting)... + Please unlock disk boot_crypt: ******** + boot_crypt (started)...done. + + 6. Create a file system on the mapped device. Assuming source device for + `/boot` is specified by its UUID in the [`fstab`(5)] -- which the + Debian Installer does by default -- reusing the old UUID avoids + editing the file. + + root@debian:~# grep /boot /etc/fstab + # /boot was on /dev/sda1 during installation + UUID=c104749f-a0fa-406c-9e9a-3fc01f8e2f78 /boot ext2 defaults 0 2 + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# mkfs.ext2 -m0 -U c104749f-a0fa-406c-9e9a-3fc01f8e2f78 /dev/mapper/boot_crypt + mke2fs 1.44.5 (15-Dec-2018) + Creating filesystem with 246784 1k blocks and 61752 inodes + Filesystem UUID: c104749f-a0fa-406c-9e9a-3fc01f8e2f78 + […] + + 7. Finally, mount `/boot` again from [`fstab`(5)], and copy the saved + tarball to the new (and now encrypted) file system. + + root@debian:~# mount -v /boot + mount: /dev/mapper/boot_crypt mounted on /boot. + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# tar -C /boot --acls --xattrs -xf /tmp/boot.tar + + (If `/boot` had sub-mountpoints, like `/boot/efi`, you'll need to + mount them back as well.) + +You can skip the next sub-section and go directly to [Enabling +`cryptomount` in GRUB2]. Note that `init`(1) needs to unlock the +`/boot` partition *again* during the boot process. See [Avoiding the +extra password prompt] for details and a proposed workaround. (You'll +need to substitute `/` resp. `sda5` with `/boot` resp. `sda1` in that +section, however only steps 1-3 are relevant here: no need to copy the +key file to the initramfs image since `/boot` can be unlocked and +mounted later during the boot process.) + + +Moving `/boot` to the root file system +-------------------------------------- + +The [previous sub-section][Formatting the existing `/boot` partition to LUKS1] +described how to to re-format the `/boot` partition as LUKS1. +Alternatively, it can be moved to the root file system, assuming the +latter is not held by any LUKS2 device. (As shown below, LUKS2 devices +created with default parameters can be “downgraded” to LUKS1.) + +The advantage of this method is that the original `/boot` partition can +be preserved and used in case of *disaster recovery* (if for some reason +the GRUB image is lacking the `cryptodisk` module and the original +plaintext `/boot` partition is lost, you'd need to reboot into a live CD +to recover). Moreover increasing the number of partitions *increases +usage pattern visibility*: a separate `/boot` partition, even encrypted, +will likely leak the fact that a kernel update took place to an attacker +with access to both pre- and post-update snapshots. + +On the other hand, the downside of that method is that the root file +system can't benefit from the nice LUKS2 improvements over LUKS1, some +of which were listed above. Another (minor) downside is that space +occupied by the former `/boot` partition (typically 256MiB) becomes +unused and can't easily be reclaimed by the root file system. + +### Downgrading LUKS2 to LUKS1 ### + +Check the LUKS format version on the root device (assumed to be +`/dev/sda5` in the rest of this sub-section): + + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda5 | grep -A1 "^LUKS" + LUKS header information + Version: 2 + +Here the LUKS format version is 2, so the device needs to be *converted* +to LUKS *version 1* to be able to unlock from GRUB. Unlike the rest of +this document, conversion can't be done on an open device, so you'll +need reboot into a live CD or an [initramfs shell]. (The `(initramfs)` +prompt strings in this sub-section indicates commands that are executed +from an initramfs shell.) Also, if you have valuable data in the root +partition, then *make sure you have a backup* (at least of the LUKS +header)! + +[initramfs shell]: https://wiki.debian.org/InitramfsDebug#Rescue_shell_.28also_known_as_initramfs_shell.29 + +Run `cryptsetup convert --type luks1 DEVICE` to downgrade. However if +the device was created with the default parameters then in-place +conversion will fail: + + (initramfs) cryptsetup convert --type luks1 /dev/sda5 + + WARNING! + ======== + This operation will convert /dev/sda5 to LUKS1 format. + + + Are you sure? (Type uppercase yes): YES + Cannot convert to LUKS1 format - keyslot 0 is not LUKS1 compatible. + +This is because its first key slot uses Argon2 as Password-Based Key +Derivation Function (PBKDF) algorithm: + + (initramfs) cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda5 | grep "PBKDF:" + PBKDF: argon2i + +Argon2 is a *memory-hard* function that was selected as the winner of +the Password-Hashing Competition; LUKS2 devices use it by default for +key slots, but LUKS1's only supported PBKDF algorithm is PBKDF2. Hence +the key slot has to be converted to PBKDF2 prior to LUKS format version +downgrade. + + (initramfs) cryptsetup luksConvertKey --pbkdf pbkdf2 /dev/sda5 + Enter passphrase for keyslot to be converted: + +Now that all key slots use the PBKDF2 algorithm, the device shouldn't +have any LUKS2-only features left, and can be converted to LUKS1. + + (initramfs) cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda5 | grep "PBKDF:" + PBKDF: pbkdf2 +<!-- --> + (initramfs) cryptsetup convert --type luks1 /dev/sda5 + + WARNING! + ======== + This operation will convert /dev/sda5 to LUKS1 format. + + + Are you sure? (Type uppercase yes): YES +<!-- --> + (initramfs) cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda5 | grep -A1 "^LUKS" + LUKS header information + +### Moving `/boot` to the root file system ### + +(The moving operation can be done from the normal system. No need to +reboot into a live CD or an initramfs shell if the root file system +resides in a LUKS1 device.) + + 1. To ensure data is not modified while it's being copied, remount + `/boot` read-only. + + root@debian:~# mount -oremount,ro /boot + + 2. Recursively copy the directory to the root file system, and replace + the old `/boot` mountpoint with the new directory. + + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# cp -axT /boot /boot.tmp + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# umount /boot + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# rmdir /boot + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# mv -T /boot.tmp /boot + + (If `/boot` has sub-mountpoints, like `/boot/efi`, you'll need to + unmount them first, and then remount them once `/boot` has been + moved to the root file system.) + + 3. Comment out the [`fstab`(5)] entry for the `/boot` mountpoint. + Otherwise at reboot `init`(1) will mount it and therefore shadow data + in the new `/boot` directory with data from the old plaintext + partition. + + root@debian:~# grep /boot /etc/fstab + ## /boot was on /dev/sda1 during installation + #UUID=c104749f-a0fa-406c-9e9a-3fc01f8e2f78 /boot ext2 defaults 0 2 + + +Enabling `cryptomount` in GRUB2 +=============================== + +Enable the feature and update the GRUB image: + + root@debian:~# echo "GRUB_ENABLE_CRYPTODISK=y" >>/etc/default/grub +<!-- --> + root@debian:~# update-grub +<!-- --> + root@debian:~# grub-install /dev/sda + +If everything went well, `/boot/grub/grub.cfg` should contain `insmod +cryptodisk` (and also `insmod lvm` if `/boot` is on a Logical Volume). + +*Note*: The PBKDF parameters are determined via benchmark upon key slot +creation (or update). Thus they only makes sense if the environment in +which the LUKS device is open matches (same CPU, same RAM size, etc.) +the one in which it's been formatted. Unlocking from GRUB does count as +an environment mismatch, because GRUB operates under tighter memory +constraints and doesn't take advantage of all crypto-related CPU +instructions. Concretely, that means unlocking a LUKS device from GRUB +might take *a lot* longer than doing it from the normal system. Since +GRUB's LUKS implementation isn't able to benchmark, you'll need to do it +manually. It's easier for PBKDF2 as there is a single parameter to play +with (iteration count) — while Argon2 has two (iteration count and +memory) — and changing it affects the unlocking time linearly: for +instance halving the iteration count would speed up unlocking by a +factor of two. (And of course, making low entropy passphrases twice as +easy to brute-force. There is a trade-off to be made here. Balancing +convenience and security is the whole point of running PBKDF +benchmarks.) + + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda1 | grep -B1 "Iterations:" + Key Slot 0: ENABLED + Iterations: 1000000 +<!-- --> + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksChangeKey --pbkdf-force-iterations 500000 /dev/sda1 + Enter passphrase to be changed: + Enter new passphrase: + Verify passphrase: + +(You can reuse the existing passphrase in the above prompts. Replace +`/dev/sda1` with the LUKS1 volume holding `/boot`; in this document +that's `/dev/sda1` if `/boot` resides on a separated encrypted +partition, or `/dev/sda5` if `/boot` was moved to the root file system.) + +*Note*: `cryptomount` lacks an option to specify the key slot index to +open. All active key slots are tried sequentially until a match is +found. Running the PBKDF algorithm is a slow operation, so to speed up +things you'll want the key slot to unlock at GRUB stage to be the first +active one. Run the following command to discover its index. + + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksOpen --test-passphrase --verbose /dev/sda5 + Enter passphrase for /dev/sda5: + Key slot 0 unlocked. + Command successful. + + +Avoiding the extra password prompt +================================== + +The device holding the kernel (and the initramfs image) is unlocked by +GRUB, but the root device needs to be *unlocked again* at initramfs +stage, regardless whether it's the same device or not. This is because +GRUB boots with the given `vmlinuz` and initramfs images, but there is +currently no way to securely pass cryptographic material (or Device +Mapper information) to the kernel. Hence the Device Mapper table is +initially empty at initramfs stage; in other words, all devices are +locked, and the root device needs to be unlocked again. + +To avoid extra passphrase prompts at initramfs stage, a workaround is +to *unlock via key files stored into the initramfs image*. Since the +initramfs image now resides on an encrypted device, this still provides +protection for data at rest. After all for LUK1 the volume key can +already be found by userspace in the Device Mapper table, so one could +argue that including key files to the initramfs image -- created with +restrictive permissions -- doesn't change the threat model for LUKS1 +devices. Please note however that for LUKS2 the volume key is normally +*offloaded to the kernel keyring* (hence no longer readable by +userspace), while key files lying on disk are of course readable by +userspace. + + 1. Generate the shared secret (here with 512 bits of entropy as it's also + the size of the volume key) inside a new file. + + root@debian:~# mkdir -m0700 /etc/keys + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# ( umask 0077 && dd if=/dev/urandom bs=1 count=64 of=/etc/keys/root.key conv=excl,fsync ) + 64+0 records in + 64+0 records out + 64 bytes copied, 0.000698363 s, 91.6 kB/s + + 2. Create a new key slot with that key file. + + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksAddKey /dev/sda5 /etc/keys/root.key + Enter any existing passphrase: + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sda5 | grep "^Key Slot" + Key Slot 0: ENABLED + Key Slot 1: ENABLED + Key Slot 2: DISABLED + Key Slot 3: DISABLED + Key Slot 4: DISABLED + Key Slot 5: DISABLED + Key Slot 6: DISABLED + Key Slot 7: DISABLED + + 3. Edit the [`crypttab`(5)] and set the third column to the key file path + for the root device entry. + + root@debian:~# cat /etc/crypttab + root_crypt UUID=… /etc/keys/root.key luks,discard,key-slot=1 + + The unlock logic normally runs the PBKDF algorithm through each key + slot sequentially until a match is found. Since the key file is + explicitly targeting the second key slot, its index is specified with + `key-slot=1` in the [`crypttab`(5)] to save useless expensive PBKDF + computations and *reduce boot time*. + + 4. In `/etc/cryptsetup-initramfs/conf-hook`, set `KEYFILE_PATTERN` to a + `glob`(7) expanding to the key path names to include to the initramfs + image. + + root@debian:~# echo "KEYFILE_PATTERN=\"/etc/keys/*.key\"" >>/etc/cryptsetup-initramfs/conf-hook + + 5. In `/etc/initramfs-tools/initramfs.conf`, set `UMASK` to a restrictive + value to avoid leaking key material. See [`initramfs.conf`(5)] for + details. + + root@debian:~# echo UMASK=0077 >>/etc/initramfs-tools/initramfs.conf + + 6. Finally re-generate the initramfs image, and double-check that it + 1/ has restrictive permissions; and 2/ includes the key. + + root@debian:~# update-initramfs -u + update-initramfs: Generating /boot/initrd.img-4.19.0-4-amd64 + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# stat -L -c "%A %n" /initrd.img + -rw------- /initrd.img + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# lsinitramfs /initrd.img | grep "^cryptroot/keyfiles/" + cryptroot/keyfiles/root_crypt.key + + (`cryptsetup-initramfs` normalises and renames key files inside the + initramfs, hence the new file name.) + +Should be safe to reboot now :-) If all went well you should see a +single passphrase prompt. + + +Using a custom keyboard layout +============================== + +GRUB uses the US keyboard layout by default. Alternative layouts for +the LUKS passphrase prompts can't be loaded from `/boot` or the root +file system, as the underlying devices haven't been mapped yet at that +stage. If you require another layout to type in your passphrase, then +you'll need to manually generate the core image using +[`grub-mkimage`(1)]. A possible solution is to embed a memdisk +containing the keymap inside the core image. + + 1. Create a memdisk (in GNU tar format) with the desired keymap, for + instance dvorak's. (The XKB keyboard layout and variant passed to + `grub-kbdcomp`(1) are described in the [`setxkbmap`(1)] manual.) + + root@debian:~# memdisk="$(mktemp --tmpdir --directory)" + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# grub-kbdcomp -o "$memdisk/keymap.gkb" us dvorak + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# tar -C "$memdisk" -cf /boot/grub/memdisk.tar . + + 2. Generate an early configuration file to embed inside the image. + + root@debian:~# uuid="$(blkid -o value -s UUID /dev/sda1)" + <!-- --> + root@debian:~# cat >/etc/early-grub.cfg <<-EOF + terminal_input --append at_keyboard + keymap (memdisk)/keymap.gkb + cryptomount -u ${uuid//-/} + + set root=(cryptouuid/${uuid//-/}) + set prefix=/grub + configfile grub.cfg + EOF + + *Note*: This is for the case of a separate `/boot` partition. If + `/boot` resides on the root file system, then replace `/dev/sda1` + with `/dev/sda5` (the LUKS device holding the root file system) and + set `prefix=/boot/grub`; if it's in a logical volume you'll also + [need to set][GRUB device syntax] `root=(lvm/DMNAME)`. + + *Note*: You might need to remove the first line if you use a USB + keyboard, or tweak it if GRUB doesn't see any PC/AT keyboard among its + available terminal input devices. Start by specifing `terminal_input` + in an interactive GRUB shell in order to determine the suitable input + device. (Choosing an incorrect device might prevent unlocking if no + input can be be entered.) + + 3. Finally, manually create and install the GRUB image. Don't use + `grub-install`(1) here, as we need to pass an early configuration + and a ramdisk. Instead, use [`grub-mkimage`(1)] with suitable image + file name, format, and module list. + + root@debian:~# grub-mkimage \ + -c /etc/early-grub.cfg -m /boot/grub/memdisk.tar \ + -o "$IMAGE" -O "$FORMAT" \ + diskfilter cryptodisk luks gcry_rijndael gcry_sha256 \ + memdisk tar keylayouts configfile \ + at_keyboard usb_keyboard uhci ehci \ + ahci part_msdos part_gpt lvm ext2 + + (Replace with `ahci` with a suitable module if the drive holding + `/boot` isn't a SATA drive supporting AHCI. Also, replace `ext2` + with a file system driver suitable for `/boot` if the file system + isn't ext2, ext3 or ext4.) + + The value of `IMAGE` and `FORMAT` depend on whether GRUB is in EFI + or BIOS mode. + + a. For EFI mode: `IMAGE="/boot/efi/EFI/debian/grubx64.efi"` and + `FORMAT="x86_64-efi"`. + + b. For BIOS mode: `IMAGE="/boot/grub/i386-pc/core.img"`, + `FORMAT="i386-pc"` and set up the image as follows: + + root@debian:~# grub-bios-setup -d /boot/grub/i386-pc /dev/sda + + You can now delete the memdisk and the early GRUB configuration + file, but note that subquent runs of `grub-install`(1) will override + these changes. + + +[`cryptsetup`(8)]: https://manpages.debian.org/cryptsetup.8.en.html +[`crypttab`(5)]: https://manpages.debian.org/crypttab.5.en.html +[`fstab`(5)]: https://manpages.debian.org/fstab.5.en.html +[`initramfs.conf`(5)]: https://manpages.debian.org/initramfs.conf.5.en.html +[`grub-mkimage`(1)]: https://manpages.debian.org/grub-mkimage.1.en.html +[`setxkbmap`(1)]: https://manpages.debian.org/setxkbmap.1.en.html +[GRUB device syntax]: https://www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/grub/grub.html#Device-syntax + + -- Guilhem Moulin <guilhem@debian.org>, Sun, 09 Jun 2019 16:35:20 +0200 |