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diff --git a/upstream/opensuse-tumbleweed/man7/roff-gf.7 b/upstream/opensuse-tumbleweed/man7/roff-gf.7 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..74fcb1ca --- /dev/null +++ b/upstream/opensuse-tumbleweed/man7/roff-gf.7 @@ -0,0 +1,2613 @@ +'\" t +.TH roff 7 "4 October 2023" "groff 1.23.0" +.SH Name +roff \- concepts and history of +.I roff +typesetting +. +. +.\" TODO: Synchronize this material with introductory section(s) of our +.\" Texinfo manual, and then keep it that way. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.\" Legal Terms +.\" ==================================================================== +.\" +.\" Copyright (C) 2000-2023 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +.\" +.\" This file is part of groff, the GNU roff type-setting system. +.\" +.\" Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this +.\" document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, +.\" Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software +.\" Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, +.\" and with no Back-Cover Texts. +.\" +.\" A copy of the Free Documentation License is included as a file +.\" called FDL in the main directory of the groff source package. +. +. +.\" Save and disable compatibility mode (for, e.g., Solaris 10/11). +.do nr *groff_roff_7_man_C \n[.cp] +.cp 0 +. +.\" Define fallback for groff 1.23's MR macro if the system lacks it. +.nr do-fallback 0 +.if !\n(.f .nr do-fallback 1 \" mandoc +.if \n(.g .if !d MR .nr do-fallback 1 \" older groff +.if !\n(.g .nr do-fallback 1 \" non-groff *roff +.if \n[do-fallback] \{\ +. de MR +. ie \\n(.$=1 \ +. I \%\\$1 +. el \ +. IR \%\\$1 (\\$2)\\$3 +. . +.\} +.rr do-fallback +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH Description +.\" ==================================================================== +. +The term +.I roff +denotes a family of document formatting systems known by names like +.IR troff , +.IR nroff , +and +.IR ditroff . +. +A +.I roff +system consists of an interpreter for an extensible text formatting +language and a set of programs for preparing output for various devices +and file formats. +. +Unix-like operating systems often distribute a +.I roff +system. +. +The manual pages on Unix systems +(\[lq]man\~pages\[rq]) +and bestselling books on software engineering, +including Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie's +.I The C Programming Language +and W.\& Richard Stevens's +.I Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment +have been written using +.I roff +systems. +. +GNU +.IR roff \[em] groff \[em]is +arguably the most widespread +.I roff +implementation. +. +. +.P +Below we present +typographical concepts that form the background of all +.I roff +implementations, +narrate the development history of some +.I roff +systems, +detail the command pipeline managed by +.MR groff 1 , +survey the formatting language, +suggest tips for editing +.I roff +input, +and recommend further reading materials. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH Concepts +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.\" BEGIN Keep roughly parallel with groff.texi nodes "Text" through +.\" "Tab Stops". +.I roff +input files contain text interspersed with instructions to control the +formatter. +. +Even in the absence of such instructions, +a +.I roff +formatter still processes its input in several ways, +by filling, +hyphenating, +breaking, +and adjusting it, +and supplementing it with inter-sentence space. +. +These processes are basic to typesetting, +and can be controlled at the input document's discretion. +. +. +.P +When a device-independent +.I roff +formatter starts up, +it obtains information about the device for which it is preparing +output from the latter's description file +(see +.MR groff_font 5 ). +. +An essential property is the length of the output line, +such as \[lq]6.5 inches\[rq]. +. +. +.P +The formatter interprets plain text files employing the Unix line-ending +convention. +. +It reads input a character at a time, +collecting words as it goes, +and fits as many words together on an output line as it can\[em]this +is known as +.I filling. +. +To a +.I roff +system, +a +.I word +is any sequence of one or more characters that aren't spaces or +newlines. +. +The exceptions separate words. +. +. +.P +A +.I roff +formatter attempts to detect boundaries between sentences, +and supplies additional inter-sentence space between them. +. +It flags certain characters +(normally +.RB \[lq] !\& \[rq], +.RB \[lq] ?\& \[rq], +and +.RB \[lq] .\& \[rq]) +as potentially ending a sentence. +. +When the formatter encounters one of these +.I end-of-sentence characters +at the end of an input line, +or one of them is followed by two (unescaped) spaces on the same input +line, +it appends an inter-word space +followed by an inter-sentence space in the output. +. +The dummy character escape sequence +.B \[rs]& +can be used after an end-of-sentence character to defeat end-of-sentence +detection on a per-instance basis. +. +Normally, +the occurrence of a visible non-end-of-sentence character +(as opposed to a space or tab) +immediately after an end-of-sentence +character cancels detection of the end of a sentence. +. +However, +several characters are treated +.I transparently +after the occurrence of an end-of-sentence character. +. +That is, +a +.I roff +does not cancel end-of-sentence detection when it processes them. +. +This is because such characters are often used as footnote markers or to +close quotations and parentheticals. +. +The default set is +.BR \[dq] , +.BR \[aq] , +.BR ) , +.BR ] , +.BR * , +.BR \[rs][dg] , +.BR \[rs][dd] , +.BR \[rs][rq] , +and +.BR \[rs][cq] . +. +The last four are examples of +.I special characters, +escape sequences whose purpose is to obtain glyphs that are not easily +typed at the keyboard, +or which have special meaning to the formatter +(like +.BR \[rs] ). +.\" slack wording: itself). +. +. +.P +When an output line is nearly full, +it is uncommon for the next word collected from the input to exactly +fill it\[em]typically, +there is room left over only for part of the next word. +. +The process of splitting a word so that it appears partially on one line +(with a hyphen to indicate to the reader that the word has been broken) +with its remainder on the next is +.I hyphenation. +. +Hyphenation points can be manually specified; +.I groff +also uses a hyphenation algorithm and language-specific pattern files to +decide which words can be hyphenated and where. +. +Hyphenation does not always occur even when the hyphenation rules for a +word allow it; +it can be disabled, +and when not disabled there are several parameters that can prevent it +in certain circumstances. +. +. +.P +Once an output line is full, +the next word +(or remainder of a hyphenated one) +is placed on a different output line; +this is called a +.I break. +. +In this document and in +.I roff +discussions generally, +a \[lq]break\[rq] if not further qualified always refers to the +termination of an output line. +. +When the formatter is filling text, +it introduces breaks automatically to keep output lines from exceeding +the configured line length. +. +After an automatic break, +a +.I roff +formatter +.I adjusts +the line if applicable +(see below), +and then resumes collecting and filling text on the next output line. +. +. +.br +.ne 2v +.P +Sometimes, +a line cannot be broken automatically. +. +This usually does not happen with natural language text unless the +output line length has been manipulated to be extremely short, +but it can with specialized text like program source code. +. +.I groff +provides a means of telling the formatter where the line may be broken +without hyphens. +. +This is done with the non-printing break point escape sequence +.BR \[rs]: . +. +. +.P +.\" What if the document author wants to stop filling lines temporarily, +.\" for instance to start a new paragraph? There are several solutions. +There are several ways to cause a break at a predictable location. +. +A blank input line not only causes a break, +but by default it also outputs a one-line vertical space +(effectively a blank output line). +. +Macro packages may discourage or disable this \[lq]blank line +method\[rq] of paragraphing in favor of their own macros. +. +A line that begins with one or more spaces causes a break. +. +The spaces are output at the beginning of the next line without being +.I adjusted +(see below). +. +Again, +macro packages may provide other methods of producing indented +paragraphs. +. +Trailing spaces on +.I text lines +(see below) +are discarded. +. +The end of input causes a break. +. +. +.P +After the formatter performs an automatic break, +it may then +.I adjust +the line, +widening inter-word spaces until the text reaches the right margin. +. +Extra spaces between words are preserved. +. +Leading and trailing spaces are handled as noted above. +. +Text can be aligned to the left or right margin only, +or centered, +using +.I requests. +. +. +.P +A +.I roff +formatter translates horizontal tab characters, +also called simply \[lq]tabs\[rq], +in the input into movements to the next tab stop. +. +These tab stops are by default located every half inch measured from the +current position on the input line. +. +With them, +simple tables can be made. +. +However, +this method can be deceptive, +as the appearance +(and width) +of the text in an editor and the results from the formatter can vary +greatly, +particularly when proportional typefaces are used. +. +A tab character does not cause a break and therefore does not interrupt +filling. +. +The formatter provides facilities for sophisticated table composition; +there are many details to track +when using the \[lq]tab\[rq] and \[lq]field\[rq] low-level features, +so most users turn to the +.MR \%tbl 1 +preprocessor to lay out tables. +.\" END Keep roughly parallel with groff.texi nodes "Text" through "Tab +.\" Stops". +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Requests and macros" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.\" BEGIN Keep roughly parallel with groff.texi node "Requests and +.\" Macros". +.\" We have now encountered almost all of the syntax there is in the +.\" @code{roff} language, with an exception already noted in passing. +A +.I request +is an instruction to the formatter that occurs after a +.I control character, +which is recognized at the beginning of an input line. +. +The regular control character is a dot +.RB \[lq] .\& \[rq]. +. +Its counterpart, +the +.I no-break control character, +a neutral apostrophe +.RB \[lq] \|\[aq]\| \[rq], +suppresses the break +.\" slack wording: that is +implied by some requests. +. +These characters were chosen because it is uncommon for lines of text in +natural languages to begin with them. +. +If you require a formatted period or apostrophe +(closing single quotation mark) +where +.\" GNU @code{troff} +the formatter is expecting a control character, +prefix the dot or neutral apostrophe with the dummy character escape +sequence, +.RB \[lq] \[rs]& \[rq]. +. +. +.P +An input line beginning with a control character is called a +.I control line. +. +Every line of input that is not a control line is a +.I text line. +. +. +.P +Requests often take +.I arguments, +words +(separated from the request name and each other by spaces) +that specify details of the action +.\" GNU @code{troff} +the formatter is expected to perform. +. +If a request is meaningless without arguments, +it is typically ignored. +. +.\" TODO: roff(7): We haven't introduced escape sequences yet. +.\" GNU @code{troff}'s requests and escape sequences comprise the +.\" control language of the formatter. +. +Of key importance are the requests that define macros. +. +Macros are invoked like requests, +enabling the request repertoire to be extended or overridden. +.\" @footnote{Argument handling in macros is more flexible but also more +.\" complex. @xref{Calling Macros}.} +. +. +.P +A +.I macro +can be thought of as an abbreviation you can define for a +collection of control and text lines. +. +When the macro is +.I called +by giving its name after a control character, +it is replaced with what it stands for. +. +The process of textual replacement is known as +.I interpolation. +.\" @footnote{Some escape sequences undergo interpolation as well.} +Interpolations are handled as soon as they are recognized, +and once performed, +a +.I roff +formatter scans the replacement for further requests, +macro calls, +and escape sequences. +. +. +.P +In +.I roff +systems, +the +.RB \[lq] de \[rq] +request defines a macro. +.\" @footnote{GNU @code{troff} offers additional ones. @xref{Writing +.\" Macros}.} +.\" END Keep roughly parallel with groff.texi node "Requests and +.\" Macros". +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Page geometry" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.\" BEGIN Keep parallel with groff.texi node "Page Geometry". +.I roff +systems format text under certain assumptions about the size of the +output medium, +or page. +. +For the formatter to correctly break a line it is filling, +it must know the line length, +which it derives from the page width. +.\" (@pxref{Line Layout}). +. +For it to decide whether to write an output line to the current page or +wait until the next one, +it must know the page length. +.\" (@pxref{Page Layout}). +. +. +A device's +.I resolution +converts practical units like inches or centimeters to +.I basic units, +a convenient length measure for the output device or file format. +. +The formatter and output driver use basic units to reckon page +measurements. +. +The device description file defines its resolution and page dimensions +(see +.MR groff_font 5 ). +.\" (@pxref{DESC File Format}). +. +. +.P +A +.I page +is a two-dimensional structure upon which a +.I roff +system imposes a rectangular coordinate system with its upper left +corner as the origin. +. +Coordinate values are in basic units and increase down and to the right. +Useful ones are therefore always positive and within numeric ranges +corresponding to the page boundaries. +. +. +.P +While the formatter +(and, +later, +output driver) +is processing a page, +it keeps track of its +.I drawing position, +which is the location at which the next glyph will be written, +from which the next motion will be measured, +or where a geometric object will commence rendering. +. +Notionally, +glyphs are drawn from the text baseline upward and to the right. +.RI ( groff +does not yet support right-to-left scripts.) +. +The +.I text baseline +is a +(usually invisible) +line upon which the glyphs of a typeface are aligned. +. +A glyph therefore \[lq]starts\[rq] at its bottom-left corner. +. +If drawn at the origin, +a typical letter glyph would lie partially or wholly off the page, +depending on whether, +like \[lq]g\[rq], +it features a descender below the baseline. +. +. +.P +Such a situation is nearly always undesirable. +. +It is furthermore conventional not to write or draw at the extreme edges +of the page. +. +Therefore the initial drawing position of a +.I roff +formatter is not at the origin, +but below and to the right of it. +. +This rightward shift +from the left edge is known as the +.I page offset. +. +.RI ( groff 's +terminal output devices have page offsets of zero.) +. +The downward shift leaves room for a text output line. +. +. +.P +Text is arranged on a one-dimensional lattice of text baselines from +the top to the bottom of the page. +. +.I Vertical spacing +is the distance between adjacent text baselines. +. +Typographic tradition sets this quantity to 120% of the type size. +. +The initial vertical drawing position is one unit of vertical spacing +below the page top. +. +Typographers term this unit a +.I vee. +. +. +.P +Vertical spacing has an impact on page-breaking decisions. +. +Generally, +when a break occurs, +the formatter moves the drawing position to the next text baseline +automatically. +. +If the formatter were already writing to the last line that would fit on +the page, +advancing by one vee would place the next text baseline off the page. +. +Rather than let that happen, +.I roff +formatters instruct the output driver to eject the page, +start a new one, +and again set the drawing position to one vee below the page top; +this is a +.I page break. +. +. +.P +When the last line of input text corresponds to the last output line +that fits on the page, +the break caused by the end of input will also break the page, +producing a useless blank one. +. +Macro packages keep users from having +to confront this difficulty by setting \[lq]traps\[rq]; +.\" (@pxref{Traps}); +moreover, +all but the simplest page layouts tend to have headers and footers, +or at least bear vertical margins larger than one vee. +.\" END Keep parallel with groff.texi node "Page Geometry". +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Other language elements" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.I Escape sequences +start with the +.I escape character, +a backslash +.BR \[rs] , +and are followed by at least one additional character. +. +They can appear anywhere in the input. +. +. +.P +With requests, +the escape and control characters can be changed; +further, +escape sequence recognition can be turned off and back on. +. +. +.P +.I Strings +store character sequences. +. +In +.IR groff , +they can be parameterized as macros can. +. +. +.P +.I Registers +store numerical values, +including measurements. +. +The latter are generally in basic units; +.I scaling units +can be appended to numeric expressions to clarify their meaning when +stored or interpolated. +. +Some read-only predefined registers interpolate text. +. +. +.P +.I Fonts +are identified either by a name or by a mounting position +(a non-negative number). +. +Four styles are available on all devices. +. +.B R +is \[lq]roman\[rq]: +normal, +upright text. +. +.B B +is +.BR bold , +an upright typeface with a heavier weight. +. +.B I +is +.IR italic , +a face that is oblique on typesetter output devices and usually +underlined instead on terminal devices. +. +.B BI +is \f[BI]bold-italic\f[]\/, \" indulging a bit of man(7) evil here +combining both of the foregoing style variations. +. +Typesetting devices group these four styles into +.I families +of text fonts; +they also typically offer one or more +.I special +fonts that provide unstyled glyphs; +see +.MR groff_char 7 . +. +. +.P +.I groff +supports named +.I colors +for glyph rendering and drawing of geometric objects. +. +Stroke and fill colors are distinct; +the stroke color is used for glyphs. +. +. +.P +.I Glyphs +are visual representation forms of +.I characters. +. +In +.I groff, +the distinction between those two elements is not always obvious +(and a full discussion is beyond our scope). +. +In brief, +\[lq]A\[rq] is a character when we consider it in the abstract: +to make it a glyph, +we must select a typeface with which to render it, +and determine its type size and color. +. +The formatting process turns input characters into output glyphs. +. +A few characters commonly seen on keyboards are treated +specially by the +.I roff +language and may not look correct in output if used unthinkingly; +they are +the (double) quotation mark +.RB ( \|\[dq]\| ), +the neutral apostrophe +.RB ( \|\[aq]\| ), +the minus sign +.RB ( \- ), +the backslash +.RB ( \|\[rs]\| ), +the caret or circumflex accent +.RB ( \[ha] ), +the grave accent +.RB ( \|\[ga]\| ), +and the tilde +.RB ( \[ti] ). +. +All of these and more can be produced with +.I special character +escape sequences; +see +.MR groff_char 7 . +. +. +.P +.I groff +offers +.IR streams , +identifiers for writable files, +but for security reasons this feature is disabled by default. +. +. +.\" BEGIN Keep roughly parallel with first paragraphs of groff.texi node +.\" "Deferring Output". +.P +A further few language elements arise as page layouts become more +sophisticated and demanding. +. +.I Environments +collect formatting parameters like line length and typeface. +. +A +.I diversion +stores formatted output for later use. +. +A +.I trap +is a condition on the input or output, +tested automatically by the formatter, +that is associated with a macro, +calling it when that condition is fulfilled. +. +. +.P +Footnote support often exercises all three of the foregoing features. +. +A simple implementation might work as follows. +. +A pair of macros is defined: +one starts a footnote and the other ends it. +. +The author calls the first macro where a footnote marker is desired. +. +The macro establishes a diversion so that the footnote text is collected +at the place in the body text where its corresponding marker appears. +. +An environment is created for the footnote so that it is set at a +smaller typeface. +. +The footnote text is formatted in the diversion using that environment, +but it does not yet appear in the output. +. +The document author calls the footnote end macro, +which returns to the previous environment and ends the diversion. +. +Later, +after much more body text in the document, +a trap, +set a small distance above the page bottom, +is sprung. +. +The macro called by the trap draws a line across the page and emits the +stored diversion. +. +Thus, +the footnote is rendered. +.\" END Keep roughly parallel with first paragraphs of groff.texi node +.\" "Deferring Output". +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH History +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Computer-driven document formatting dates back to the 1960s. +.\" John Labovitz points out that Peter Samson's TJ-2 dates to 1963, +.\" but since this is a *roff man page, we do not begin our story there. +.\" https://johnlabovitz.com/publications/\ +.\" The-electric-typesetter--The-origins-of-computing-in-typography.pdf +. +The +.I roff +system is intimately connected with Unix, +but its origins lie with the earlier operating systems CTSS, +GECOS, +and Multics. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "The predecessor\[em]\f[I]RUNOFF\f[]" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.IR roff 's +ancestor +.I RUNOFF +was written in the MAD language by Jerry Saltzer +to prepare his Ph.D.\& thesis on the Compatible Time Sharing System +(CTSS), +a project of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). +. +This program is referred to in full capitals, +both to distinguish it from its many descendants, +and because bits were expensive in those days; +five- and six-bit character encodings were still in widespread usage, +and mixed-case alphabetics in file names seen as a luxury. +. +.I RUNOFF +introduced a syntax of inlining formatting directives amid document +text, +by beginning a line with a period +(an unlikely occurrence in human-readable material) +followed by a \[lq]control word\[rq]. +. +Control words with obvious meaning like \[lq].line length +.IR n \[rq] +were supported as well as an abbreviation system; +the latter came to overwhelm the former in popular usage and later +derivatives of the program. +. +A sample of control words from a +.UR http://\:web\:.mit\:.edu/\:Saltzer/\:www/\:publications/\:ctss/\:AH\ +\:.9\:.01\:.html +.I RUNOFF +manual of December 1966 +.UE +was documented as follows +(with the parameter notation slightly altered). +. +The abbreviations will be familiar to +.I roff +veterans. +. +. +.P +.ne 10v +.TS +center; +r l +rB l. +Abbreviation Control word +\&.ad .adjust +\&.bp .begin page +\&.br .break +\&.ce .center +\&.in .indent \f[I]n\f[] +\&.ll .line length \f[I]n\f[] +\&.nf .nofill +\&.pl .paper length \f[I]n\f[] +\&.sp .space [\f[I]n\f[]] +.TE +. +. +.P +In 1965, +MIT's Project MAC teamed with Bell Telephone Laboratories and General +Electric (GE) to inaugurate the +.UR http://\:www\:.multicians\:.org +Multics +.UE +project. +. +After a few years, +Bell Labs discontinued its participation in Multics, +famously prompting the development of Unix. +. +Meanwhile, +Saltzer's +.I RUNOFF +proved influential, +seeing many ports and derivations elsewhere. +. +. +.\" "Morris did one port and called it roff. I did the BCPL one, adding +.\" registers, but not macros. Molly Wagner contributed a hyphenation +.\" algorithm. Ken and/or Dennis redid roff in PDP-11 assembler. Joe +.\" started afresh for the grander nroff, including macros. Then Joe +.\" bought a phototypesetter ..." +.\" -- https://minnie.tuhs.org/pipermail/tuhs/2018-November/017052.html +.P +In 1969, +Doug McIlroy wrote one such reimplementation, +adding extensions, +in the BCPL language for a GE 645 running GECOS at the Bell Labs +location in Murray Hill, +New Jersey. +. +In its manual, +the control commands were termed \[lq]requests\[rq], +their two-letter names were canonical, +and the control character was configurable with a +.B .cc +request. +. +Other familiar requests emerged at this time; +no-adjust +.RB ( .na ), +need +.RB ( .ne ), +page offset +.RB ( .po ), +tab configuration +.RB ( .ta , +though it worked differently), +temporary indent +.RB ( .ti ), +character translation +.RB ( .tr ), +and automatic underlining +.RB ( .ul ; +on +.I RUNOFF +you had to backspace and underscore in the input yourself). +.B .fi +to enable filling of output lines got the name it retains to this day. +. +McIlroy's program also featured a heuristic system for automatically +placing hyphenation points, +designed and implemented by Molly Wagner. +. +It furthermore introduced numeric variables, +termed registers. +. +By 1971, +this program had been ported to Multics and was known as +.IR roff , +a name McIlroy attributes to Bob Morris, +to distinguish it from CTSS +.IR RUNOFF . +. +.\" GBR can't find a source for this claim (of Bernd's). +.\"Multics +.\".I runoff +.\"added features such as the ability to do two-pass formatting; +.\"it became the main system for Multics documentation and text +.\"processing. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Unix and \f[I]roff\f[]" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +McIlroy's +.I roff +was one of the first Unix programs. +. +In Ritchie's term, +it was \[lq]transliterated\[rq] from BCPL to DEC PDP-7 assembly language +.\" see "The Evolution of the Unix Time-Sharing System", Ritchie, 1984 +for the fledgling Unix operating system. +. +Automatic hyphenation was managed with +.B .hc +and +.B .hy +requests, +line spacing control was generalized with the +.B .ls +request, +and what later +.IR roff s +would call diversions were available via \[lq]footnote\[rq] requests. +.\" The foregoing features may have been in McIlroy's Multics roff, but +.\" he no longer has documentation for that--only the GECOS version. +.\" GBR's guess is that they were, if we take Ritchie's choice of the +.\" term "transliterated" seriously. GBR further speculates that there +.\" is no reason to suppose that McIlroy's roff was stagnant from +.\" 1969-1971, whereas we have no record of any significant +.\" post-transliteration development of Unix roff. Its request list did +.\" not appear until the 3rd edition manual, and did not change +.\" thereafter. In 7th edition, roff was characterized as "utterly +.\" frozen". +. +This +.I roff +indirectly funded operating systems research at Murray Hill; +AT&T prepared patent applications to the U.S.\& government with it. +. +This arrangement enabled the group to acquire a PDP-11; +.I roff +promptly proved equal to the task of formatting the manual for what +would become known as \[lq]First Edition Unix\[rq], +dated November 1971. +. +. +.P +Output from all of the foregoing programs was limited to line printers +and paper terminals such as the IBM 2471 +(based on the Selectric line of typewriters) +and the Teletype Corporation Model 37. +. +Proportionally spaced type was unavailable. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "New \f[I]roff\f[] and Typesetter \f[I]roff\f[]" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +The first years of Unix were spent in rapid evolution. +. +The practicalities of preparing standardized documents like patent +applications +(and Unix manual pages), +combined with McIlroy's enthusiasm for macro languages, +perhaps created an irresistible pressure to make +.I roff +extensible. +. +Joe Ossanna's +.IR nroff , +literally a \[lq]new roff\[rq], +was the outlet for this pressure. +. +.\" nroff is listed in the table of contents of the Version 2 manual, +.\" but no man page is present. +By the time of Unix Version\~3 +(February 1973)\[em]and still in PDP-11 assembly language\[em]it sported +a swath of features now considered essential to +.I roff +systems: +. +definition of macros +.RB ( .de ), +diversion of text thither +.RB ( .di ), +and removal thereof +.RB ( .rm ); +. +trap planting +.RB ( .wh ; +\[lq]when\[rq]) +and relocation +.RB ( .ch ; +\[lq]change\[rq]); +. +conditional processing +.RB ( .if ); +. +and environments +.RB ( .ev ). +. +Incremental improvements included +. +assignment of the next page number +.RB ( .pn ); +. +no-space mode +.RB ( .ns ) +and restoration of vertical spacing +.RB ( .rs ); +. +the saving +.RB ( .sv ) +and output +.RB ( .os ) +of vertical space; +. +specification of replacement characters for tabs +.RB ( .tc ) +and leaders +.RB ( .lc ); +. +configuration of the no-break control character +.RB ( .c2 ); +. +shorthand to disable automatic hyphenation +.RB ( .nh ); +. +a condensation of what were formerly six different requests for +configuration of page \[lq]titles\[rq] +(headers and footers) +into one +.RB ( .tl ) +with a length controlled separately from the line length +.RB ( .lt ); +. +automatic line numbering +.RB ( .nm ); +. +interactive input +.RB ( .rd ), +which necessitated buffer-flushing +.RB ( .fl ), +and was made convenient with early program cessation +.RB ( .ex ); +. +source file inclusion in its modern form +.RB ( .so ; +though +.I RUNOFF +had an \[lq].append\[rq] control word for a similar purpose) +and early advance to the next file argument +.RB ( .nx ); +. +ignorable content +.RB ( .ig ); +. +and programmable abort +.RB ( .ab ). +. +. +.P +Third Edition Unix also brought the +.MR pipe 2 +system call, +the explosive growth of a componentized system based around it, +and a \[lq]filter model\[rq] that remains perceptible today. +. +Equally importantly, +the Bell Labs site in Murray Hill acquired a Graphic Systems C/A/T +phototypesetter, +and with it came the necessity of expanding the capabilities of a +.I roff +system to cope with a variety of proportionally spaced typefaces at +multiple sizes. +. +Ossanna wrote a parallel implementation of +.I nroff +for the C/A/T, +dubbing it +.I troff +(for \[lq]typesetter roff\[rq]). +. +Unfortunately, +surviving documentation does not illustrate what requests were +implemented at this time for C/A/T support; +the +.MR troff 1 \" AT&T +man page in Fourth Edition Unix +(November 1973) +does not feature a request list, \" nor does Unix V6 troff(1) (1975) +unlike +.MR nroff 1 . \" AT&T +. +Apart from typesetter-driven features, +Unix Version\~4 +.IR roff s +added string definitions +.RB ( .ds ); +made the escape character configurable +.RB ( .ec ); +and enabled the user to write diagnostics to the standard error stream +.RB ( .tm ). +. +Around 1974, +empowered with multiple type sizes, +italics, +and a symbol font specially commissioned by Bell Labs from +Graphic Systems, +Kernighan and Lorinda Cherry implemented +.I eqn \" AT&T +for typesetting mathematics. +. +. +In the same year, +for Fifth Edition Unix, +Ossanna combined and reimplemented the two +.IR roff s +in C, +using that language's preprocessor to generate both from a single source +tree. +. +. +.P +Ossanna documented the syntax of the input language to the +.I nroff +and +.I troff +programs in the \[lq]Troff User's Manual\[rq], +first published in 1976, +with further revisions as late as 1992 by Kernighan. +. +(The original version was entitled +\[lq]Nroff/Troff User's Manual\[rq], +which may partially explain why +.I roff +practitioners have tended to refer to it by its AT&T document +identifier, +\[lq]CSTR #54\[rq].) +. +Its final revision serves as the +.I de facto +specification of AT&T +.IR troff , \" AT&T +and all subsequent implementors of +.I roff +systems have done so in its shadow. +. +. +.P +A small and simple set of +.I roff +macros was first used for the manual pages of Unix Version\~4 and +persisted for two further releases, +but the first macro package to be formally described and installed was +.I ms +by Michael Lesk in Version\~6. +. +He also wrote a manual, +\[lq]Typing Documents on the Unix System\[rq], +describing +.I ms +and basic +.IR nroff / troff +usage, +updating it as the package accrued features. +. +Sixth Edition additionally saw the debut of the +.I tbl \" AT&T +preprocessor for formatting tables, +also by Lesk. +. +. +.P +For Unix Version\~7 +(January 1979), +McIlroy designed, +implemented, +and documented the +.I man +macro package, +introducing most of the macros described in +.MR groff_man 7 +today, +and edited volume 1 of the Version 7 manual using it. +. +Documents composed using +.I ms +featured in volume 2, +edited by Kernighan. +. +. +.\" Thanks to Clem Cole for the following account. +.\" https://minnie.tuhs.org/pipermail/tuhs/2022-January/025143.html +.P +Meanwhile, +.I troff +proved popular even at Unix sites that lacked a C/A/T device. +. +Tom Ferrin of the University of California at San Francisco combined it +with Allen Hershey's popular vector fonts to produce +.IR vtroff , +which translated +.IR troff 's +output to the command language used by Versatec and Benson-Varian +plotters. +. +. +.P +Ossanna had passed away unexpectedly in 1977, +and after the release of Version 7, +with the C/A/T typesetter becoming supplanted by alternative devices +such as the Mergenthaler Linotron 202, +Kernighan undertook a revision and rewrite of +.I troff +to generalize its design. +. +To implement this revised architecture, +he developed the font and device description file formats and the +page description language that remain in use today. +. +He described these novelties in the article +\[lq]A Typesetter-independent TROFF\[rq], +last revised in 1982, +and like the +.I troff +manual itself, +it is widely known by a shorthand, +\[lq]CSTR #97\[rq]. +.\" Further entertaining reading can be found at: +.\" <https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/202/summer.reconstructed.pdf>. +. +. +.P +Kernighan's innovations prepared +.I troff +well for the introduction of the Adobe PostScript language in 1982 and a +vibrant market in laser printers with built-in interpreters for it. +. +An output driver for PostScript, +.IR dpost , +was swiftly developed. +. +However, +AT&T's software licensing practices kept +Ossanna's +.IR troff , +with its tight coupling to the C/A/T's capabilities, +in parallel distribution with device-independent +.I troff +throughout the 1980s. +. +Today, +however, +all actively maintained +.IR troff s +follow Kernighan's device-independent design. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "\f[I]groff\f[]\[em]a free \f[I]roff\f[] from GNU" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +The most important free +.I roff +project historically has been +.IR groff , +the GNU implementation of +.IR troff , +developed by James Clark starting in 1989 and distributed under +.UR http://\:www\:.gnu\:.org/\:copyleft +copyleft +.UE +licenses, +ensuring to all the availability of source code and the freedom to +modify and redistribute it, +properties unprecedented in +.I roff +systems to that point. +. +.I groff +rapidly attracted contributors, +and has served as a replacement for almost all applications of AT&T +.I troff +(exceptions include +.IR mv , +a macro package for preparation of viewgraphs and slides, +and the +.I ideal +preprocessor, +which produces diagrams from mathematical constraints). +. +Beyond that, +it has added numerous features; +see +.MR groff_diff 7 . +. +Since its inception and for at least the following three decades, +it has been used by practically all GNU/Linux and BSD operating systems. +. +. +.P +.I groff +continues to be developed, +is available for almost all operating systems in common use +(along with several obscure ones), +and is free. +. +These factors make +.I groff +the +.I de facto +.I roff +standard today. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Other free \f[I]roff\f[]s" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +In 2007, \" TODO: verify +Caldera/SCO and Sun Microsystems, +having acquired rights to AT&T Documenter's Workbench (DWB) +.I troff +(a descendant of the Bell Labs code), +released it under a free but GPL-incompatible license. +. +.UR https://\:github\:.com/\:n\-t\-roff/\:DWB3.3 +This implementation +.UE +was made portable to modern POSIX systems, +and adopted and enhanced first by Gunnar Ritter and then Carsten Kunze +to produce +.UR https://github.com/n-t-roff/heirloom-doctools +Heirloom Doctools +.I troff +.UE . +. +. +.P +.\" https://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/groff/2013-07/msg00001.html +In July 2013, +Ali Gholami Rudi announced +.UR https://\:github\:.com/\:aligrudi/\:neatroff +.I neatroff +.UE , +a permissively licensed new implementation. +. +. +.P +Another descendant of DWB +.I troff \" DWB +is part of +.UR https://\:9fans\:.github\:.io/\:plan9port/ +Plan\~9 from User Space +.UE . +. +Since 2021, +this +.I troff \" Plan 9 from User Space +has been available under permissive terms. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH "Using \f[I]roff\f[]" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +When you read a man page, +often a +.I roff +is the program rendering it. +. +Some +.I roff +implementations provide wrapper programs that make it easy to use the +.I roff +system from the shell's command line. +. +These can be specific to a macro package, +like +.MR mmroff 1 , +or more general. +. +.MR groff 1 +provides command-line options sparing the user from constructing the +long, +order-dependent pipelines familiar to AT&T +.I troff +users. +. +Further, +a heuristic program, +.MR grog 1 , +is available to infer from a document's contents which +.I groff +arguments should be used to process it. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "The \f[I]roff\f[] pipeline" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +A typical +.I roff +document is prepared by running one or more processors in series, +followed by a a formatter program and then an output driver +(or \[lq]device postprocessor\[rq]). +. +Commonly, +these programs are structured into a pipeline; +that is, +each is run in sequence such that the output of one is +taken as the input +to the next, +without passing through secondary storage. +. +(On non-Unix systems, +pipelines may have to be simulated with temporary files.) +. +. +.RS +.PP +.EX +.RI $\~ preproc1 \~\c +.BI <\~ input-file \~|\~ preproc2 \~|\~\c +.RB .\|.\|.\&\~ "| troff\~"\c +.RI [ option ]\~\c +.RB .\|.\|.\&\~ \[rs] +.BI " |\~" output-driver \" 4 leading spaces +.EE +.RE +. +. +.P +Once all preprocessors have run, +they deliver pure +.I roff +language input to the formatter, +which in turn generates a document in a page description language that +is then interpreted by a postprocessor for viewing, +printing, +or further processing. +. +. +.P +Each program interprets input in a language that is independent of the +others; +some are purely descriptive, +as with +.MR \%tbl 1 +and +.I roff +output, +and some permit the definition of macros, +as with +.MR \%eqn 1 +and +.I roff +input. +. +. +Most +.I roff +input files employ the macros of a document formatting package, +intermixed with instructions for one or more preprocessors, +and seasoned with escape sequences and requests from the +.I roff +language. +. +Some documents are simpler still, +since their formatting packages discourage direct use of +.I roff +requests; +man pages are a prominent example. +. +Many features of the +.I roff +language are seldom needed by users; +only authors of macro packages require a substantial command of them. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS Preprocessors +.\" ==================================================================== +. +A +.I roff +preprocessor is a program that, +directly or ultimately, +generates output in the +.I roff +language. +. +Typically, \" preconv is an exception. +each preprocessor defines a language of its own that transforms its +input into that for +.I roff +or another preprocessor. +. +As an example of the latter, +.I chem \" generic +produces +.I pic \" generic +input. +. +Preprocessors must consequently be run in an appropriate order; +.MR groff 1 +handles this automatically for all preprocessors supplied by the GNU +.I roff +system. +. +. +.P +Portions of the document written in preprocessor languages are usually +.\" preconv is the exception again. +bracketed by tokens that look like +.I roff +macro calls. +. +.I roff +preprocessor programs transform only the regions of the document +intended for them. +.\" In preconv's case, that's the whole document. +. +When a preprocessor language is used by a document, +its corresponding program must process it before the input is seen by +the formatter, +or incorrect rendering is almost guaranteed. +. +. +.P +GNU +.I roff +provides several preprocessors, +including +.IR \%eqn , +.IR \%grn , +.IR \%pic , +.IR \%tbl , +.IR \%refer , +and +.IR \%soelim . +. +See +.MR groff 1 +for a complete list. +. +Other preprocessors for +.I roff +systems are known. +. +. +.P +.RS +.TS +tab (@); +Li L. +dformat@depicts data structures; +grap@constructs statistical charts; and +ideal@draws diagrams using a constraint-based language. +.TE +.RE +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Formatter programs" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +A +.I roff +formatter transforms +.I roff +language input into a single file in a page description language, +described in +.MR groff_out 5 , +intended for processing by a selected device. +. +This page description language is specialized in its parameters, +but not its syntax, +for the selected device; +the format is +.RI device- independent , +but not +.RI device- agnostic . +. +The parameters the formatter uses to arrange the document are stored in +.I device +and +.IR "font description files" ; +see +.MR groff_font 5 . +. +. +.P +AT&T Unix +had two formatters\[em]\c +.I nroff +for terminals, +and +.I troff +for typesetters. +. +Often, +the name +.I troff +is used loosely to refer to both. +. +When generalizing thus, +.I groff +documentation prefers the term +.RI \[lq] roff \[rq]. +. +In GNU +.IR roff , +the formatter program is always +.MR \%troff 1 . +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Devices and output drivers" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +To a +.I roff +system, +a +.I device +is a hardware interface like a printer, +a text or graphical terminal, +or a standardized file format that unrelated software can interpret. +. +An +.I output driver +is a program that parses the output of +.I troff \" generic +and produces instructions specific to the device or file format it +supports. +. +An output driver might support multiple devices, +particularly if they are similar. +. +. +.P +The names of the devices and their driver programs are not standardized. +. +Technological fashions evolve; +the devices used for document preparation when AT&T +.I troff \" AT&T +was first written in the 1970s are no longer used in production +environments. +. +Device capabilities have tended to increase, +improving resolution and font repertoire, +and adding color output and hyperlinking. +. +Further, +to reduce file size and processing time, +AT&T +.IR troff 's \" AT&T +page description language placed low limits on the magnitudes of some +quantities it could represent. +. +Its PostScript output driver, +.MR dpost 1 , +had a resolution of 720 units per inch; +.IR groff 's +.MR grops 1 +uses 72,000. +. +. +.\".P +.\"Today the operating systems provide device drivers for most +.\"printer-like hardware, so it isn't necessary to write a special +.\"hardware postprocessor for each printer. +.\" XXX? No they don't. Instead printers interpret PS or PDF directly. +.\" With a TCP/IP protocol stack and an HTTP server to accept POSTed +.\" documents for printing. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH "\f[I]roff\f[] programming" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Documents using +.I roff +are normal text files interleaved with +.I roff +formatting elements. +. +The +.I roff +language is powerful enough to support arbitrary computation and +it supplies facilities that encourage extension. +. +The primary such facility is macro definition; +with this feature, +macro packages have been developed that are tailored for particular +applications. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Macro packages" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Macro packages can have a much smaller vocabulary than +.I roff +itself; +this trait combined with their domain-specific nature can make them easy +to acquire and master. +. +The macro definitions of a package are typically kept in a file called +.IB name .tmac +(historically, +.BI tmac. name\/\c\" Italic correction comes before \c ! +). +. +Find details on the naming and placement of macro packages in +.MR groff_tmac 5 . +. +. +.P +A macro package anticipated for use in a document can be declared to +the formatter by the command-line option +.BR \-m ; +see +.MR \%troff 1 . +. +It can alternatively be specified within a document using the +.B mso +request of the +.I groff +language; +see +.MR groff 7 . +. +. +.P +Well-known macro packages include +.I man +for traditional man pages and +.I mdoc +for BSD-style manual pages. +. +Macro packages for typesetting books, +articles, +and letters include +.I ms +(from \[lq]manuscript macros\[rq]), +.I me +(named by a system administrator from the first name of its creator, +Eric Allman), +.I mm +(from \[lq]memorandum macros\[rq]), +and +.IR mom , +a punningly named package exercising many +.I groff +extensions. +. +See +.MR groff_tmac 5 +for more. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "The \f[I]roff\f[] formatting language" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.\" TODO: Integrate this subsection with subsection "Other language +.\" elements". +The +.I roff +language provides requests, +escape sequences, +macro definition facilities, +string variables, +registers for storage of numbers or dimensions, +and control of execution flow. +. +The theoretically minded will observe that a +.I roff +is not a mere markup language, +but Turing-complete. +. +It has storage +(registers), +it can perform tests +(as in conditional expressions like +.RB \[lq] "(\[rs]n[i] >= 1)" \[rq]), +its +.\" Kerning between bold "i" and "f" and roman \[lq], \[rq] is tight. +.RB \[lq] \|if\| \[rq] +and related requests alter the flow of control, +and macro definition permits unbounded recursion. +. +. +.P +.I Requests +and +.I escape sequences +are instructions, +predefined parts of the language, +that perform formatting operations, +interpolate stored material, +or otherwise change the state of the parser. +. +The user can define their own request-like elements by composing +together text, +requests, +and escape sequences +.I "ad libitum." +. +. +A document writer will not (usually) note any difference in usage for +requests or macros; +both are found on control lines. +. +However, +there is a distinction; +requests take either a fixed number of arguments +(sometimes zero), +silently ignoring any excess, +or consume the rest of the input line, +whereas macros can take a variable number of arguments. +. +Since arguments are separated by spaces, +macros require a means of embedding a space in an argument; +in other words, +of quoting it. +. +This then demands a mechanism of embedding the quoting character itself, +in case +.I it +is needed literally in a macro argument. +. +AT&T +.I troff +had complex rules involving the placement and repetition of the double +quote to achieve both aims. +. +.I groff +cuts this knot by supporting a special character escape sequence for the +neutral double quote, +.\" The kerning between a roman \[lq] and a bold backslash is tight. +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs][dq] \[rq], +which never performs quoting in the typesetting language, +but is simply a glyph, +.RB \[oq] \[dq] \[cq]. +. +. +.P +.I Escape sequences +start with a backslash, +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs] \[rq]. +. +They can appear almost anywhere, +even in the midst of text on a line, +and implement various features, +including the insertion of special characters with +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs](\f[BI]xx\f[] \[rq] +or +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs][\f[BI]xxx\f[]] \[rq], +break suppression at input line endings with +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs]c \[rq], +font changes with +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs]f\| \[rq], +type size changes with +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs]s \[rq], +in-line comments with +.RB \[lq] \|\[rs]\[dq] \[rq], +and many others. +. +. +.P +.I Strings +store text. +. +They are populated with the +.B ds +request and interpolated using the +.B \[rs]* +escape sequence. +. +. +.P +.I Registers +store numbers and measurements. +. +A register can be set with the request +.B nr +and its value can be retrieved by the escape sequence +.BR "\[rs]n" . +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH "File naming conventions" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +The structure or content of a file name, +beyond its location in the file system, +is not significant to +.I roff +tools. +. +.I roff +documents employing \[lq]full-service\[rq] macro packages +(see +.MR groff_tmac 5 ) +tend to be named with a suffix identifying the package; +we thus see file names ending in +.IR .man , +.IR .ms , +.IR .me , +.IR .mm , +and +.IR .mom , +for instance. +. +When installed, +man pages tend to be named with the manual's section number as the +suffix. +. +For example, +the file name for this document is +.IR roff.7 . +. +Practice for +\[lq]raw\[rq] +.I roff +documents is less consistent; +they +are sometimes seen with a +.I .t +suffix. +. +. +.\" BEGIN Keep parallel with groff.texi node "Input Conventions". +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH "Input conventions" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Since +.I \%troff +fills text automatically, +it is common practice in the +.I roff +language to avoid visual composition of text in input files: +the esthetic appeal of the formatted output is what matters. +. +Therefore, +.I roff +input should be arranged such that it is easy for authors and +maintainers to compose and develop the document, +understand the syntax of +.I roff +requests, +macro calls, +and preprocessor languages used, +and predict the behavior of the +formatter. +. +Several traditions have accrued in service of these goals. +. +. +.IP \[bu] 2n +Follow sentence endings in the input with newlines to ease their +recognition. +.\" Texinfo: (@pxref{Sentences}). +It is frequently convenient to end text lines after colons and +semicolons as well, +as these typically precede independent clauses. +. +Consider doing so after commas; +they often occur in lists that become easy to scan when itemized by +line, +or constitute supplements to the sentence that are added, +deleted, +or updated to clarify it. +. +Parenthetical and quoted phrases are also good candidates for placement +on text lines by themselves. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +Set your text editor's line length to 72 characters or fewer; +see the subsections below. +.\" Texinfo: +.\" @footnote{Emacs: @code{fill-column: 72}; Vim: @code{textwidth=72}} +. +This limit, +combined with the previous item of advice, +makes it less common that an input line will wrap in your text editor, +and thus will help you perceive excessively long constructions in your +text. +. +Recall that natural languages originate in speech, +not writing, +and that punctuation is correlated with pauses for breathing and changes +in prosody. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +Use +.B \[rs]& +after +.RB \[lq] !\& \[rq], +.RB \[lq] ?\& \[rq], +and +.RB \[lq] .\& \[rq] +if they are followed by space, +tab, +or newline characters and don't end a sentence. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +In filled text lines, +use +.B \[rs]& +before +.RB \[lq] .\& \[rq] +and +.RB \[lq] \[aq] \[rq] +if they are preceded by space, +so that reflowing the input doesn't turn them into control lines. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +Do not use spaces to perform indentation or align columns of a table. +Leading spaces are reliable when text is not being filled. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +Comment your document. +. +It is never too soon to apply comments to record information of use to +future document maintainers +(including your future self). +.\" Texinfo: We thus introduce another escape sequence, @code{\"}, which +The +.B \[rs]\[dq] +escape sequence +causes +.I \%troff +to ignore the remainder of the input line. +. +. +.IP \[bu] +Use the empty request\[em]a control character followed immediately by a +newline\[em]to visually manage separation of material in input files. +. +Many of the +.I groff +project's own documents use an empty request between sentences, +after macro definitions, +and where a break is expected, +and two empty requests between paragraphs or other requests or macro +calls that will introduce vertical space into the document. +. +You can combine the empty request with the comment escape sequence to +include whole-line comments in your document, +and even \[lq]comment out\[rq] sections of it. +. +. +.P +.\" Texinfo: We conclude this section with an example +An example sufficiently long to illustrate most of the above suggestions +in practice follows. +. +.\" Texinfo: For the purpose of fitting the example between the margins +.\" of this manual with the font used for its typeset version, +.\" we have shortened the input line length to 56 +.\" columns. +.\" Texinfo: As before, +. +An arrow \[->] indicates a tab character. +. +. +.P +.RS +.EX +\&.\[rs]" nroff this_file.roff | less +\&.\[rs]" groff \-T ps this_file.roff > this_file.ps +\[->]The theory of relativity is intimately connected with +the theory of space and time. +\&. +I shall therefore begin with a brief investigation of +the origin of our ideas of space and time, +although in doing so I know that I introduce a +controversial subject.\& \[rs]" remainder of paragraph elided +\&. +.ne 3v \" Don't let a page break hide the blank line from the reader. +\&. +\& +\[->]The experiences of an individual appear to us arranged +in a series of events; +in this series the single events which we remember +appear to be ordered according to the criterion of +\[rs][lq]earlier\[rs][rq] and \[rs][lq]later\[rs][rq], \[rs]" punct \ +swapped +which cannot be analysed further. +\&. +There exists, +therefore, +for the individual, +an I\-time, +or subjective time. +\&. +This itself is not measurable. +\&. +I can, +indeed, +associate numbers with the events, +in such a way that the greater number is associated with +the later event than with an earlier one; +but the nature of this association may be quite +arbitrary. +\&. +This association I can define by means of a clock by +comparing the order of events furnished by the clock +with the order of a given series of events. +\&. +We understand by a clock something which provides a +series of events which can be counted, +and which has other properties of which we shall speak +later. +\&.\[rs]" Albert Einstein, _The Meaning of Relativity_, 1922 +.EE +.RE +.\" END Keep parallel with groff.texi node "Input Conventions". +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Editing with Emacs" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Official GNU doctrine holds that the best program for editing a +.I roff +document is Emacs; see +.MR emacs 1 . +. +It provides an +.I nroff +major mode that is suitable for all kinds of +.I roff +dialects. +. +This mode can be activated by the following methods. +. +. +.P +When editing a file within Emacs the mode can be changed by typing +.RI \[lq] M-x +.BR nroff\-mode \[rq], +where +.I M-x +means to hold down the meta key +(often labelled \[lq]Alt\[rq]) +while pressing and releasing the \[lq]x\[rq] key. +.\" Why is this sort of thing not in intro(1)? +. +. +.P +It is also possible to have the mode automatically selected when a +.I roff +file is loaded into the editor. +. +. +.IP \(bu 2n +The most general method is to include file-local variables at the end of +the file; +we can also configure the fill column this way. +. +. +.RS +.IP +.EX +\&.\[rs]" Local Variables: +\&.\[rs]" fill\-column: 72 +\&.\[rs]" mode: nroff +\&.\[rs]" End: +.EE +.RE +. +.IP \(bu +Certain file name extensions, +such as those commonly used by man pages, +trigger the automatic activation of the +.I nroff +mode. +. +. +.br +.ne 3v +.IP \(bu +Technically, +having the sequence +. +. +.RS +.IP +.EX +\&.\[rs]" \%\-*\- nroff \-*\- +.EE +.RE +. +. +.IP +in the first line of a file will cause Emacs to enter the +.I nroff +major mode when it is loaded into the buffer. +. +Unfortunately, +some implementations of the +.MR man 1 +program are confused by this practice, +so we discourage it. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Editing with Vim" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.\" TODO: elvis, vile. Nvi does not support highlighting at all, and +.\" gedit does but has no rules for roff yet. Other editors TBD. +Other editors provide support for +.IR roff -style +files too, +such as +.MR vim 1 , +an extension of the +.MR vi 1 +program. +. +Vim's highlighting can be made to recognize +.I roff +files by setting the +.B filetype +option in a Vim +.IR modeline . +. +For this feature to work, +your copy of +.I vim +must be built with support for, +and configured to enable, +several features; +consult the editor's online help topics +\[lq]auto\-setting\[rq], +\[lq]filetype\[rq], +and \[lq]syntax\[rq]. +. +Then put the following at the end of your +.I roff +files, +after any Emacs configuration: +.\" ...because Emacs pattern-matches against 3000 bytes from the end of +.\" the buffer [or until hitting a 0x0C (FF, form-feed control)] for +.\" "Local Variables:", but Vim only checks as many lines as its +.\" 'modelines' variable tells it to. A common default is "5", but +.\" Emacs settings can be longer than that. +. +. +.RS +.IP +.EX +\&.\[rs]" vim: set filetype=groff textwidth=72: +.EE +.RE +. +. +.P +Replace \[lq]groff\[rq] in the above with \[lq]nroff\[rq] if you want +highlighting that does +.I not +recognize many of the GNU extensions to +.IR roff , +such as request, +register, +and string names longer than two characters. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH Authors +.\" ==================================================================== +. +This document was written by +.MT groff\-bernd\:.warken\-72@\:web\:.de +Bernd Warken +.ME +and +.MT g.branden\:.robinson@\:gmail\:.com +G.\& Branden Robinson +.ME . +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SH "See also" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Much +.I roff +documentation is available. +. +The Bell Labs papers describing AT&T +.I troff +remain available, +and +.I groff +is documented comprehensively. \" ...one hopes. +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Internet sites" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +.P +.UR https://\:github\:.com/\:larrykollar/\:Unix\-Text\-Processing +.I Unix Text Processing +.UE , +by Dale Dougherty and Tim O'Reilly, +1987, +Hayden Books. +. +This well-regarded text brings the reader from a state of no knowledge +of Unix or text editing +(if necessary) +to sophisticated computer-aided typesetting. +. +It has been placed under a free software license by its authors and +updated by a team of +.I groff +contributors and enthusiasts. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:manpages\:.bsd\:.lv/\:history\:.html +\[lq]History of Unix Manpages\[rq] +.UE , +an online article maintained by the mdocml project, +provides an overview of +.I roff +development from Saltzer's +.I RUNOFF +to 2008, +with links to original documentation and recollections of the authors +and their contemporaries. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:www\:.troff\:.org/ +troff.org +.UE , +Ralph Corderoy's +.I troff +site, +provides an overview and pointers to much historical +.I roff +information. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:www\:.multicians\:.org/ +Multicians +.UE , +a site by Multics enthusiasts, +contains a lot of information on the MIT projects CTSS and Multics, +including +.IR RUNOFF ; +it is especially useful for its glossary and the many links to +historical documents. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:www\:.tuhs\:.org/\:Archive/ +The Unix Archive +.UE , +curated by the Unix Heritage Society, +provides the source code and some binaries of historical Unices +(including the source code of some versions of +.I troff +and its documentation) +contributed by their copyright holders. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:web\:.mit\:.edu/\:Saltzer/\:www/\:publications/\ +\:pubs\:.html +Jerry Saltzer's home page +.UE +stores some documents using the original +.I RUNOFF +formatting language. +. +. +.P +.UR http://\:www\:.gnu\:.org/\:software/\:groff +.I groff +.UE , +GNU +.IR roff 's +web site, +provides convenient access to +.IR groff 's +source code repository, +bug tracker, +and mailing lists +(including archives and the subscription interface). +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Historical \f[I]roff\f[] documentation" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +Many AT&T +.I troff +documents are available online, +and can be found at Ralph Corderoy's site +(see above) +or via Internet search. +. +. +.P +Of foremost significance are two mentioned in section \[lq]History\[rq] +above, +describing the language and its device-independent implementation, +respectively. +. +. +.P +\[lq]Troff User's Manual\[rq] +by Joseph F.\& Ossanna, +1976 +(revised by Brian W.\& Kernighan, +1992), +AT&T Bell Laboratories Computing Science Technical Report No.\& 54. +. +. +.P +\[lq]A Typesetter-independent TROFF\[rq] +by Brian W.\& Kernighan, +1982, +AT&T Bell Laboratories Computing Science Technical Report No.\& 97. +. +. +.P +You can obtain many relevant Bell Labs papers in PDF from +.UR https://\:github\:.com/\:bwarken/\:roff_classical\:.git +Bernd Warken's +\[lq]roff classical\[rq] +GitHub repository +.UE . +. +. +.\" ==================================================================== +.SS "Manual pages" +.\" ==================================================================== +. +As a system of multiple components, +a +.I roff +system potentially has many man pages, +each describing an aspect of it. +. +Unfortunately, +there is no consistent naming scheme for these pages among the different +.I roff +implementations. +. +. +.P +For GNU +.IR roff , +the +.MR groff 1 +man page enumerates all man pages distributed with the system, +and individual pages frequently refer to external resources as well as +manuals distributed with +.I groff +on a variety of topics. +. +. +.P +With other +.IR roff s, +you are on your own, +but +.MR troff 1 \" foreign troff +might be a good starting point. +. +. +.\" Restore compatibility mode (for, e.g., Solaris 10/11). +.cp \n[*groff_roff_7_man_C] +.do rr *groff_roff_7_man_C +. +. +.\" Local Variables: +.\" fill-column: 72 +.\" mode: nroff +.\" End: +.\" vim: set filetype=groff textwidth=72: |