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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"><html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>43.12. Tips for Developing in PL/pgSQL</title><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="stylesheet.css" /><link rev="made" href="pgsql-docs@lists.postgresql.org" /><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets Vsnapshot" /><link rel="prev" href="plpgsql-implementation.html" title="43.11. PL/pgSQL under the Hood" /><link rel="next" href="plpgsql-porting.html" title="43.13. Porting from Oracle PL/SQL" /></head><body id="docContent" class="container-fluid col-10"><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="5" align="center">43.12. Tips for Developing in <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span></th></tr><tr><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="plpgsql-implementation.html" title="43.11. PL/pgSQL under the Hood">Prev</a> </td><td width="10%" align="left"><a accesskey="u" href="plpgsql.html" title="Chapter 43. PL/pgSQL — SQL Procedural Language">Up</a></td><th width="60%" align="center">Chapter 43. <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> — <acronym class="acronym">SQL</acronym> Procedural Language</th><td width="10%" align="right"><a accesskey="h" href="index.html" title="PostgreSQL 15.4 Documentation">Home</a></td><td width="10%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="plpgsql-porting.html" title="43.13. Porting from Oracle PL/SQL">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="sect1" id="PLPGSQL-DEVELOPMENT-TIPS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">43.12. Tips for Developing in <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span></h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="plpgsql-development-tips.html#PLPGSQL-QUOTE-TIPS">43.12.1. Handling of Quotation Marks</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="plpgsql-development-tips.html#PLPGSQL-EXTRA-CHECKS">43.12.2. Additional Compile-Time and Run-Time Checks</a></span></dt></dl></div><p>
One good way to develop in
<span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> is to use the text editor of your
choice to create your functions, and in another window, use
<span class="application">psql</span> to load and test those functions.
If you are doing it this way, it
is a good idea to write the function using <code class="command">CREATE OR
REPLACE FUNCTION</code>. That way you can just reload the file to update
the function definition. For example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION testfunc(integer) RETURNS integer AS $$
....
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
</pre><p>
</p><p>
While running <span class="application">psql</span>, you can load or reload such
a function definition file with:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
\i filename.sql
</pre><p>
and then immediately issue SQL commands to test the function.
</p><p>
Another good way to develop in <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> is with a
GUI database access tool that facilitates development in a
procedural language. One example of such a tool is
<span class="application">pgAdmin</span>, although others exist. These tools often
provide convenient features such as escaping single quotes and
making it easier to recreate and debug functions.
</p><div class="sect2" id="PLPGSQL-QUOTE-TIPS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">43.12.1. Handling of Quotation Marks</h3></div></div></div><p>
The code of a <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> function is specified in
<code class="command">CREATE FUNCTION</code> as a string literal. If you
write the string literal in the ordinary way with surrounding
single quotes, then any single quotes inside the function body
must be doubled; likewise any backslashes must be doubled (assuming
escape string syntax is used).
Doubling quotes is at best tedious, and in more complicated cases
the code can become downright incomprehensible, because you can
easily find yourself needing half a dozen or more adjacent quote marks.
It's recommended that you instead write the function body as a
<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">dollar-quoted</span>”</span> string literal (see <a class="xref" href="sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-DOLLAR-QUOTING" title="4.1.2.4. Dollar-Quoted String Constants">Section 4.1.2.4</a>). In the dollar-quoting
approach, you never double any quote marks, but instead take care to
choose a different dollar-quoting delimiter for each level of
nesting you need. For example, you might write the <code class="command">CREATE
FUNCTION</code> command as:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION testfunc(integer) RETURNS integer AS $PROC$
....
$PROC$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
</pre><p>
Within this, you might use quote marks for simple literal strings in
SQL commands and <code class="literal">$$</code> to delimit fragments of SQL commands
that you are assembling as strings. If you need to quote text that
includes <code class="literal">$$</code>, you could use <code class="literal">$Q$</code>, and so on.
</p><p>
The following chart shows what you have to do when writing quote
marks without dollar quoting. It might be useful when translating
pre-dollar quoting code into something more comprehensible.
</p><div class="variablelist"><dl class="variablelist"><dt><span class="term">1 quotation mark</span></dt><dd><p>
To begin and end the function body, for example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
CREATE FUNCTION foo() RETURNS integer AS '
....
' LANGUAGE plpgsql;
</pre><p>
Anywhere within a single-quoted function body, quote marks
<span class="emphasis"><em>must</em></span> appear in pairs.
</p></dd><dt><span class="term">2 quotation marks</span></dt><dd><p>
For string literals inside the function body, for example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := ''Blah'';
SELECT * FROM users WHERE f_name=''foobar'';
</pre><p>
In the dollar-quoting approach, you'd just write:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := 'Blah';
SELECT * FROM users WHERE f_name='foobar';
</pre><p>
which is exactly what the <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> parser would see
in either case.
</p></dd><dt><span class="term">4 quotation marks</span></dt><dd><p>
When you need a single quotation mark in a string constant inside the
function body, for example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || '' AND name LIKE ''''foobar'''' AND xyz''
</pre><p>
The value actually appended to <code class="literal">a_output</code> would be:
<code class="literal"> AND name LIKE 'foobar' AND xyz</code>.
</p><p>
In the dollar-quoting approach, you'd write:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || $$ AND name LIKE 'foobar' AND xyz$$
</pre><p>
being careful that any dollar-quote delimiters around this are not
just <code class="literal">$$</code>.
</p></dd><dt><span class="term">6 quotation marks</span></dt><dd><p>
When a single quotation mark in a string inside the function body is
adjacent to the end of that string constant, for example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || '' AND name LIKE ''''foobar''''''
</pre><p>
The value appended to <code class="literal">a_output</code> would then be:
<code class="literal"> AND name LIKE 'foobar'</code>.
</p><p>
In the dollar-quoting approach, this becomes:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || $$ AND name LIKE 'foobar'$$
</pre><p>
</p></dd><dt><span class="term">10 quotation marks</span></dt><dd><p>
When you want two single quotation marks in a string constant (which
accounts for 8 quotation marks) and this is adjacent to the end of that
string constant (2 more). You will probably only need that if
you are writing a function that generates other functions, as in
<a class="xref" href="plpgsql-porting.html#PLPGSQL-PORTING-EX2" title="Example 43.10. Porting a Function that Creates Another Function from PL/SQL to PL/pgSQL">Example 43.10</a>.
For example:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || '' if v_'' ||
referrer_keys.kind || '' like ''''''''''
|| referrer_keys.key_string || ''''''''''
then return '''''' || referrer_keys.referrer_type
|| ''''''; end if;'';
</pre><p>
The value of <code class="literal">a_output</code> would then be:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
if v_... like ''...'' then return ''...''; end if;
</pre><p>
</p><p>
In the dollar-quoting approach, this becomes:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
a_output := a_output || $$ if v_$$ || referrer_keys.kind || $$ like '$$
|| referrer_keys.key_string || $$'
then return '$$ || referrer_keys.referrer_type
|| $$'; end if;$$;
</pre><p>
where we assume we only need to put single quote marks into
<code class="literal">a_output</code>, because it will be re-quoted before use.
</p></dd></dl></div></div><div class="sect2" id="PLPGSQL-EXTRA-CHECKS"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">43.12.2. Additional Compile-Time and Run-Time Checks</h3></div></div></div><p>
To aid the user in finding instances of simple but common problems before
they cause harm, <span class="application">PL/pgSQL</span> provides additional
<em class="replaceable"><code>checks</code></em>. When enabled, depending on the configuration, they
can be used to emit either a <code class="literal">WARNING</code> or an <code class="literal">ERROR</code>
during the compilation of a function. A function which has received
a <code class="literal">WARNING</code> can be executed without producing further messages,
so you are advised to test in a separate development environment.
</p><p>
Setting <code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_warnings</code>, or
<code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_errors</code>, as appropriate, to <code class="literal">"all"</code>
is encouraged in development and/or testing environments.
</p><p>
These additional checks are enabled through the configuration variables
<code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_warnings</code> for warnings and
<code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_errors</code> for errors. Both can be set either to
a comma-separated list of checks, <code class="literal">"none"</code> or
<code class="literal">"all"</code>. The default is <code class="literal">"none"</code>. Currently
the list of available checks includes:
</p><div class="variablelist"><dl class="variablelist"><dt><span class="term"><code class="varname">shadowed_variables</code></span></dt><dd><p>
Checks if a declaration shadows a previously defined variable.
</p></dd><dt><span class="term"><code class="varname">strict_multi_assignment</code></span></dt><dd><p>
Some <span class="application">PL/PgSQL</span> commands allow assigning
values to more than one variable at a time, such as
<code class="command">SELECT INTO</code>. Typically, the number of target
variables and the number of source variables should match, though
<span class="application">PL/PgSQL</span> will use <code class="literal">NULL</code>
for missing values and extra variables are ignored. Enabling this
check will cause <span class="application">PL/PgSQL</span> to throw a
<code class="literal">WARNING</code> or <code class="literal">ERROR</code> whenever the
number of target variables and the number of source variables are
different.
</p></dd><dt><span class="term"><code class="varname">too_many_rows</code></span></dt><dd><p>
Enabling this check will cause <span class="application">PL/PgSQL</span> to
check if a given query returns more than one row when an
<code class="literal">INTO</code> clause is used. As an <code class="literal">INTO</code>
statement will only ever use one row, having a query return multiple
rows is generally either inefficient and/or nondeterministic and
therefore is likely an error.
</p></dd></dl></div><p>
The following example shows the effect of <code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_warnings</code>
set to <code class="varname">shadowed_variables</code>:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
SET plpgsql.extra_warnings TO 'shadowed_variables';
CREATE FUNCTION foo(f1 int) RETURNS int AS $$
DECLARE
f1 int;
BEGIN
RETURN f1;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
WARNING: variable "f1" shadows a previously defined variable
LINE 3: f1 int;
^
CREATE FUNCTION
</pre><p>
The below example shows the effects of setting
<code class="varname">plpgsql.extra_warnings</code> to
<code class="varname">strict_multi_assignment</code>:
</p><pre class="programlisting">
SET plpgsql.extra_warnings TO 'strict_multi_assignment';
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION public.foo()
RETURNS void
LANGUAGE plpgsql
AS $$
DECLARE
x int;
y int;
BEGIN
SELECT 1 INTO x, y;
SELECT 1, 2 INTO x, y;
SELECT 1, 2, 3 INTO x, y;
END;
$$;
SELECT foo();
WARNING: number of source and target fields in assignment does not match
DETAIL: strict_multi_assignment check of extra_warnings is active.
HINT: Make sure the query returns the exact list of columns.
WARNING: number of source and target fields in assignment does not match
DETAIL: strict_multi_assignment check of extra_warnings is active.
HINT: Make sure the query returns the exact list of columns.
foo
-----
(1 row)
</pre><p>
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