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<h1 id="overview"><span>1. </span>Overview</h1>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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<text x="278" y="994" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WHEN</text>
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<path d="M45,1066L173,1066L173,1036L45,1036Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M916,1051 L 924,1051 Q 931,1051 931,1036 L 931,32 Q 931,17 939,17 L 946,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='x711413a7' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:422px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 422.381 34.56">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L93,32A15 15 0 0 0 108 17A15 15 0 0 0 93 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FILTER</text>
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<path d="M108,17L125,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M287,32L336,32L336,2L287,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<circle cx="416" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
<button id='x697afbc6' onclick='hideorshow("x697afbc6","x1531016b")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x1531016b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:456px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 456.566 223.344">
<circle cx="5" cy="56" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,56L26,56" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M82,41L150,41A15 15 0 0 0 165 26L165,26A15 15 0 0 0 150 11L82,11A15 15 0 0 0 66 26L66,26A15 15 0 0 0 82 41Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="116" y="26" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">DISTINCT</text>
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<path d="M105,132L149,132A15 15 0 0 0 164 117L164,117A15 15 0 0 0 149 101L105,101A15 15 0 0 0 90 117L90,117A15 15 0 0 0 105 132Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M245,132L375,132L375,101L245,101Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="117" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ordering-term</text>
<path d="M310,169A15 15 0 0 0 325 154A15 15 0 0 0 310 139A15 15 0 0 0 294 154A15 15 0 0 0 310 169Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="154" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<div id='xd5c9781e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
<button id='x36c988c0' onclick='hideorshow("x36c988c0","x3488dc16")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='x7bfe6f78' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x88289188' onclick='hideorshow("x88289188","x471ed888")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x471ed888' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x04e1e87f' onclick='hideorshow("x04e1e87f","x12e4cf29")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x12e4cf29' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:627px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 627.302 147.96">
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<path d="M47,32L82,32A15 15 0 0 0 97 17A15 15 0 0 0 82 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="65" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RAISE</text>
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<path d="M135,32L135,32A15 15 0 0 0 150 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 2L135,2A15 15 0 0 0 120 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<path d="M66,150L395,150" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="348,6 336,10 336,2" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M160,29 L 168,29 Q 175,29 175,17 Q 175,6 190,6 L 327,6 L 342,6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M348,6 L 473,6 Q 488,6 488,17 Q 488,29 495,29 L 503,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x7945722c' onclick='hideorshow("x7945722c","xd5bf2b0b")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xd5bf2b0b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:293px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 293.842 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,17 56,21 56,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M32,17L62,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M83,32L127,32A15 15 0 0 0 142 17A15 15 0 0 0 127 2L83,2A15 15 0 0 0 68 17A15 15 0 0 0 83 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="105" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
<path d="M83,70L127,70A15 15 0 0 0 142 55L142,55A15 15 0 0 0 127 39L83,39A15 15 0 0 0 68 55L68,55A15 15 0 0 0 83 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="105" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">UNION</text>
<path d="M83,108L168,108A15 15 0 0 0 183 92A15 15 0 0 0 168 77L83,77A15 15 0 0 0 68 92A15 15 0 0 0 83 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="125" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INTERSECT</text>
<path d="M83,145L135,145A15 15 0 0 0 150 130A15 15 0 0 0 135 115L83,115A15 15 0 0 0 68 130A15 15 0 0 0 83 145Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="109" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">EXCEPT</text>
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<path d="M142,55L159,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M180,70L195,70A15 15 0 0 0 210 55L210,55A15 15 0 0 0 195 39L180,39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="187" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ALL</text>
<polygon points="233,55 221,59 221,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M210,55L227,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="284,17 272,21 272,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M233,55 L 240,55 Q 248,55 248,40 L 248,32 Q 248,17 263,17 L 263,17 L 278,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="288" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,55 56,59 56,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M32,17 L 39,17 Q 47,17 47,32 L 47,40 Q 47,55 55,55 L 62,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M142,17L276,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,92 56,97 56,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M47,39 L 47,77 Q 47,92 55,92 L 62,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="233,92 221,97 221,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M183,92L227,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M233,92 L 240,92 Q 248,92 248,77 L 248,54 L 248,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="68,130 56,135 56,126" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M47,77 L 47,115 Q 47,130 55,130 L 62,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M150,130L227,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M233,130 L 240,130 Q 248,130 248,115 L 248,92 L 248,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x3c5dcc36' onclick='hideorshow("x3c5dcc36","x280534b9")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x280534b9' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
<polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
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<path d="M380,47L397,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
<polygon points="587,47 575,51 575,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M564,47L581,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
<polygon points="783,17 772,21 772,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M721,47 L 742,47 Q 757,47 757,32 L 757,32 Q 757,17 767,17 L 778,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="787" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="483,17 472,21 472,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M193,17L478,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,17L776,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="483,77 495,73 495,82" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M721,47 L 728,47 Q 736,47 736,62 L 736,62 Q 736,77 721,77 L 504,77 L 489,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='xe3d931b0' onclick='hideorshow("xe3d931b0","x31f5087a")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x31f5087a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text>
<polygon points="143,55 131,59 131,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M120,55L137,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
<polygon points="209,55 197,59 197,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M173,55L203,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
<polygon points="369,55 358,59 358,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M333,55L363,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
<polygon points="422,55 411,59 411,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M399,55L417,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="473,17 462,21 462,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M422,55 L 430,55 Q 437,55 437,40 L 437,32 Q 437,17 452,17 L 453,17 L 468,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
<polygon points="286,92 298,88 298,97" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M333,55 L 341,55 Q 348,55 348,70 L 348,77 Q 348,92 333,92 L 307,92 L 292,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M256,92 L 197,92 Q 182,92 182,77 L 182,70 Q 182,55 190,55 L 197,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,17 39,21 39,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L45,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
<polygon points="113,17 101,21 101,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M90,17L107,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="137" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
<polygon points="422,17 411,21 411,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M162,17L417,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M422,17L462,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="209,120 197,124 197,115" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
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<path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='xad8e0edd' onclick='hideorshow("xad8e0edd","x399d36e6")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x399d36e6' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text>
<polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="259" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LEFT</text>
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<path d="M288,71L372,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M393,86L437,86A15 15 0 0 0 452 71A15 15 0 0 0 437 56L393,56A15 15 0 0 0 378 71A15 15 0 0 0 393 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="415" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OUTER</text>
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<path d="M452,71L469,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="516,41 505,45 505,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M475,71 L 482,71 Q 490,71 490,56 L 490,56 Q 490,41 500,41 L 511,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M532,56L554,56A15 15 0 0 0 569 41A15 15 0 0 0 554 26L532,26A15 15 0 0 0 516 41A15 15 0 0 0 532 56Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="543" y="41" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">JOIN</text>
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<circle cx="614" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M310,32A15 15 0 0 0 325 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 2A15 15 0 0 0 295 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M9,17L289,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M325,17L599,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M99,41L178,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M189,41L505,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M246,124L284,124A15 15 0 0 0 299 109A15 15 0 0 0 284 94L246,94A15 15 0 0 0 231 109A15 15 0 0 0 246 124Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="265" y="109" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RIGHT</text>
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<path d="M246,162L274,162A15 15 0 0 0 289 147A15 15 0 0 0 274 132L246,132A15 15 0 0 0 231 147A15 15 0 0 0 246 162Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="260" y="147" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FULL</text>
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<path d="M246,207L287,207A15 15 0 0 0 302 192A15 15 0 0 0 287 177L246,177A15 15 0 0 0 231 192A15 15 0 0 0 246 207Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M302,192L469,192" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M475,192 L 482,192 Q 490,192 490,185 L 490,177" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M246,253L287,253A15 15 0 0 0 303 238A15 15 0 0 0 287 222L246,222A15 15 0 0 0 231 238A15 15 0 0 0 246 253Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="267" y="238" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">CROSS</text>
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x1cdd5f8d' onclick='hideorshow("x1cdd5f8d","xf44d8110")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xf44d8110' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M244,59L349,59A15 15 0 0 0 364 44L364,44A15 15 0 0 0 349 29L244,29A15 15 0 0 0 228 44L228,44A15 15 0 0 0 244 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="296" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">collation-name</text>
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<path d="M243,17L394,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M462,97L492,97A15 15 0 0 0 508 82A15 15 0 0 0 492 67L462,67A15 15 0 0 0 447 82A15 15 0 0 0 462 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="471" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ASC</text>
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<path d="M421,29 L 421,36 Q 421,44 431,44 L 441,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M494,44 L 508,44 Q 523,44 523,36 L 523,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M606,59L648,59A15 15 0 0 0 663 44L663,44A15 15 0 0 0 648 29L606,29A15 15 0 0 0 591 44L591,44A15 15 0 0 0 606 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="627" y="44" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NULLS</text>
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<path d="M701,59L735,59A15 15 0 0 0 750 44L750,44A15 15 0 0 0 735 29L701,29A15 15 0 0 0 686 44L686,44A15 15 0 0 0 701 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M606,97L648,97A15 15 0 0 0 663 82A15 15 0 0 0 648 67L606,67A15 15 0 0 0 591 82A15 15 0 0 0 606 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='xf0c5d5df' onclick='hideorshow("xf0c5d5df","x6951e04e")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x6951e04e' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:398px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 398.054 163.08">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L39,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M45,32L94,32L94,2L45,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="69" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
<polygon points="136,55 124,59 124,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M94,17 L 102,17 Q 109,17 109,32 L 109,40 Q 109,55 119,55 L 130,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M151,70L155,70A15 15 0 0 0 170 55L170,55A15 15 0 0 0 155 39L151,39A15 15 0 0 0 136 55L136,55A15 15 0 0 0 151 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="153" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">AS</text>
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<path d="M170,55L200,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M221,70L309,70A15 15 0 0 0 324 55L324,55A15 15 0 0 0 309 39L221,39A15 15 0 0 0 206 55L206,55A15 15 0 0 0 221 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="265" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-alias</text>
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<polygon points="388,17 377,21 377,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M347,55 L 354,55 Q 362,55 362,40 L 362,32 Q 362,17 372,17 L 382,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="392" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="153,85 141,89 141,81" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M109,39 L 109,70 Q 109,85 124,85 L 132,85 L 147,85" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M153,85 L 170,85 Q 185,85 185,70 L 185,70 Q 185,55 192,55 L 200,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M241,17L377,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,93 Q 24,108 34,108 L 45,108" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,123A15 15 0 0 0 81 108A15 15 0 0 0 66 92A15 15 0 0 0 50 108A15 15 0 0 0 66 123Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="108" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">*</text>
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<path d="M81,108L341,108" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M347,108 L 354,108 Q 362,108 362,93 L 362,54 L 362,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M24,92 L 24,130 Q 24,145 34,145 L 45,145" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,160L141,160A15 15 0 0 0 156 145A15 15 0 0 0 141 130L66,130A15 15 0 0 0 50 145A15 15 0 0 0 66 160Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="103" y="145" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-name</text>
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<path d="M194,160A15 15 0 0 0 209 145A15 15 0 0 0 194 130A15 15 0 0 0 179 145A15 15 0 0 0 194 160Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M247,160A15 15 0 0 0 262 145A15 15 0 0 0 247 130A15 15 0 0 0 232 145A15 15 0 0 0 247 160Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='xfdd4c15e' onclick='hideorshow("xfdd4c15e","x73e7549d")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x73e7549d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:720px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 720.778 457.704">
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<path d="M9,36 L 16,36 Q 24,36 24,51 L 24,59 Q 24,74 34,74 L 45,74" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,89L162,89A15 15 0 0 0 177 74L177,74A15 15 0 0 0 162 59L66,59A15 15 0 0 0 50 74L50,74A15 15 0 0 0 66 89Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="114" y="74" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">schema-name</text>
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<path d="M177,74L189,74" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M281,51L356,51A15 15 0 0 0 371 36A15 15 0 0 0 356 21L281,21A15 15 0 0 0 266 36A15 15 0 0 0 281 51Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="425" y="36" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">AS</text>
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<text x="527" y="36" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-alias</text>
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<path d="M422,6 L 577,6 Q 592,6 592,21 L 592,21 Q 592,36 599,36 L 607,36" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M323,127L388,127A15 15 0 0 0 403 112A15 15 0 0 0 388 97L323,97A15 15 0 0 0 308 112A15 15 0 0 0 323 127Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/window-defn.html">window-defn:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='xe23774a6' onclick='hideorshow("xe23774a6","xa28beb6b")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xa28beb6b' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M9,17L39,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M60,32L87,32A15 15 0 0 0 102 17A15 15 0 0 0 87 2L60,2A15 15 0 0 0 45 17A15 15 0 0 0 60 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M180,108A15 15 0 0 0 195 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 77A15 15 0 0 0 165 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M382,108A15 15 0 0 0 398 92A15 15 0 0 0 382 77A15 15 0 0 0 367 92A15 15 0 0 0 382 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M398,92L409,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M415,108L553,108L553,77L415,77Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M585,108A15 15 0 0 0 600 92A15 15 0 0 0 585 77A15 15 0 0 0 570 92A15 15 0 0 0 585 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='xd35c20d0' onclick='hideorshow("xd35c20d0","x336c96ab")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x336c96ab' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576">
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>
The RETURNING clause is not a statement itself, but a clause that can
optionally appear near the end of top-level
<a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>, <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>, and <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> statements.
The effect of the RETURNING clause is to cause the statement to return
one result row for each database row that is deleted, inserted, or updated.
RETURNING is not standard SQL. It is an extension.
SQLite's syntax for RETURNING is modelled after
<a href="https://www.postgresql.org">PostgreSQL</a>.
</p><p>
The RETURNING syntax has been supported by SQLite since version 3.35.0
(2021-03-12).
</p><h2 id="typical_use"><span>1.1. </span>Typical Use</h2>
<p>
The RETURNING clause is designed to provide the application with the
values of columns that are filled in automatically by SQLite. For
example:
</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>CREATE TABLE t0(
a INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
b DATE DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
c INTEGER
);
INSERT INTO t0(c) VALUES(random()) RETURNING *;
</pre></div>
<p>
In the INSERT statement above, SQLite computes the values for all
three columns. The RETURNING clause causes SQLite to report the chosen
values back to the application. This saves the application from having
to issue a separate query to figure out exactly what values were inserted.
</p><h1 id="details"><span>2. </span>Details</h1>
<p>
The RETURNING clause is followed by a comma-separated list of
expressions. These expressions are similar to the expressions following
the SELECT keyword in a <a href="lang_select.html">SELECT statement</a> in that they
define the values of the columns in the result set. Each expression
defines the value for a single column. Each expression may be
optionally followed by an AS clause that determines the name of
the result column. The special "*" expression expands into a list
of all <a href="vtab.html#hiddencol">non-hidden</a> columns of the table being deleted,
inserted, or updated.
</p><p>
For INSERT and UPDATE statements, references to columns in the table
being modified refer to the value of that column <i>after</i> the change
has been applied. For DELETE statements, references to columns mean
the value <i>before</i> the delete occurs.
</p><p>
The RETURNING clause only returns rows that are directly modified
by the DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE statement. The RETURNING clause
does not report any additional database changes
caused by <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraints</a> or <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">triggers</a>.
</p><p>
A RETURNING clause for an <a href="lang_upsert.html">UPSERT</a> reports both inserted and
updated rows.
</p><h2 id="processing_order"><span>2.1. </span>Processing Order</h2>
<p>
When a DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE statement with a RETURNING clause
is run, all of the database changes occur during the first invocation
of <a href="c3ref/step.html">sqlite3_step()</a>. The RETURNING clause output is accumulated in
memory. The first sqlite3_step() call returns one row of RETURNING
output and subsequent rows of RETURNING output are returned by subsequent
calls to sqlite3_step().
To put this another way, all RETURNING clause output is embargoed
until after all database modification actions are completed.
</p><p>
This means that if a statement has a RETURNING clause that generates
a large amount of output, either many rows or large
string or BLOB values, then the statement might use a lot of
temporary memory to hold those values while it is running.
</p><p>
The first prototype of the RETURNING clause returned
values as they were generated. That approach used less memory, but
it had other problems:
</p><ol>
<li><p>
If the calls sqlite3_step() for two or more DML statements
where interleaved and if one of the
statements hit a constraint failure and aborted, reverting its
changes, then that could disrupt the operation of the other
DML statement. This could not corrupt the database file, but
it could yield surprising and difficult-to-explain results in
the database.
</p></li><li><p>
If an application failed to call sqlite3_step() repeatedly until
it received SQLITE_DONE, then some of the database changes might
never occur.
</p></li><li><p>
The order of operations was different from client/server database
engines like PostgreSQL, which might cause portability issues
for some applications.
</p></li></ol>
<p>
For these reasons, the current implementation was modified so that
all database changes happen before any RETURNING output is emitted.
</p><p>
While SQLite does guarantee that all database changes will occur
before any RETURNING output is emitted, it does <i>not</i> guarantee
that the order of individual RETURNING rows will match the order in
which those rows were changed in the database. The output order
for the RETURNING rows is arbitrary and is not necessarily related
to the order in which the rows were processed internally.
</p><h2 id="acid_changes"><span>2.2. </span>ACID Changes</h2>
<p>
When the previous "<i>Processing Order</i>" section says that
"database changes occur during the first invocation of sqlite3_step()",
that means that the changes are stored in the private page cache of
the database connection that is running the statement. It does
<i>not</i> mean that the changes are actually committed. The commit
does not occur until the statement finishes, and maybe not even then
if the statement is part of a larger transaction. Changes to the
database are still atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable (ACID).
When the previous section says "changes occur",
this means that internal data structure are adjusted pending a transaction
commit. Some of those changes may or may not spill into the
<a href="wal.html">write-ahead log</a>, depending on how much pressure there is on the
page cache. If the page cache is not under memory pressure, then
probably nothing will be written to disk until after the transaction
completes, which is after sqlite3_step() returns SQLITE_DONE.
</p><p>
In other words, when the previous section says "database changes
occur", that means that the changes occur in the memory of the
specific database connection that is running the statement, <i>not</i> that
the changes are written to disk.
</p><h1 id="limitations_and_caveats"><span>3. </span>Limitations And Caveats</h1>
<ol>
<li><p>
The RETURNING clause is not available on DELETE and UPDATE statements
against <a href="vtab.html">virtual tables</a>.
This limitation might be removed in future versions of SQLite.
</p></li><li><p>
The RETURNING clause is only available in top-level DELETE, INSERT,
and UPDATE statements. The RETURNING clause cannot be used by
statements within triggers.
</p></li><li><p>
Even though a DML statement with a RETURNING clause returns table content,
it cannot be used as a subquery. The RETURNING clause can only return
data to the application. It is not currently possible to divert the
RETURNING output into another table or query. PostgreSQL has the ability
to use a DML statement with a RETURNING clause like a view in a
<a href="lang_with.html">common table expressions</a>. SQLite does not currently have that
ability, though that is something that might be added in a future release.
</p></li><li><p>
The rows emitted by the RETURNING clause appear in an arbitrary order.
That order might change depending on the database schema, upon the specific
release of SQLite used, or even from one execution of the same statement
to the next.
There is no way to cause the output rows to appear in a particular order.
Even if SQLite is compiled with the <a href="compile.html#enable_update_delete_limit">SQLITE_ENABLE_UPDATE_DELETE_LIMIT</a>
option such that ORDER BY clauses are allowed on DELETE and UPDATE
statements, those ORDER BY clauses do not constrain the output order
of RETURNING.
</p></li><li><p>
The values emitted by the RETURNING clause are the values as seen
by the top-level DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE statement
and do not reflect any subsequent value changes made by <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">triggers</a>.
Thus, if the database includes AFTER triggers that modifies some
of the values of each row inserted or updated, the RETURNING clause
emits the original values that are computed before those triggers run.
</p></li><li><p>
The RETURNING clause may not contain top-level <a href="lang_aggfunc.html">aggregate functions</a> or
<a href="windowfunctions.html">window functions</a>. If there are subqueries in the RETURNING clause,
those subqueries may contain aggregates and window functions, but
aggregates cannot occur at the top level.
</p></li><li><p>
The RETURNING clause may only reference the table being modified.
In an <a href="lang_update.html#upfrom">UPDATE FROM</a> statement, the auxiliary tables named in the FROM
clause may not participate in the RETURNING clause.
</p></li></ol>
|