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|
"""
This module wrap's Rook + Kubernetes APIs to expose the calls
needed to implement an orchestrator module. While the orchestrator
module exposes an async API, this module simply exposes blocking API
call methods.
This module is runnable outside of ceph-mgr, useful for testing.
"""
import datetime
import threading
import logging
import json
from contextlib import contextmanager
from time import sleep
import jsonpatch
from urllib.parse import urljoin
# Optional kubernetes imports to enable MgrModule.can_run
# to behave cleanly.
from urllib3.exceptions import ProtocolError
from ceph.deployment.drive_group import DriveGroupSpec
from ceph.deployment.service_spec import ServiceSpec, NFSServiceSpec, RGWSpec
from ceph.utils import datetime_now
from mgr_module import NFS_POOL_NAME
from mgr_util import merge_dicts
from typing import Optional, TypeVar, List, Callable, Any, cast, Generic, \
Iterable, Dict, Iterator, Type
try:
from kubernetes import client, watch
from kubernetes.client.rest import ApiException
except ImportError:
class ApiException(Exception): # type: ignore
status = 0
from .rook_client.ceph import cephfilesystem as cfs
from .rook_client.ceph import cephnfs as cnfs
from .rook_client.ceph import cephobjectstore as cos
from .rook_client.ceph import cephcluster as ccl
from .rook_client._helper import CrdClass
import orchestrator
try:
from rook.module import RookEnv
except ImportError:
pass # just used for type checking.
T = TypeVar('T')
FuncT = TypeVar('FuncT', bound=Callable)
CrdClassT = TypeVar('CrdClassT', bound=CrdClass)
log = logging.getLogger(__name__)
def __urllib3_supports_read_chunked() -> bool:
# There is a bug in CentOS 7 as it ships a urllib3 which is lower
# than required by kubernetes-client
try:
from urllib3.response import HTTPResponse
return hasattr(HTTPResponse, 'read_chunked')
except ImportError:
return False
_urllib3_supports_read_chunked = __urllib3_supports_read_chunked()
class ApplyException(orchestrator.OrchestratorError):
"""
For failures to update the Rook CRDs, usually indicating
some kind of interference between our attempted update
and other conflicting activity.
"""
def threaded(f: Callable[..., None]) -> Callable[..., threading.Thread]:
def wrapper(*args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> threading.Thread:
t = threading.Thread(target=f, args=args, kwargs=kwargs)
t.start()
return t
return cast(Callable[..., threading.Thread], wrapper)
class KubernetesResource(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, api_func: Callable, **kwargs: Any) -> None:
"""
Generic kubernetes Resource parent class
The api fetch and watch methods should be common across resource types,
Exceptions in the runner thread are propagated to the caller.
:param api_func: kubernetes client api function that is passed to the watcher
:param filter_func: signature: ``(Item) -> bool``.
"""
self.kwargs = kwargs
self.api_func = api_func
# ``_items`` is accessed by different threads. I assume assignment is atomic.
self._items: Dict[str, T] = dict()
self.thread = None # type: Optional[threading.Thread]
self.exception: Optional[Exception] = None
if not _urllib3_supports_read_chunked:
logging.info('urllib3 is too old. Fallback to full fetches')
def _fetch(self) -> str:
""" Execute the requested api method as a one-off fetch"""
response = self.api_func(**self.kwargs)
# metadata is a client.V1ListMeta object type
metadata = response.metadata # type: client.V1ListMeta
self._items = {item.metadata.name: item for item in response.items}
log.info('Full fetch of {}. result: {}'.format(self.api_func, len(self._items)))
return metadata.resource_version
@property
def items(self) -> Iterable[T]:
"""
Returns the items of the request.
Creates the watcher as a side effect.
:return:
"""
if self.exception:
e = self.exception
self.exception = None
raise e # Propagate the exception to the user.
if not self.thread or not self.thread.is_alive():
resource_version = self._fetch()
if _urllib3_supports_read_chunked:
# Start a thread which will use the kubernetes watch client against a resource
log.debug("Attaching resource watcher for k8s {}".format(self.api_func))
self.thread = self._watch(resource_version)
return self._items.values()
@threaded
def _watch(self, res_ver: Optional[str]) -> None:
""" worker thread that runs the kubernetes watch """
self.exception = None
w = watch.Watch()
try:
# execute generator to continually watch resource for changes
for event in w.stream(self.api_func, resource_version=res_ver, watch=True,
**self.kwargs):
self.health = ''
item = event['object']
try:
name = item.metadata.name
except AttributeError:
raise AttributeError(
"{} doesn't contain a metadata.name. Unable to track changes".format(
self.api_func))
log.info('{} event: {}'.format(event['type'], name))
if event['type'] in ('ADDED', 'MODIFIED'):
self._items = merge_dicts(self._items, {name: item})
elif event['type'] == 'DELETED':
self._items = {k:v for k,v in self._items.items() if k != name}
elif event['type'] == 'BOOKMARK':
pass
elif event['type'] == 'ERROR':
raise ApiException(str(event))
else:
raise KeyError('Unknown watch event {}'.format(event['type']))
except ProtocolError as e:
if 'Connection broken' in str(e):
log.info('Connection reset.')
return
raise
except ApiException as e:
log.exception('K8s API failed. {}'.format(self.api_func))
self.exception = e
raise
except Exception as e:
log.exception("Watcher failed. ({})".format(self.api_func))
self.exception = e
raise
class RookCluster(object):
# import of client.CoreV1Api must be optional at import time.
# Instead allow mgr/rook to be imported anyway.
def __init__(self, coreV1_api: 'client.CoreV1Api', batchV1_api: 'client.BatchV1Api', rook_env: 'RookEnv'):
self.rook_env = rook_env # type: RookEnv
self.coreV1_api = coreV1_api # client.CoreV1Api
self.batchV1_api = batchV1_api
# TODO: replace direct k8s calls with Rook API calls
# when they're implemented
self.inventory_maps: KubernetesResource[client.V1ConfigMapList] = KubernetesResource(self.coreV1_api.list_namespaced_config_map,
namespace=self.rook_env.operator_namespace,
label_selector="app=rook-discover")
self.rook_pods: KubernetesResource[client.V1Pod] = KubernetesResource(self.coreV1_api.list_namespaced_pod,
namespace=self.rook_env.namespace,
label_selector="rook_cluster={0}".format(
self.rook_env.namespace))
self.nodes: KubernetesResource[client.V1Node] = KubernetesResource(self.coreV1_api.list_node)
def rook_url(self, path: str) -> str:
prefix = "/apis/ceph.rook.io/%s/namespaces/%s/" % (
self.rook_env.crd_version, self.rook_env.namespace)
return urljoin(prefix, path)
def rook_api_call(self, verb: str, path: str, **kwargs: Any) -> Any:
full_path = self.rook_url(path)
log.debug("[%s] %s" % (verb, full_path))
return self.coreV1_api.api_client.call_api(
full_path,
verb,
auth_settings=['BearerToken'],
response_type="object",
_return_http_data_only=True,
_preload_content=True,
**kwargs)
def rook_api_get(self, path: str, **kwargs: Any) -> Any:
return self.rook_api_call("GET", path, **kwargs)
def rook_api_delete(self, path: str) -> Any:
return self.rook_api_call("DELETE", path)
def rook_api_patch(self, path: str, **kwargs: Any) -> Any:
return self.rook_api_call("PATCH", path,
header_params={"Content-Type": "application/json-patch+json"},
**kwargs)
def rook_api_post(self, path: str, **kwargs: Any) -> Any:
return self.rook_api_call("POST", path, **kwargs)
def get_discovered_devices(self, nodenames: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> Dict[str, dict]:
def predicate(item: client.V1ConfigMapList) -> bool:
if nodenames is not None:
return item.metadata.labels['rook.io/node'] in nodenames
else:
return True
try:
result = [i for i in self.inventory_maps.items if predicate(i)]
except ApiException as dummy_e:
log.exception("Failed to fetch device metadata")
raise
nodename_to_devices = {}
for i in result:
drives = json.loads(i.data['devices'])
nodename_to_devices[i.metadata.labels['rook.io/node']] = drives
return nodename_to_devices
def get_nfs_conf_url(self, nfs_cluster: str, instance: str) -> Optional[str]:
#
# Fetch cephnfs object for "nfs_cluster" and then return a rados://
# URL for the instance within that cluster. If the fetch fails, just
# return None.
#
try:
ceph_nfs = self.rook_api_get("cephnfses/{0}".format(nfs_cluster))
except ApiException as e:
log.info("Unable to fetch cephnfs object: {}".format(e.status))
return None
pool = ceph_nfs['spec']['rados']['pool']
namespace = ceph_nfs['spec']['rados'].get('namespace', None)
if namespace == None:
url = "rados://{0}/conf-{1}.{2}".format(pool, nfs_cluster, instance)
else:
url = "rados://{0}/{1}/conf-{2}.{3}".format(pool, namespace, nfs_cluster, instance)
return url
def describe_pods(self,
service_type: Optional[str],
service_id: Optional[str],
nodename: Optional[str]) -> List[Dict[str, Any]]:
"""
Go query the k8s API about deployment, containers related to this
filesystem
Example Rook Pod labels for a mgr daemon:
Labels: app=rook-ceph-mgr
pod-template-hash=2171958073
rook_cluster=rook
And MDS containers additionally have `rook_filesystem` label
Label filter is rook_cluster=<cluster namespace>
rook_file_system=<self.fs_name>
"""
def predicate(item):
# type: (client.V1Pod) -> bool
metadata = item.metadata
if service_type is not None:
if metadata.labels['app'] != "rook-ceph-{0}".format(service_type):
return False
if service_id is not None:
try:
k, v = {
"mds": ("rook_file_system", service_id),
"osd": ("ceph-osd-id", service_id),
"mon": ("mon", service_id),
"mgr": ("mgr", service_id),
"ceph_nfs": ("ceph_nfs", service_id),
"rgw": ("ceph_rgw", service_id),
}[service_type]
except KeyError:
raise orchestrator.OrchestratorValidationError(
'{} not supported'.format(service_type))
if metadata.labels[k] != v:
return False
if nodename is not None:
if item.spec.node_name != nodename:
return False
return True
refreshed = datetime_now()
pods = [i for i in self.rook_pods.items if predicate(i)]
pods_summary = []
prefix = 'sha256:'
for p in pods:
d = p.to_dict()
image_name = None
for c in d['spec']['containers']:
# look at the first listed container in the pod...
image_name = c['image']
break
image_id = d['status']['container_statuses'][0]['image_id']
image_id = image_id.split(prefix)[1] if prefix in image_id else image_id
s = {
"name": d['metadata']['name'],
"hostname": d['spec']['node_name'],
"labels": d['metadata']['labels'],
'phase': d['status']['phase'],
'container_image_name': image_name,
'container_image_id': image_id,
'refreshed': refreshed,
# these may get set below...
'started': None,
'created': None,
}
# note: we want UTC
if d['metadata'].get('creation_timestamp', None):
s['created'] = d['metadata']['creation_timestamp'].astimezone(
tz=datetime.timezone.utc)
if d['status'].get('start_time', None):
s['started'] = d['status']['start_time'].astimezone(
tz=datetime.timezone.utc)
pods_summary.append(s)
return pods_summary
def remove_pods(self, names: List[str]) -> List[str]:
pods = [i for i in self.rook_pods.items]
for p in pods:
d = p.to_dict()
daemon_type = d['metadata']['labels']['app'].replace('rook-ceph-','')
daemon_id = d['metadata']['labels']['ceph_daemon_id']
name = daemon_type + '.' + daemon_id
if name in names:
self.coreV1_api.delete_namespaced_pod(
d['metadata']['name'],
self.rook_env.namespace,
body=client.V1DeleteOptions()
)
return [f'Removed Pod {n}' for n in names]
def get_node_names(self) -> List[str]:
return [i.metadata.name for i in self.nodes.items]
@contextmanager
def ignore_409(self, what: str) -> Iterator[None]:
try:
yield
except ApiException as e:
if e.status == 409:
# Idempotent, succeed.
log.info("{} already exists".format(what))
else:
raise
def apply_filesystem(self, spec: ServiceSpec) -> str:
# TODO use spec.placement
# TODO warn if spec.extended has entries we don't kow how
# to action.
def _update_fs(new: cfs.CephFilesystem) -> cfs.CephFilesystem:
new.spec.metadataServer.activeCount = spec.placement.count or 1
return new
def _create_fs() -> cfs.CephFilesystem:
return cfs.CephFilesystem(
apiVersion=self.rook_env.api_name,
metadata=dict(
name=spec.service_id,
namespace=self.rook_env.namespace,
),
spec=cfs.Spec(
metadataServer=cfs.MetadataServer(
activeCount=spec.placement.count or 1,
activeStandby=True
)
)
)
assert spec.service_id is not None
return self._create_or_patch(
cfs.CephFilesystem, 'cephfilesystems', spec.service_id,
_update_fs, _create_fs)
def apply_objectstore(self, spec: RGWSpec) -> str:
assert spec.service_id is not None
name = spec.service_id
if '.' in spec.service_id:
# rook does not like . in the name. this is could
# there because it is a legacy rgw spec that was named
# like $realm.$zone, except that I doubt there were any
# users of this code. Instead, focus on future users and
# translate . to - (fingers crossed!) instead.
name = spec.service_id.replace('.', '-')
# FIXME: pass realm and/or zone through to the CR
def _create_zone() -> cos.CephObjectStore:
port = None
secure_port = None
if spec.ssl:
secure_port = spec.get_port()
else:
port = spec.get_port()
return cos.CephObjectStore(
apiVersion=self.rook_env.api_name,
metadata=dict(
name=name,
namespace=self.rook_env.namespace
),
spec=cos.Spec(
gateway=cos.Gateway(
type='s3',
port=port,
securePort=secure_port,
instances=spec.placement.count or 1,
)
)
)
def _update_zone(new: cos.CephObjectStore) -> cos.CephObjectStore:
new.spec.gateway.instances = spec.placement.count or 1
return new
return self._create_or_patch(
cos.CephObjectStore, 'cephobjectstores', name,
_update_zone, _create_zone)
def apply_nfsgw(self, spec: NFSServiceSpec) -> str:
# TODO use spec.placement
# TODO warn if spec.extended has entries we don't kow how
# to action.
# TODO Number of pods should be based on the list of hosts in the
# PlacementSpec.
count = spec.placement.count or 1
def _update_nfs(new: cnfs.CephNFS) -> cnfs.CephNFS:
new.spec.server.active = count
return new
def _create_nfs() -> cnfs.CephNFS:
rook_nfsgw = cnfs.CephNFS(
apiVersion=self.rook_env.api_name,
metadata=dict(
name=spec.service_id,
namespace=self.rook_env.namespace,
),
spec=cnfs.Spec(
rados=cnfs.Rados(
pool=NFS_POOL_NAME,
),
server=cnfs.Server(
active=count
)
)
)
rook_nfsgw.spec.rados.namespace = cast(str, spec.service_id)
return rook_nfsgw
assert spec.service_id is not None
return self._create_or_patch(cnfs.CephNFS, 'cephnfses', spec.service_id,
_update_nfs, _create_nfs)
def rm_service(self, rooktype: str, service_id: str) -> str:
objpath = "{0}/{1}".format(rooktype, service_id)
try:
self.rook_api_delete(objpath)
except ApiException as e:
if e.status == 404:
log.info("{0} service '{1}' does not exist".format(rooktype, service_id))
# Idempotent, succeed.
else:
raise
return f'Removed {objpath}'
def can_create_osd(self) -> bool:
current_cluster = self.rook_api_get(
"cephclusters/{0}".format(self.rook_env.cluster_name))
use_all_nodes = current_cluster['spec'].get('useAllNodes', False)
# If useAllNodes is set, then Rook will not be paying attention
# to anything we put in 'nodes', so can't do OSD creation.
return not use_all_nodes
def node_exists(self, node_name: str) -> bool:
return node_name in self.get_node_names()
def update_mon_count(self, newcount: Optional[int]) -> str:
def _update_mon_count(current, new):
# type: (ccl.CephCluster, ccl.CephCluster) -> ccl.CephCluster
if newcount is None:
raise orchestrator.OrchestratorError('unable to set mon count to None')
new.spec.mon.count = newcount
return new
return self._patch(ccl.CephCluster, 'cephclusters', self.rook_env.cluster_name, _update_mon_count)
def add_osds(self, drive_group, matching_hosts):
# type: (DriveGroupSpec, List[str]) -> str
"""
Rook currently (0.8) can only do single-drive OSDs, so we
treat all drive groups as just a list of individual OSDs.
"""
block_devices = drive_group.data_devices.paths if drive_group.data_devices else []
directories = drive_group.data_directories
assert drive_group.objectstore in ("bluestore", "filestore")
def _add_osds(current_cluster, new_cluster):
# type: (ccl.CephCluster, ccl.CephCluster) -> ccl.CephCluster
# FIXME: this is all not really atomic, because jsonpatch doesn't
# let us do "test" operations that would check if items with
# matching names were in existing lists.
if not hasattr(new_cluster.spec.storage, 'nodes'):
new_cluster.spec.storage.nodes = ccl.NodesList()
current_nodes = getattr(current_cluster.spec.storage, 'nodes', ccl.NodesList())
matching_host = matching_hosts[0]
if matching_host not in [n.name for n in current_nodes]:
pd = ccl.NodesItem(
name=matching_host,
config=ccl.Config(
storeType=drive_group.objectstore
)
)
if block_devices:
pd.devices = ccl.DevicesList(
ccl.DevicesItem(name=d.path) for d in block_devices
)
if directories:
pd.directories = ccl.DirectoriesList(
ccl.DirectoriesItem(path=p) for p in directories
)
new_cluster.spec.storage.nodes.append(pd)
else:
for _node in new_cluster.spec.storage.nodes:
current_node = _node # type: ccl.NodesItem
if current_node.name == matching_host:
if block_devices:
if not hasattr(current_node, 'devices'):
current_node.devices = ccl.DevicesList()
new_devices = list(set(block_devices) - set([d.name for d in current_node.devices]))
current_node.devices.extend(
ccl.DevicesItem(name=n.path) for n in new_devices
)
if directories:
if not hasattr(current_node, 'directories'):
current_node.directories = ccl.DirectoriesList()
new_dirs = list(set(directories) - set([d.path for d in current_node.directories]))
current_node.directories.extend(
ccl.DirectoriesItem(path=n) for n in new_dirs
)
return new_cluster
return self._patch(ccl.CephCluster, 'cephclusters', self.rook_env.cluster_name, _add_osds)
def _patch(self, crd: Type, crd_name: str, cr_name: str, func: Callable[[CrdClassT, CrdClassT], CrdClassT]) -> str:
current_json = self.rook_api_get(
"{}/{}".format(crd_name, cr_name)
)
current = crd.from_json(current_json)
new = crd.from_json(current_json) # no deepcopy.
new = func(current, new)
patch = list(jsonpatch.make_patch(current_json, new.to_json()))
log.info('patch for {}/{}: \n{}'.format(crd_name, cr_name, patch))
if len(patch) == 0:
return "No change"
try:
self.rook_api_patch(
"{}/{}".format(crd_name, cr_name),
body=patch)
except ApiException as e:
log.exception("API exception: {0}".format(e))
raise ApplyException(
"Failed to update {}/{}: {}".format(crd_name, cr_name, e))
return "Success"
def _create_or_patch(self,
crd: Type,
crd_name: str,
cr_name: str,
update_func: Callable[[CrdClassT], CrdClassT],
create_func: Callable[[], CrdClassT]) -> str:
try:
current_json = self.rook_api_get(
"{}/{}".format(crd_name, cr_name)
)
except ApiException as e:
if e.status == 404:
current_json = None
else:
raise
if current_json:
new = crd.from_json(current_json) # no deepcopy.
new = update_func(new)
patch = list(jsonpatch.make_patch(current_json, new.to_json()))
log.info('patch for {}/{}: \n{}'.format(crd_name, cr_name, patch))
if len(patch) == 0:
return "No change"
try:
self.rook_api_patch(
"{}/{}".format(crd_name, cr_name),
body=patch)
except ApiException as e:
log.exception("API exception: {0}".format(e))
raise ApplyException(
"Failed to update {}/{}: {}".format(crd_name, cr_name, e))
return "Updated"
else:
new = create_func()
with self.ignore_409("{} {} already exists".format(crd_name,
cr_name)):
self.rook_api_post("{}/".format(crd_name),
body=new.to_json())
return "Created"
def get_ceph_image(self) -> str:
try:
api_response = self.coreV1_api.list_namespaced_pod(self.rook_env.namespace,
label_selector="app=rook-ceph-mon",
timeout_seconds=10)
if api_response.items:
return api_response.items[-1].spec.containers[0].image
else:
raise orchestrator.OrchestratorError(
"Error getting ceph image. Cluster without monitors")
except ApiException as e:
raise orchestrator.OrchestratorError("Error getting ceph image: {}".format(e))
def _execute_blight_job(self, ident_fault: str, on: bool, loc: orchestrator.DeviceLightLoc) -> str:
operation_id = str(hash(loc))
message = ""
# job definition
job_metadata = client.V1ObjectMeta(name=operation_id,
namespace= self.rook_env.namespace,
labels={"ident": operation_id})
pod_metadata = client.V1ObjectMeta(labels={"ident": operation_id})
pod_container = client.V1Container(name="ceph-lsmcli-command",
security_context=client.V1SecurityContext(privileged=True),
image=self.get_ceph_image(),
command=["lsmcli",],
args=['local-disk-%s-led-%s' % (ident_fault,'on' if on else 'off'),
'--path', loc.path or loc.dev,],
volume_mounts=[client.V1VolumeMount(name="devices", mount_path="/dev"),
client.V1VolumeMount(name="run-udev", mount_path="/run/udev")])
pod_spec = client.V1PodSpec(containers=[pod_container],
active_deadline_seconds=30, # Max time to terminate pod
restart_policy="Never",
node_selector= {"kubernetes.io/hostname": loc.host},
volumes=[client.V1Volume(name="devices",
host_path=client.V1HostPathVolumeSource(path="/dev")),
client.V1Volume(name="run-udev",
host_path=client.V1HostPathVolumeSource(path="/run/udev"))])
pod_template = client.V1PodTemplateSpec(metadata=pod_metadata,
spec=pod_spec)
job_spec = client.V1JobSpec(active_deadline_seconds=60, # Max time to terminate job
ttl_seconds_after_finished=10, # Alfa. Lifetime after finishing (either Complete or Failed)
backoff_limit=0,
template=pod_template)
job = client.V1Job(api_version="batch/v1",
kind="Job",
metadata=job_metadata,
spec=job_spec)
# delete previous job if it exists
try:
try:
api_response = self.batchV1_api.delete_namespaced_job(operation_id,
self.rook_env.namespace,
propagation_policy="Background")
except ApiException as e:
if e.status != 404: # No problem if the job does not exist
raise
# wait until the job is not present
deleted = False
retries = 0
while not deleted and retries < 10:
api_response = self.batchV1_api.list_namespaced_job(self.rook_env.namespace,
label_selector="ident=%s" % operation_id,
timeout_seconds=10)
deleted = not api_response.items
if retries > 5:
sleep(0.1)
retries += 1
if retries == 10 and not deleted:
raise orchestrator.OrchestratorError(
"Light <{}> in <{}:{}> cannot be executed. Cannot delete previous job <{}>".format(
on, loc.host, loc.path or loc.dev, operation_id))
# create the job
api_response = self.batchV1_api.create_namespaced_job(self.rook_env.namespace, job)
# get the result
finished = False
while not finished:
api_response = self.batchV1_api.read_namespaced_job(operation_id,
self.rook_env.namespace)
finished = api_response.status.succeeded or api_response.status.failed
if finished:
message = api_response.status.conditions[-1].message
# get the result of the lsmcli command
api_response=self.coreV1_api.list_namespaced_pod(self.rook_env.namespace,
label_selector="ident=%s" % operation_id,
timeout_seconds=10)
if api_response.items:
pod_name = api_response.items[-1].metadata.name
message = self.coreV1_api.read_namespaced_pod_log(pod_name,
self.rook_env.namespace)
except ApiException as e:
log.exception('K8s API failed. {}'.format(e))
raise
# Finally, delete the job.
# The job uses <ttl_seconds_after_finished>. This makes that the TTL controller delete automatically the job.
# This feature is in Alpha state, so extra explicit delete operations trying to delete the Job has been used strategically
try:
api_response = self.batchV1_api.delete_namespaced_job(operation_id,
self.rook_env.namespace,
propagation_policy="Background")
except ApiException as e:
if e.status != 404: # No problem if the job does not exist
raise
return message
def blink_light(self, ident_fault, on, locs):
# type: (str, bool, List[orchestrator.DeviceLightLoc]) -> List[str]
return [self._execute_blight_job(ident_fault, on, loc) for loc in locs]
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